58:
5926:
799:) that results in inelastic (permanent) displacement or distortion of the Earth's crust. It is related to the total energy released by an earthquake. However, the power or potential destructiveness of an earthquake depends (among other factors) on how much of the total energy is converted into seismic waves. This is typically 10% or less of the total energy, the rest being expended in fracturing rock or overcoming friction (generating heat).
453: ) is considered the authoritative magnitude scale for ranking earthquakes by size. It is more directly related to the energy of an earthquake than other scales, and does not saturate – that is, it does not underestimate magnitudes as other scales do in certain conditions. It has become the standard scale used by seismological authorities like the
648:(WWSSN) permitted closer analysis of seismic waves. Notably, in 1966 Keiiti Aki showed that the seismic moment of the 1964 Niigata earthquake as calculated from the seismic waves on the basis of a double couple was in reasonable agreement with the seismic moment calculated from the observed physical dislocation.
588:
The study of earthquakes is challenging as the source events cannot be observed directly, and it took many years to develop the mathematics for understanding what the seismic waves from an earthquake can tell about the source event. An early step was to determine how different systems of forces might
532:
The local magnitude scale was developed on the basis of shallow (~15 km (9 mi) deep), moderate-sized earthquakes at a distance of approximately 100 to 600 km (62 to 373 mi), conditions where the surface waves are predominant. At greater depths, distances, or magnitudes the surface
1817:
Seismic moment is not a direct measure of energy changes during an earthquake. The relations between seismic moment and the energies involved in an earthquake depend on parameters that have large uncertainties and that may vary between earthquakes. Potential energy is stored in the crust in the form
628:
In 1923 Hiroshi Nakano showed that certain aspects of seismic waves could be explained in terms of a double couple model. This led to a three-decade-long controversy over the best way to model the seismic source: as a single couple, or a double couple. While
Japanese seismologists favored the double
735:
to analyze long-period (200 second) seismic waves (wavelength of about 1,000 kilometers) to determine the magnitude of the earthquake's equivalent double couple. Second, he drew upon the work of
Burridge and Knopoff on dislocation to determine the amount of slip, the energy released, and the stress
680:
In a pair of papers in 1958, J. A. Steketee worked out how to relate dislocation theory to geophysical features. Numerous other researchers worked out other details, culminating in a general solution in 1964 by
Burridge and Knopoff, which established the relationship between double couples and the
656:
A double couple model suffices to explain an earthquake's far-field pattern of seismic radiation, but tells us very little about the nature of an earthquake's source mechanism or its physical features. While slippage along a fault was theorized as the cause of earthquakes (other theories included
592:
The simplest force system is a single force acting on an object. If it has sufficient strength to overcome any resistance it will cause the object to move ("translate"). A pair of forces, acting on the same "line of action" but in opposite directions, will cancel; if they cancel (balance) exactly
787:
determined from the double couple of the seismic waves can be related to the moment calculated from knowledge of the surface area of fault slippage and the amount of slip. In the case of the
Niigata earthquake the dislocation estimated from the seismic moment reasonably approximated the observed
1766:
Log M0 = 1.5 Ms + 16.1
1676:
Log Es = 1.5 Ms + 11.8
989:
Kanamori recognized that measurement of radiated energy is technically difficult since it involves the integration of wave energy over the entire frequency band. To simplify this calculation, he noted that the lowest frequency parts of the spectrum can often be used to estimate the rest of the
516:
of the amplitude of the seismograph trace could be used as a measure of "magnitude" that was internally consistent and corresponded roughly with estimates of an earthquake's energy. He established a reference point and the ten-fold (exponential) scaling of each degree of magnitude, and in 1935
817:
Most earthquake magnitude scales suffered from the fact that they only provided a comparison of the amplitude of waves produced at a standard distance and frequency band; it was difficult to relate these magnitudes to a physical property of the earthquake. Gutenberg and
Richter suggested that
623:
The single couple and double couple models are important in seismology because each can be used to derive how the seismic waves generated by an earthquake event should appear in the "far field" (that is, at distance). Once that relation is understood it can be inverted to use the earthquake's
676:
in 1951 was recognized by the
Russian geophysicist A. V. Vvedenskaya as applicable to earthquake faulting. In a series of papers starting in 1956 she and other colleagues used dislocation theory to determine part of an earthquake's focal mechanism, and to show that a dislocation – a rupture
802:
Nonetheless, seismic moment is regarded as the fundamental measure of earthquake size, representing more directly than other parameters the physical size of an earthquake. As early as 1975 it was considered "one of the most reliably determined instrumental earthquake source parameters".
3253:
1809:= 7–7.5) and scarce data in lower magnitude range (≤ 7.0) which rarely represents the global seismicity (e.g., see Figs. 1A, B, 4 and Table 2 of Percaru and Berckhemer 1978). Furthermore, Equation (1) of Percaru and Berckhemer 1978) is only valid for (≤ 7.0).
641:
The debate ended when
Maruyama (1963), Haskell (1964), and Burridge and Knopoff (1964) showed that if earthquake ruptures are modeled as dislocations the pattern of seismic radiation can always be matched with an equivalent pattern derived from a double
657:
movement of magma, or sudden changes of volume due to phase changes), observing this at depth was not possible, and understanding what could be learned about the source mechanism from the seismic waves requires an understanding of the source mechanism.
5009:
593:
there will be no net translation, though the object will experience stress, either tension or compression. If the pair of forces are offset, acting along parallel but separate lines of action, the object experiences a rotational force, or
1781:. Eq. (B) was based on large earthquakes; hence, in order to validate Eq. (B) for intermediate and smaller earthquakes, Hanks and Kanamori (1979) compared this Eq. (B) with Eq. (1) of Percaru and Berckhemer (1978) for the magnitude 5.0 ≤
2252:
2680:
1558:⋅cm (10 N⋅m). The constant values in the equation are chosen to achieve consistency with the magnitude values produced by earlier scales, such as the local magnitude and the surface wave magnitude. Thus, a magnitude zero
3258:
For comparison of seismic energy (in joules) with the corresponding explosion energy, a value of 4.2 x 10 joules per ton of TNT applies. The table illustrates the relationship between seismic energy and moment magnitude.
1998:
700: – is a measure of the fault slip and area involved in the earthquake. Its value is the torque of each of the two force couples that form the earthquake's equivalent double-couple. (More precisely, it is the
3124:
1543:
3004:
3135:
5040:
3584:) – Developed by Seiji Tsuboi for quick estimation of the tsunami potential of large near-coastal earthquakes from measurements of the P-waves, and later extended to teleseismic earthquakes in general.
3013:
of moment magnitude corresponds to a 10 ≈ 32 times increase in the amount of energy released, and an increase of two steps corresponds to a 10 = 1000 times increase in energy. Thus, an earthquake of M
629:
couple, most seismologists favored the single couple. Although the single couple model had some shortcomings, it seemed more intuitive, and there was a belief – mistaken, as it turned out – that the
1298:
888:
1072:
2783:
4853:
That original scale has been tweaked through the decades, and nowadays calling it the "Richter scale" is an anachronism. The most common measure is known simply as the moment magnitude scale.
446:; small earthquakes have approximately the same magnitudes on both scales. Despite the difference, news media often use the term "Richter scale" when referring to the moment magnitude scale.
1185:
3594:– A duration-amplitude procedure which takes into account the duration of the rupture, providing a fuller picture of the energy released by longer lasting ("slow") ruptures than seen with M
2329:
1373:
984:
4620:"Generation and propagation of G waves from the Niigata earthquake of June 14, 1964. Part 2. Estimation of earthquake moment, released energy and stress-strain drop from G wave spectrum"
3025:
To make the significance of the magnitude value plausible, the seismic energy released during the earthquake is sometimes compared to the effect of the conventional chemical explosive
2601:
can now be computed more directly and robustly than in the 1970s, introducing a separate magnitude associated to radiated energy was warranted. Choy and
Boatwright defined in 1995 the
2144:
2090:
2028:
5852:
2482:
2359:
736:
drop (essentially how much of the potential energy was released). In particular, he derived an equation that relates an earthquake's seismic moment to its physical parameters:
3056:
2712:
2599:
2543:
2511:
580: magnitudes of 8.5 and 8.4 respectively but were notably more powerful than other M 8 earthquakes; their moment magnitudes were closer to 9.6 and 9.3, respectively.
2065:
of the rocks that constitute the fault. Currently, there is no technology to measure absolute stresses at all depths of interest, nor method to estimate it accurately, and
2853:
633:
for explaining why earthquakes happen required a single couple model. In principle these models could be distinguished by differences in the radiation patterns of their
2452:
2390:
2167:
1851:
500:
are generated and propagate through the Earth's crust, and what information they carry about the earthquake rupture process; the first magnitude scales were therefore
5058:
Dziewonski, Adam M.; Gilbert, Freeman (1976), "The effect of small aspherical perturbations on travel times and a re-examination of the corrections for ellipticity",
1105:
2907:
2880:
2570:
2425:
2117:
1941:
1912:
1882:
1403:
2059:
893:(in Joules). Unfortunately, the duration of many very large earthquakes was longer than 20 seconds, the period of the surface waves used in the measurement of M
6012:
2178:
2610:
1426:
Popular press reports most often deal with significant earthquakes larger than M~ 4. For these events, the preferred magnitude is the moment magnitude M
4448:
6047:
1004: . Using an approximate relation between radiated energy and seismic moment (which assumes stress drop is complete and ignores fracture energy),
264:
5206:
1413:
Moment magnitude is now the most common measure of earthquake size for medium to large earthquake magnitudes, but in practice, seismic moment (M
2361:
is the static stress drop, i.e., the difference between shear stresses on the fault before and after the earthquake (e.g., from equation 1 of
1952:
6124:
3695:
3064:
4831:
3248:{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {S} }={\frac {10^{\;\!1.5\cdot M_{\mathrm {S} }+4.8}}{5.25\cdot 10^{13}}}=10^{\;\!1.5\cdot M_{\mathrm {S} }-8.92}}
1468:
5563:
3852:
3848:
3840:
3836:
2915:
5467:
Maruyama, Takuo (January 1963), "On the force equivalents of dynamical elastic dislocations with reference to the earthquake mechanism",
5366:
5330:
1741:
is a least squares approximation to the magnitude determined from surface wave magnitudes. After replacing the ratio of seismic Energy (
6160:
4813:
5946:
4795:
5982:
4897:
5477:
Miyake, Teru (October–December 2017), "Magnitude, moment, and measurement: The seismic mechanism controversy and its resolution",
4779:
909:
recognized this deficiency and took the simple but important step of defining a magnitude based on estimates of radiated energy, M
6109:
6032:
645:
5428:"Resolving the Tectonic Stress by the Inversion of Earthquake Focal Mechanisms. Application in the Region of Greece. A Tutorial"
4696:
Beroza, G. C.; Kanamori, Hiroo (2015), "4.01 Earthquake
Seismologoy: An Introduction and Overview", in Schubert, Gerald (ed.),
6119:
6114:
6017:
5841:
Utsu, T. (2002), Lee, W.H.K.; Kanamori, H.; Jennings, P.C.; Kisslinger, C. (eds.), "Relationships between magnitude scales",
5447:
366:
1230:
828:
6042:
1010:
4523:"Automated determination of magnitude and source length of large earthquakes using backprojection and P wave amplitudes"
1423:
does not use this scale for earthquakes with a magnitude of less than 3.5, which includes the great majority of quakes.
5621:
5281:
2737:
3608:–Rapidly estimates earthquake magnitude by combining maximum displacements of teleseismic P-wave and source durations.
660:
Modeling the physical process by which an earthquake generates seismic waves required much theoretical development of
6150:
6037:
5831:
5733:
Suzuki, Yasumoto (June 2001), "Kiyoo Wadati and the path to the discovery of the intermediate-deep earthquake zone",
5657:
4715:
4671:
4521:
Wang, Dun; Kawakatsu, Hitoshi; Zhuang, Jiancang; Mori, Jim; Maeda, Takuto; Tsuruoka, Hiroshi; Zhao, Xu (2017-06-16).
1419: ), the seismological parameter it is based on, is not measured routinely for smaller quakes. For example, the
1117:
4604:"Generation and propagation of G waves from the Niigata earthquake of June 14, 1964. Part 1. A statistical analysis"
1795:≤ 7.5 is not reliable due to the inconsistency of defined magnitude range (moderate to large earthquakes defined as
681:
theory of elastic rebound, and provided the basis for relating an earthquake's physical features to seismic moment.
2392:
depends on rupture speed; it is close to 1 for regular earthquakes but much smaller for slower earthquakes such as
2260:
17:
5885:"Regression relationships for conversion of body wave and surface wave magnitudes toward Das magnitude scale, Mwg"
1788:≤ 7.5 (Hanks and Kanamori 1979). Note that Eq. (1) of Percaru and Berckhemer (1978) for the magnitude range 5.0 ≤
1312:
919:
4428:
1420:
619:. A double couple can be viewed as "equivalent to a pressure and tension acting simultaneously at right angles".
5010:"Determination of earthquake source parameters from waveform data for studies of global and regional seismicity"
4681:
4441:
504:. The initial step in determining earthquake magnitudes empirically came in 1931 when the Japanese seismologist
5955:
5756:
Thatcher, Wayne; Hanks, Thomas C. (December 10, 1973), "Source parameters of southern
California earthquakes",
5295:
Julian, Bruce R.; Miller, Angus D.; Foulger, G. R. (November 1998), "Non-Double-Couple Earthquakes 1. Theory",
508:
showed that the maximum amplitude of an earthquake's seismic waves diminished with distance at a certain rate.
114:
3686:
The "USGS Earthquake Magnitude Policy" for reporting earthquake magnitudes to the public as formulated by the
897: . This meant that giant earthquakes such as the 1960 Chilean earthquake (M 9.5) were only assigned an M
6068:
6027:
5638:
Stauder, William (1962), "The Focal Mechanisms of Earthquakes", in Landsberg, H. E.; Van Mieghem, J. (eds.),
5247:
295:
5975:
2122:
2068:
2006:
624:
observed seismic waves to determine its other characteristics, including fault geometry and seismic moment.
2092:
is thus poorly known. It could vary highly from one earthquake to another. Two earthquakes with identical
6022:
162:
2457:
2334:
533:
waves are greatly reduced, and the local magnitude scale underestimates the magnitude, a problem called
669:
615:. If a second couple of equal and opposite magnitude is applied their torques cancel; this is called a
3032:
2688:
2575:
2519:
2487:
1884:
in frictional weakening and inelastic deformation in rocks by processes such as the creation of cracks
551:
538:
1763:= 5 × 10, into the Gutenberg–Richter energy magnitude Eq. (A), Hanks and Kanamori provided Eq. (B):
359:
340:
300:
5542:
5189:
4992:
1946:
The potential energy drop caused by an earthquake is related approximately to its seismic moment by
556:) by Gutenberg and Richter in 1956, and a number of variants – to overcome the deficiencies of the M
5991:
4522:
3808:
3628:
1571:
644:
but not from a single couple. This was confirmed as better and more plentiful data coming from the
496:
At the beginning of the twentieth century, very little was known about how earthquakes happen, how
243:
238:
31:
5704:
Steketee, J.A. (1958b), "Some geophysical applications of the elasticity theory of dislocations",
4841:
4574:
3490:
The end of the scale is at the value 10.6, corresponding to the assumption that at this value the
2855:
of energy release (potential or radiated) between two earthquakes of different moment magnitudes,
1812:
708:
that describes the force components of the double-couple.) Seismic moment is measured in units of
5968:
2816:
728:
569:
491:
439:
89:
5257:
3691:
3017: of 7.0 contains 1000 times as much energy as one of 5.0 and about 32 times that of 6.0.
6083:
5537:
4987:
3618:
3505:
Various ways of determining moment magnitude have been developed, and several subtypes of the M
2430:
2368:
630:
573:
462:
454:
305:
272:
5594:
5457:
Kostrov, B. V. (1974), "Seismic moment and energy of earthquakes, and seismic flow of rock ",
4472:
2149:
1833:
568: 8.0 and therefore underestimates the energy release of "great" earthquakes such as the
6129:
4619:
4603:
529:, but news media sometimes use that term indiscriminately to refer to other similar scales.)
518:
431:
328:
256:
129:
109:
104:
99:
1090:
5896:
5863:
5811:
5765:
5713:
5684:
5578:
5529:
5520:
Pujol, Josè (March–April 2003b), "The Body Force Equivalent to an Earthquake: A Tutorial",
5482:
5410:
5381:
5345:
5304:
5221:
5166:
5139:
5104:
5063:
5024:
4979:
4949:
4909:
4868:
4799:
4751:
4643:
4534:
3623:
2885:
2858:
2548:
2403:
2095:
1919:
1890:
1860:
1827:
1455:
1381:
1199: , but it changed the fundamental nature of the scale into a moment magnitude scale.
701:
512:
then worked out how to adjust for epicentral distance (and some other factors) so that the
352:
335:
290:
124:
41:
5930:
5925:
5747:
5124:
2172:
The radiated energy caused by an earthquake is approximately related to seismic moment by
2044:
8:
6155:
6063:
4725:
2247:{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {s} }\approx \eta _{R}{\frac {\Delta \sigma _{s}}{2\mu }}M_{0}}
1306:
combined their work to define a new magnitude scale based on estimates of seismic moment
601:(the branch of physics concerned with the interactions of forces) this model is called a
190:
67:
5929: This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the
5900:
5867:
5815:
5769:
5717:
5688:
5675:
Steketee, J.A. (1958a), "On Volterra's dislocations in a semi-infinite elastic medium",
5582:
5533:
5486:
5385:
5349:
5308:
5225:
5143:
5108:
5089:
5067:
5028:
4983:
4953:
4925:
4913:
4872:
4755:
4647:
4538:
2675:{\displaystyle M_{\mathrm {E} }=\textstyle {\frac {2}{3}}\log _{10}E_{\mathrm {s} }-3.2}
5559:
5397:
5162:
5076:
4962:
4767:
4707:
2393:
603:
564: scale (which in the 1970s was the preferred magnitude scale) saturates around M
509:
501:
167:
134:
94:
5845:, International Geophysics, vol. A, no. 81, Academic Press, pp. 733–746
5823:
5649:
723:
The first calculation of an earthquake's seismic moment from its seismic waves was by
457:
for reporting large earthquakes (typically M > 4), replacing the local magnitude (M
5914:
5827:
5663:
5653:
5627:
5617:
5508:
5443:
5427:
5241:
4884:
4771:
4711:
4667:
4655:
4550:
3010:
1673:
is the minimum strain energy) for great earthquakes using Gutenberg Richter Eq. (1).
1574:
of 1960, with an estimated moment magnitude of 9.4–9.6, had a seismic moment between
560: scale, but all are subject to saturation. A particular problem was that the M
443:
5785:
Tsuboi, S.; Abe, K.; Takano, K.; Yamanaka, Y. (April 1995), "Rapid Determination of
672:
in 1927. More generally applied to problems of stress in materials, an extension by
5904:
5871:
5819:
5773:
5742:
5721:
5692:
5645:
5586:
5547:
5498:
5490:
5435:
5401:
5389:
5353:
5312:
5269:
5229:
5177:
5147:
5112:
5071:
5032:
4997:
4957:
4917:
4876:
4805:
4759:
4703:
4651:
4586:
4542:
3930:
for a contemporary account of why many seismologists favored a single couple model.
3491:
2800:
1823:
139:
4880:
4423:
3538:
of complete waveforms at regional distances (~ 1,000 miles). Sometimes called RMT.
5853:"Observational constraints on the fracture energy of subduction zone earthquakes"
5639:
5439:
5202:
4697:
2397:
1559:
1447:
1204:
423:
157:
119:
5494:
57:
5909:
5884:
5326:
5158:
5085:
4940:
Dahlen, F. A. (February 1977), "The balance of energy in earthquake faulting",
4682:"A Concise History of Mainstream Seismology: Origins, Legacy, and Perspectives"
3058:
results from the above-mentioned formula according to Gutenberg and Richter to
1819:
1813:
Relations between seismic moment, potential energy released and radiated energy
1771:
1680:
1649:
1459:
995:
906:
792:
767:
being the rigidity (or resistance to moving) of a fault with a surface area of
690:
547:
427:
411:
5951:
4763:
1195:
The formula above made it much easier to estimate the energy-based magnitude M
485:
6144:
6073:
5918:
4554:
2062:
709:
705:
673:
665:
5777:
5357:
5233:
5036:
4809:
3694:. That page was removed following a web redesign; a copy is archived at the
3646:
These are normally not bolded. In the technical literature a single bolded "
2572:
are fundamentally independent properties of an earthquake source, and since
6088:
5960:
5590:
5551:
5512:
5273:
5181:
5151:
5116:
4888:
4591:
4425:
FAQs – Measuring Earthquakes: How much energy is released in an earthquake?
2034:
505:
497:
205:
5167:"Earthquake magnitude, intensity, energy, and acceleration (Second Paper)"
4970:
Deichmann, Nicholas (August 2006), "Local Magnitude, a Moment Revisited",
4575:"Magnitude, seismic moment and apparent stress for major deep earthquakes"
731:. He did this two ways. First, he used data from distant stations of the
5875:
4546:
3650:" – with or without italicization – is used for several related concepts.
661:
233:
200:
1993:{\displaystyle \Delta W\approx {\frac {\overline {\sigma }}{\mu }}M_{0}}
477: , etc.) reflect different ways of estimating the seismic moment.
5503:
5001:
4599:
3119:{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {S} }=10^{\;\!1.5\cdot M_{\mathrm {S} }+4.8}}
724:
407:
315:
195:
84:
49:
5317:
4921:
1538:{\displaystyle M_{\mathrm {w} }={\frac {2}{3}}\log _{10}(M_{0})-10.7,}
783:, known as the "geometric moment" or "potency".) By this equation the
589:
generate seismic waves equivalent to those observed from earthquakes.
5393:
991:
637:, but the quality of the observational data was inadequate for that.
598:
537:. Additional scales were developed – a surface-wave magnitude scale (
513:
185:
79:
74:
5725:
5696:
2999:{\displaystyle E_{1}/E_{2}\approx 10^{{\frac {3}{2}}(m_{1}-m_{2})}.}
2365:). These two quantities are far from being constants. For instance,
677:
accompanied by slipping – was indeed equivalent to a double couple.
5090:"Amplitudes of surface Waves and magnitudes of shallow earthquakes"
806:
310:
2037:
on the fault before and after the earthquake (e.g., equation 3 of
5285:
5125:"Amplitudes of P, PP, and S and magnitude of shallow earthquakes"
2717:
902:
634:
5952:
Perspective: a graphical comparison of earthquake energy release
4898:"Global patterns of radiated seismic energy and apparent stress"
5843:
International Handbook of Earthquake and Engineering Seismology
5667:
5631:
4794:
Bormann, Peter; Wendt, Siegfried; Di Giacomo, Dominico (2013),
796:
713:
594:
517:
published what he called the "magnitude scale", now called the
215:
210:
5411:"Theoretical basis of some empirical relations in seismology"
4837:
3692:
https://earthquake.usgs.gov/aboutus/docs/020204mag_policy.php
732:
5883:
Das, Ranjit; Menesis, Claudio; Urrutia, Diego (2023-05-15).
4801:
New Manual of Seismological Observatory Practice 2 (NMSOP-2)
2799:
Under these assumptions, the following formula, obtained by
1555:
1200:
486:
Richter scale: the original measure of earthquake magnitude
27:
Measure of earthquake size, in terms of the energy released
5806:
Udías, Agustín (1991), "Source Mechanism of Earthquakes",
5432:
Moment Tensor Solutions: A Useful Tool for Seismotectonics
4896:
Choy, George L.; Boatwright, John L. (10 September 1995),
3009:
As with the Richter scale, an increase of one step on the
2730: as a measure of the potential energy change Δ
1211: scale was very similar to a relationship between M
5459:
Izvestiya, Akademi Nauk, USSR, Physics of the Solid Earth
3552:
of intermediate- and long-period body- and surface-waves.
3026:
717:
1725:(dyn.cm). The energy Eq. (A) is derived by substituting
5784:
5007:
4520:
4484:
4175:
6013:
Central Weather Administration seismic intensity scale
4859:
Byerly, Perry (20 May 1960), "Earthquake Mechanisms",
4793:
4787:
Encyclopedia of Complexity and Applied Systems Science
4508:
4496:
4339:
4267:
4255:
4239:
4215:
4135:
3730:
3671:
3659:
3509: scale can be used to indicate the basis used.
2629:
1293:{\displaystyle M_{L}\approx (\log _{10}M_{0}-9.0)/1.5}
5060:
Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society
4702:, vol. 4: Earthquake Seismology (2nd ed.),
3138:
3067:
3035:
2918:
2888:
2861:
2819:
2740:
2691:
2613:
2578:
2551:
2522:
2490:
2460:
2433:
2406:
2371:
2337:
2263:
2181:
2152:
2125:
2098:
2071:
2047:
2009:
1955:
1922:
1893:
1863:
1836:
1471:
1384:
1315:
1233:
1120:
1093:
1013:
922:
831:
5850:
5461:, vol. 1, pp. 23–44 (English Trans. 12–21)
2726:
are the same for all earthquakes, one can consider M
2362:
2038:
883:{\displaystyle \log _{10}E_{s}\approx 4.8+1.5M_{S},}
5862:, vol. 109, no. B05302, pp. B05302,
5851:Venkataraman, Anupama; Kanamori, H. (11 May 2004),
5426:Kassaras, Ioannis G.; Kapetanidis, Vasilis (2018),
5425:
5294:
4151:
3995:
2785:
is the same for all earthquakes, one can consider M
1067:{\displaystyle E_{s}\approx M_{0}/(2\times 10^{4})}
30:For an overview of different magnitude scales, see
5409:Kanamori, Hiroo; Anderson, Don L. (October 1975),
4796:"Chapter 3: Seismic Sources and Source Parameters"
4634:Aki, Keiiti (April 1972), "Earthquake Mechanism",
3879:
3877:
3247:
3118:
3050:
3020:
2998:
2901:
2874:
2847:
2777:
2706:
2674:
2593:
2564:
2537:
2505:
2476:
2446:
2419:
2384:
2353:
2323:
2246:
2161:
2138:
2111:
2084:
2053:
2022:
1992:
1935:
1906:
1876:
1845:
1537:
1397:
1367:
1292:
1179:
1099:
1066:
978:
882:
5882:
5187:
5157:
5057:
4723:
4385:
4243:
3795:
3742:
3706:
3704:
3218:
3162:
3089:
2778:{\displaystyle \eta _{R}\Delta \sigma _{s}/2\mu }
2734:caused by earthquakes. Similarly, if one assumes
583:
6142:
5798:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
5571:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
5418:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
5408:
5174:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
5132:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
5097:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
4972:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
4689:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
4303:
3733:, p. 60), which replicates Wadati's curves.
3690:was implemented January 18, 2002, and posted at
3682:
3680:
913: , where the "w" stood for work (energy):
5236:, archived from the original on August 21, 2010
4433:
3874:
1602:or Das Magnitude Scale ) and moment magnitude (
1180:{\displaystyle M_{w}=(\log _{10}M_{0}-9.1)/1.5}
410:'s magnitude ("size" or strength) based on its
5434:, Springer Natural Hazards, pp. 405–452,
5420:, vol. 65, no. 5, pp. 1073–1095
5188:Gutenberg, Beno; Richter, Charles F. (1956b),
5176:, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 105–145,
5008:Dziewonski; Chou; Woodhouse (April 10, 1981),
4895:
4695:
4691:, vol. 85, no. 4, pp. 1202–1225
4412:
4163:
3701:
2718:Comparative energy released by two earthquakes
1442:The symbol for the moment magnitude scale is M
994:of a seismic spectrum is characterized by the
807:Introduction of an energy-motivated magnitude
5976:
5755:
5469:Bulletin of the Earthquake Research Institute
5201:
4627:Bulletin of the Earthquake Research Institute
4611:Bulletin of the Earthquake Research Institute
4373:
3677:
2324:{\displaystyle \eta _{R}=E_{s}/(E_{s}+E_{f})}
1303:
1222:
402:, and generally implied with use of a single
360:
5990:
5800:, vol. 85, no. 2, pp. 606–613
5564:"An Instrumental Earthquake Magnitude Scale"
5479:Studies in History and Philosophy of Science
1614:To understand the magnitude scales based on
1368:{\displaystyle M=(\log _{10}M_{0}-9.05)/1.5}
979:{\displaystyle M_{w}=2/3\log _{10}E_{s}-3.2}
6018:Environmental Seismic Intensity scale (ESI)
5062:, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 7–17,
4777:
4679:
4661:
4439:
4417:
4067:
4051:
3911:
3895:
3767:
6043:PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
5983:
5969:
5122:
5084:
4666:(2nd ed.), University Science Books,
3791:
3779:
3217:
3161:
3088:
1853:of this stored energy is transformed into
1729:= 2.5 + 0.63 M in the energy equation Log
771:over an average dislocation (distance) of
525: . (This scale is also known as the
367:
353:
5908:
5746:
5703:
5674:
5541:
5502:
5331:"The energy release in great earthquakes"
5316:
5075:
4991:
4969:
4961:
4590:
4279:
4095:
4091:
4066:, pp. 32, 65, and see bibliography;
4035:
1770:Note that Eq. (B) was already derived by
1190:
539:
5466:
5364:
5325:
5258:"Earthquake Mechanism and Seismic Waves"
5196:, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–15
4442:"Erdbeben – wenn die Erde zurückschlägt"
4358:
4315:
4075:
4011:
3899:
3820:
3524:of long-period (~10 – 100 s) body-waves.
2813: , allows one to assess the ratio
1446: , with the subscript "w" meaning
1430: , not Richter's local magnitude M
5637:
5611:
5558:
5456:
4662:Aki, Keiiti; Richards, Paul G. (2002),
4396:
4047:
3868:
3754:
3726:
3725:, p. 121. See also Figure 2-22 in
3688:USGS Earthquake Magnitude Working Group
1737:is the Gutenberg unified magnitude and
1697:(dyn.cm) and consider a constant term (
646:World-Wide Standard Seismograph Network
14:
6143:
5732:
5519:
5476:
4939:
4858:
4778:Bormann, Peter; Saul, Joachim (2009),
4400:
4123:
4119:
4087:
4023:
4007:
3983:
3967:
3963:
3951:
3939:
3927:
3923:
3883:
3864:
3722:
3710:
3494:would have to break apart completely.
1562:has a seismic moment of approximately
668:in 1907, with further developments by
552:
550:in 1945, a body-wave magnitude scale (
5964:
5805:
5255:
5190:"Magnitude and energy of earthquakes"
4829:
4369:
4367:
4354:
4352:
4350:
4348:
4327:
4176:Dziewonski, Chou & Woodhouse 1981
4107:
4071:
4063:
2139:{\displaystyle {\overline {\sigma }}}
2085:{\displaystyle {\overline {\sigma }}}
2023:{\displaystyle {\overline {\sigma }}}
651:
5840:
5365:Kanamori, Hiroo (February 2, 1978),
4617:
4598:
4509:Bormann, Wendt & Di Giacomo 2013
4497:Bormann, Wendt & Di Giacomo 2013
4340:Bormann, Wendt & Di Giacomo 2013
4268:Bormann, Wendt & Di Giacomo 2013
4256:Bormann, Wendt & Di Giacomo 2013
4240:Bormann, Wendt & Di Giacomo 2013
4227:
4216:Bormann, Wendt & Di Giacomo 2013
4203:
4191:
4179:
4147:
4136:Bormann, Wendt & Di Giacomo 2013
3979:
3731:Bormann, Wendt & Di Giacomo 2013
3672:Bormann, Wendt & Di Giacomo 2013
3660:Bormann, Wendt & Di Giacomo 2013
1733:= 5.8 + 2.4 m (Richter 1958), where
1450:accomplished. The moment magnitude M
5280:
4633:
4572:
4473:Technical Terms used on Event Pages
4291:
3844:
3832:
3129:or converted into Hiroshima bombs:
2789: as a measure of the energy
1711:= 5 × 10) in Eq. (A) and estimated
1405:is defined in newton meters (N·m).
791:Seismic moment is a measure of the
720:system) dyne-centimeters (dyn-cm).
470:
24:
5282:International Seismological Centre
5205:; Kanamori, Hiroo (May 10, 1979),
5077:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1976.tb00271.x
4963:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1977.tb01298.x
4708:10.1016/B978-0-444-53802-4.00069-5
4364:
4345:
3231:
3175:
3145:
3102:
3074:
3042:
2751:
2698:
2659:
2620:
2585:
2529:
2497:
2477:{\displaystyle \Delta \sigma _{s}}
2461:
2354:{\displaystyle \Delta \sigma _{s}}
2338:
2210:
2188:
2153:
1956:
1837:
1830:. During an earthquake, a portion
1478:
664:, first formulated by the Italian
406:for magnitude) is a measure of an
25:
6172:
6161:Logarithmic scales of measurement
6023:European Macroseismic Scale (EMS)
5940:
5810:, vol. 33, pp. 81–140,
4942:Geophysical Journal International
4789:, vol. 3, pp. 2473–2496
3996:Julian, Miller & Foulger 1998
3497:
2400:. Two earthquakes with identical
1554: is the seismic moment in
684:
5924:
5808:Advances in Geophysics Volume 33
5471:, vol. 41, pp. 467–486
5430:, in D'Amico, Sebastiano (ed.),
4680:Ben-Menahem, Ari (August 1995),
3564:centroid moment tensor inversion
3550:centroid moment tensor inversion
3051:{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {S} }}
2707:{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {s} }}
2594:{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {s} }}
2538:{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {s} }}
2506:{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {s} }}
2363:Venkataraman & Kanamori 2004
2039:Venkataraman & Kanamori 2004
473:of the moment magnitude scale (M
56:
6074:Local magnitude (Richter scale)
6033:Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik (MSK)
5860:Journal of Geophysical Research
5758:Journal of Geophysical Research
5748:10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i2/006
5367:"Quantification of Earthquakes"
5338:Journal of Geophysical Research
5262:Journal of Physics of the Earth
5214:Journal of Geophysical Research
5123:Gutenberg, Beno (April 1945b),
5017:Journal of Geophysical Research
4902:Journal of Geophysical Research
4740:: common roots and differences"
4579:Journal of Physics of the Earth
4514:
4502:
4490:
4478:
4465:
4454:from the original on 2014-08-26
4429:United States Geological Survey
4406:
4390:
4386:Das, Menesis & Urrutia 2023
4379:
4333:
4321:
4309:
4297:
4285:
4273:
4261:
4249:
4233:
4221:
4209:
4197:
4185:
4169:
4157:
4152:Kassaras & Kapetanidis 2018
4141:
4129:
4113:
4101:
4081:
4057:
4041:
4029:
4017:
4001:
3989:
3973:
3957:
3945:
3933:
3917:
3905:
3889:
3858:
3826:
3814:
3801:
3785:
3773:
3021:Comparison with TNT equivalents
2809: the equation defining M
1652:defined a magnitude scale (Log
1421:United States Geological Survey
990:spectrum. The lowest frequency
775:. (Modern formulations replace
422:was defined in a 1979 paper by
6115:Mercalli–Cancani–Sieberg (MCS)
5956:Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
5644:, vol. 9, pp. 1–76,
5522:Seismological Research Letters
4629:, vol. 44, pp. 73–88
4613:, vol. 44, pp. 23–72
3760:
3748:
3736:
3716:
3665:
3653:
3640:
2988:
2962:
2484:would have radiated different
2318:
2292:
2146:would have released different
1523:
1510:
1408:
1354:
1322:
1279:
1247:
1166:
1134:
1061:
1042:
704:magnitude of the second-order
584:Single couple or double couple
13:
1:
5824:10.1016/S0065-2687(08)60441-0
5650:10.1016/S0065-2687(08)60527-0
4881:10.1126/science.131.3412.1493
4244:Bormann & Di Giacomo 2011
4090:, p. 467; Steketee
3796:Gutenberg & Richter 1956b
3743:Gutenberg & Richter 1956a
1437:
1221: that was reported by
432:local magnitude/Richter scale
5612:Richter, Charles F. (1958),
5440:10.1007/978-3-319-77359-9_19
4830:Boyle, Alan (May 12, 2008),
4724:Bormann; Di Giacomo (2011),
4656:10.1016/0040-1951(72)90032-7
4527:Geophysical Research Letters
4304:Kanamori & Anderson 1975
4110:provides a partial overview.
2131:
2077:
2015:
1971:
7:
5947:USGS: Measuring earthquakes
5706:Canadian Journal of Physics
5677:Canadian Journal of Physics
5495:10.1016/j.shpsa.2017.02.002
4218:, p. 12, equation 3.1.
3612:
2848:{\displaystyle E_{1}/E_{2}}
2331:is radiated efficiency and
1304:Hanks & Kanamori (1979)
1223:Thatcher & Hanks (1973)
1107:m), Kanamori approximated M
10:
6177:
6120:Mercalli–Wood–Neuman (MWN)
5910:10.1007/s11069-023-05863-9
5290:, Thatcham, United Kingdom
5207:"A Moment magnitude scale"
4564:
4413:Choy & Boatwright 1995
4164:Beroza & Kanamori 2015
1595:Seismic moment magnitude (
489:
480:
387:; denoted explicitly with
265:Coordinating Committee for
29:
6102:
6056:
6005:
5998:
5256:Honda, Hirokichi (1962),
5246:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
4764:10.1007/s10950-010-9219-2
4733:and the energy magnitude
4374:Hanks & Kanamori 1979
2796:radiated by earthquakes.
2447:{\displaystyle \eta _{R}}
2385:{\displaystyle \eta _{R}}
1677: (A)
296:Adams–Williamson equation
6151:Seismic magnitude scales
5992:Seismic magnitude scales
4511:, §3.2.8.3, pp. 137–128.
3809:Seismic magnitude scales
3634:
3629:Seismic magnitude scales
2162:{\displaystyle \Delta W}
1916:radiated seismic energy
1846:{\displaystyle \Delta W}
1572:Great Chilean earthquake
576:earthquakes. These had M
244:Seismic intensity scales
239:Seismic magnitude scales
32:Seismic magnitude scales
5778:10.1029/JB078i035p08547
5358:10.1029/jb082i020p02981
5234:10.1029/JB084iB05p02348
5037:10.1029/JB086iB04p02825
4810:10.2312/GFZ.NMSOP-2_ch3
4664:Quantitative Seismology
4573:Abe, Katsuyuki (1982),
4052:Aki & Richards 2002
3768:Bormann & Saul 2009
3536:moment tensor inversion
3522:moment tensor inversion
2722:Assuming the values of
1635:scales is given below.
1621:detailed background of
1207:noted that Kanamori's M
729:1964 Niigata earthquake
492:Richter magnitude scale
440:Charles Francis Richter
6084:Surface-wave magnitude
6038:Modified Mercalli (MM)
5641:Advances in Geophysics
5591:10.1785/BSSA0250010001
5552:10.1785/gssrl.74.2.163
5274:10.4294/jpe1952.10.2_1
5182:10.1785/BSSA0460020105
5152:10.1785/BSSA0350020057
5117:10.1785/BSSA0350010003
4780:"Earthquake Magnitude"
4726:"The moment magnitude
4699:Treatise on Geophysics
4592:10.4294/jpe1952.30.321
3619:Earthquake engineering
3249:
3120:
3052:
3000:
2903:
2876:
2849:
2779:
2708:
2676:
2595:
2566:
2539:
2507:
2478:
2448:
2421:
2386:
2355:
2325:
2248:
2163:
2140:
2113:
2086:
2061:is the average of the
2055:
2030:is the average of the
2024:
1994:
1937:
1908:
1878:
1847:
1745:) and Seismic Moment (
1539:
1399:
1369:
1294:
1191:Moment magnitude scale
1181:
1101:
1100:{\displaystyle \cdot }
1068:
980:
884:
822:could be estimated as
631:elastic rebound theory
463:surface wave magnitude
455:U.S. Geological Survey
381:moment magnitude scale
306:Earthquake engineering
5614:Elementary Seismology
5297:Reviews of Geophysics
4833:Quakes by the numbers
4744:Journal of Seismology
4618:Aki, Keiiti (1966b),
4122:, pp. 165, 167;
4038:, pp. 1168–1169.
4010:, pp. 114, 117;
3250:
3121:
3053:
3029:. The seismic energy
3001:
2904:
2902:{\displaystyle m_{2}}
2877:
2875:{\displaystyle m_{1}}
2850:
2780:
2709:
2677:
2596:
2567:
2565:{\displaystyle M_{0}}
2540:
2508:
2479:
2449:
2422:
2420:{\displaystyle M_{0}}
2387:
2356:
2326:
2249:
2164:
2141:
2114:
2112:{\displaystyle M_{0}}
2087:
2056:
2025:
1995:
1938:
1936:{\displaystyle E_{s}}
1909:
1907:{\displaystyle E_{h}}
1879:
1877:{\displaystyle E_{f}}
1848:
1540:
1400:
1398:{\displaystyle M_{0}}
1370:
1295:
1182:
1102:
1069:
981:
885:
795:(more precisely, the
519:local magnitude scale
329:Earth Sciences Portal
301:Flinn–Engdahl regions
267:Earthquake Prediction
5876:10.1029/2003JB002549
4798:, in Bormann (ed.),
4547:10.1002/2017GL073801
3942:, pp. 116, 117.
3867:, pp. 112–113;
3624:Lists of earthquakes
3136:
3065:
3033:
2916:
2886:
2859:
2817:
2738:
2689:
2611:
2576:
2549:
2520:
2488:
2458:
2431:
2404:
2369:
2335:
2261:
2179:
2150:
2123:
2096:
2069:
2054:{\displaystyle \mu }
2045:
2007:
1953:
1920:
1891:
1861:
1834:
1828:gravitational energy
1469:
1382:
1313:
1231:
1118:
1091:
1011:
920:
829:
779:with the equivalent
438: ) defined by
291:Shear wave splitting
6064:Body-wave magnitude
5901:2023NatHa.117..365D
5868:2004JGRB..109.5302V
5816:1991AdGeo..33...81U
5770:1973JGR....78.8547T
5718:1958CaJPh..36.1168S
5689:1958CaJPh..36..192S
5583:1935BuSSA..25....1R
5560:Richter, Charles F.
5534:2003SeiRL..74..163P
5487:2017SHPSA..65..112M
5386:1978Natur.271..411K
5350:1977JGR....82.2981K
5309:1998RvGeo..36..525J
5226:1979JGR....84.2348H
5194:Annali di Geofisica
5163:Richter, Charles F.
5144:1945BuSSA..35...57G
5109:1945BuSSA..35....3G
5068:1976GeoJ...44....7D
5029:1981JGR....86.2825D
4984:2006BuSSA..96.1267D
4954:1977GeoJ...48..239D
4914:1995JGR...10018205C
4908:(B9): 18205–18228,
4873:1960Sci...131.1493B
4867:(3412): 1493–1496,
4756:2011JSeis..15..411B
4648:1972Tectp..13..423A
4539:2017GeoRL..44.5447W
4499:, §3.2.8.2, p. 135.
3970:, pp. 117–118.
3926:, p. 115. See
2724:σ̄/μ
2394:tsunami earthquakes
1456:dimensionless value
716:, or (in the older
449:Moment magnitude (M
442:in 1935, it uses a
191:Epicentral distance
6069:Duration magnitude
5481:, 65–66: 112–120,
5002:10.1785/0120050115
4485:Tsuboi et al. 1995
4194:, pp. 24, 36.
3245:
3116:
3048:
2996:
2899:
2872:
2845:
2775:
2704:
2672:
2671:
2591:
2562:
2535:
2503:
2474:
2444:
2417:
2382:
2351:
2321:
2244:
2159:
2136:
2109:
2082:
2051:
2020:
1990:
1933:
1904:
1874:
1857:energy dissipated
1843:
1767: (B)
1535:
1395:
1365:
1290:
1177:
1097:
1081:is in Joules and M
1064:
976:
880:
662:dislocation theory
652:Dislocation theory
510:Charles F. Richter
168:Induced seismicity
115:Remotely triggered
6138:
6137:
6103:Historical scales
6098:
6097:
6048:Shindo (Japanese)
5764:(35): 8547–8576,
5616:, W. H. Freeman,
5449:978-3-319-77358-2
5380:(5644): 411–414,
5344:(20): 2981–2987,
5329:(July 10, 1977),
5318:10.1029/98rg00716
5220:(B5): 2348–2350,
5088:(January 1945a),
5023:(B4): 2825–2852,
4978:(4a): 1267–1277,
4922:10.1029/95JB01969
4533:(11): 5447–5456.
4440:Quarks & Co.
4258:, pp. 39–40.
3562:– Derived from a
3548:– Derived from a
3488:
3487:
3207:
3011:logarithmic scale
2960:
2807:
2638:
2232:
2134:
2080:
2018:
1978:
1974:
1774:and termed it as
1552:
1495:
1417:
1219:
1085:
1002:
818:radiated energy E
750:
698:
469: ) scales.
444:logarithmic scale
430:. Similar to the
377:
376:
16:(Redirected from
6168:
6079:Moment magnitude
6057:Magnitude scales
6006:Intensity scales
6003:
6002:
5985:
5978:
5971:
5962:
5961:
5928:
5922:
5912:
5878:
5857:
5846:
5836:
5801:
5780:
5751:
5750:
5728:
5712:(9): 1168–1198,
5699:
5670:
5634:
5607:
5606:
5605:
5599:
5593:, archived from
5568:
5562:(January 1935),
5554:
5545:
5515:
5506:
5472:
5462:
5452:
5421:
5415:
5404:
5394:10.1038/271411a0
5371:
5360:
5335:
5321:
5320:
5291:
5287:ISC-EHB Bulletin
5276:
5251:
5245:
5237:
5211:
5203:Hanks, Thomas C.
5197:
5184:
5171:
5154:
5129:
5119:
5094:
5080:
5079:
5054:
5053:
5051:
5045:
5039:, archived from
5014:
5004:
4995:
4966:
4965:
4936:
4935:
4933:
4924:, archived from
4891:
4855:
4850:
4849:
4840:, archived from
4826:
4825:
4824:
4818:
4812:, archived from
4790:
4784:
4774:
4720:
4692:
4686:
4676:
4658:
4642:(1–4): 423–446,
4630:
4624:
4614:
4608:
4595:
4594:
4559:
4558:
4518:
4512:
4506:
4500:
4494:
4488:
4482:
4476:
4469:
4463:
4462:
4460:
4459:
4453:
4446:
4437:
4431:
4421:
4415:
4410:
4404:
4394:
4388:
4383:
4377:
4371:
4362:
4356:
4343:
4337:
4331:
4325:
4319:
4313:
4307:
4301:
4295:
4289:
4283:
4277:
4271:
4265:
4259:
4253:
4247:
4237:
4231:
4225:
4219:
4213:
4207:
4201:
4195:
4189:
4183:
4178:, p. 2826;
4173:
4167:
4161:
4155:
4145:
4139:
4133:
4127:
4117:
4111:
4105:
4099:
4085:
4079:
4070:, p. 1212;
4068:Ben-Menahem 1995
4061:
4055:
4045:
4039:
4033:
4027:
4021:
4015:
4005:
3999:
3993:
3987:
3977:
3971:
3961:
3955:
3949:
3943:
3937:
3931:
3921:
3915:
3912:Ben-Menahem 1995
3909:
3903:
3898:, p. 1210;
3896:Ben-Menahem 1995
3893:
3887:
3881:
3872:
3862:
3856:
3830:
3824:
3818:
3812:
3805:
3799:
3789:
3783:
3777:
3771:
3770:for an overview.
3764:
3758:
3752:
3746:
3740:
3734:
3720:
3714:
3708:
3699:
3696:Internet Archive
3684:
3675:
3669:
3663:
3657:
3651:
3644:
3607:
3606:
3593:
3592:
3583:
3582:
3575:
3574:
3561:
3560:
3547:
3546:
3533:
3532:
3519:
3518:
3484:
3463:
3442:
3438:
3432:
3415:
3411:
3405:
3388:
3384:
3378:
3361:
3357:
3351:
3333:
3327:
3262:
3261:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3246:
3244:
3243:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3208:
3206:
3205:
3204:
3188:
3187:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3155:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3117:
3115:
3114:
3107:
3106:
3105:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3057:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3047:
3046:
3045:
3005:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2991:
2987:
2986:
2974:
2973:
2961:
2953:
2943:
2942:
2933:
2928:
2927:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2898:
2897:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2871:
2870:
2854:
2852:
2851:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2834:
2829:
2828:
2805:
2784:
2782:
2781:
2776:
2768:
2763:
2762:
2750:
2749:
2725:
2713:
2711:
2710:
2705:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2681:
2679:
2678:
2673:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2649:
2648:
2639:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2603:energy magnitude
2600:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2590:
2589:
2588:
2571:
2569:
2568:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2544:
2542:
2541:
2536:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2500:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2473:
2472:
2453:
2451:
2450:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2426:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2398:slow earthquakes
2391:
2389:
2388:
2383:
2381:
2380:
2360:
2358:
2357:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2330:
2328:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2316:
2304:
2303:
2291:
2286:
2285:
2273:
2272:
2253:
2251:
2250:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2233:
2231:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2168:
2166:
2165:
2160:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2135:
2127:
2118:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2081:
2073:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2019:
2011:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1991:
1989:
1988:
1979:
1967:
1966:
1942:
1940:
1939:
1934:
1932:
1931:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1903:
1902:
1883:
1881:
1880:
1875:
1873:
1872:
1852:
1850:
1849:
1844:
1822:due to built-up
1589:
1587:
1581:
1579:
1569:
1567:
1550:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1536:
1522:
1521:
1506:
1505:
1496:
1488:
1483:
1482:
1481:
1415:
1404:
1402:
1401:
1396:
1394:
1393:
1374:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1347:
1346:
1334:
1333:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1272:
1271:
1259:
1258:
1243:
1242:
1217:
1186:
1184:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1159:
1158:
1146:
1145:
1130:
1129:
1106:
1104:
1103:
1098:
1083:
1073:
1071:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1059:
1041:
1036:
1035:
1023:
1022:
1000:
985:
983:
982:
977:
969:
968:
956:
955:
943:
932:
931:
889:
887:
886:
881:
876:
875:
854:
853:
841:
840:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
756:
748:
696:
643:
625:
554:
544:
369:
362:
355:
140:Earthquake swarm
60:
37:
36:
21:
18:Moment magnitude
6176:
6175:
6171:
6170:
6169:
6167:
6166:
6165:
6141:
6140:
6139:
6134:
6094:
6052:
5994:
5989:
5943:
5938:
5937:
5889:Natural Hazards
5855:
5834:
5792:from Broadband
5790:
5726:10.1139/p58-123
5697:10.1139/p58-024
5660:
5624:
5603:
5601:
5597:
5566:
5543:10.1.1.915.6064
5450:
5413:
5369:
5333:
5327:Kanamori, Hiroo
5239:
5238:
5209:
5169:
5165:(April 1956a),
5159:Gutenberg, Beno
5127:
5092:
5086:Gutenberg, Beno
5049:
5047:
5043:
5012:
4993:10.1.1.993.2211
4948:(2): 239–2261,
4931:
4929:
4847:
4845:
4844:on May 13, 2008
4822:
4820:
4816:
4782:
4739:
4732:
4718:
4684:
4674:
4622:
4606:
4567:
4562:
4519:
4515:
4507:
4503:
4495:
4491:
4483:
4479:
4470:
4466:
4457:
4455:
4451:
4444:
4438:
4434:
4422:
4418:
4411:
4407:
4395:
4391:
4384:
4380:
4372:
4365:
4357:
4346:
4338:
4334:
4326:
4322:
4314:
4310:
4306:, p. 1076.
4302:
4298:
4290:
4286:
4282:, p. 1268.
4278:
4274:
4266:
4262:
4254:
4250:
4238:
4234:
4226:
4222:
4214:
4210:
4202:
4198:
4190:
4186:
4174:
4170:
4162:
4158:
4146:
4142:
4134:
4130:
4118:
4114:
4106:
4102:
4086:
4082:
4062:
4058:
4046:
4042:
4034:
4030:
4022:
4018:
4006:
4002:
3994:
3990:
3978:
3974:
3966:, p. 165;
3962:
3958:
3950:
3946:
3938:
3934:
3922:
3918:
3914:, p. 1210.
3910:
3906:
3894:
3890:
3882:
3875:
3863:
3859:
3831:
3827:
3823:, p. 2981.
3819:
3815:
3806:
3802:
3792:Gutenberg 1945b
3790:
3786:
3780:Gutenberg 1945a
3778:
3774:
3765:
3761:
3753:
3749:
3741:
3737:
3721:
3717:
3709:
3702:
3685:
3678:
3670:
3666:
3658:
3654:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3615:
3602:
3601:
3597:
3588:
3587:
3578:
3577:
3570:
3569:
3566:of the W-phase.
3556:
3555:
3542:
3541:
3528:
3527:
3514:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3501:
3482:
3461:
3440:
3436:
3430:
3413:
3409:
3403:
3386:
3382:
3376:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3331:
3325:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3282:
3280:
3275:
3274:
3268:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3216:
3212:
3200:
3196:
3189:
3174:
3173:
3169:
3160:
3156:
3154:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3101:
3100:
3096:
3087:
3083:
3073:
3072:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3023:
3016:
2982:
2978:
2969:
2965:
2952:
2951:
2947:
2938:
2934:
2929:
2923:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2893:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2883:
2866:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2839:
2835:
2830:
2824:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2808:
2795:
2788:
2764:
2758:
2754:
2745:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2729:
2723:
2720:
2714:is in J (N·m).
2697:
2696:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2644:
2640:
2630:
2619:
2618:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2584:
2583:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2556:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2528:
2527:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2517:
2496:
2495:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2468:
2464:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2438:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2411:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2376:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2366:
2345:
2341:
2336:
2333:
2332:
2312:
2308:
2299:
2295:
2287:
2281:
2277:
2268:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2207:
2201:
2197:
2187:
2186:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2151:
2148:
2147:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2103:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2004:
1984:
1980:
1965:
1954:
1951:
1950:
1927:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1898:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1868:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1815:
1808:
1801:
1794:
1787:
1780:
1762:
1751:
1724:
1718:and denoted as
1717:
1710:
1703:
1696:
1689:
1672:
1665:
1658:
1644:
1634:
1627:
1620:
1610:
1608:
1601:
1585:
1583:
1577:
1575:
1565:
1563:
1560:microearthquake
1553:
1517:
1513:
1501:
1497:
1487:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1453:
1448:mechanical work
1445:
1440:
1433:
1429:
1418:
1411:
1389:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1357:
1342:
1338:
1329:
1325:
1314:
1311:
1310:
1282:
1267:
1263:
1254:
1250:
1238:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1228:
1220:
1214:
1210:
1205:Thomas C. Hanks
1198:
1193:
1169:
1154:
1150:
1141:
1137:
1125:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1110:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1087: is in N
1086:
1055:
1051:
1037:
1031:
1027:
1018:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1008:
1003:
964:
960:
951:
947:
939:
927:
923:
921:
918:
917:
912:
900:
896:
871:
867:
849:
845:
836:
832:
830:
827:
826:
821:
815:
813:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
757:
751:
743:
699:
687:
654:
640:
622:
586:
579:
567:
563:
559:
543:
524:
494:
488:
483:
476:
468:
460:
452:
437:
424:Thomas C. Hanks
419:
395:
373:
321:
320:
286:
278:
277:
269:
266:
259:
249:
248:
229:
221:
220:
181:
180:Characteristics
173:
172:
153:
145:
144:
70:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6174:
6164:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6136:
6135:
6133:
6132:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6106:
6104:
6100:
6099:
6096:
6095:
6093:
6092:
6086:
6081:
6076:
6071:
6066:
6060:
6058:
6054:
6053:
6051:
6050:
6045:
6040:
6035:
6030:
6025:
6020:
6015:
6009:
6007:
6000:
5996:
5995:
5988:
5987:
5980:
5973:
5965:
5959:
5958:
5949:
5942:
5941:External links
5939:
5936:
5935:
5895:(1): 365–380.
5880:
5848:
5838:
5832:
5803:
5788:
5782:
5753:
5741:(2): 118–123,
5730:
5701:
5683:(2): 192–205,
5672:
5658:
5635:
5623:978-0716702115
5622:
5609:
5556:
5528:(2): 163–168,
5517:
5474:
5464:
5454:
5448:
5423:
5406:
5362:
5323:
5303:(4): 525–549,
5292:
5278:
5253:
5199:
5185:
5155:
5120:
5082:
5055:
5046:on May 7, 2019
5005:
4967:
4937:
4928:on 6 June 2011
4893:
4856:
4827:
4791:
4775:
4750:(2): 411–427,
4737:
4730:
4721:
4716:
4693:
4677:
4672:
4659:
4636:Tectonophysics
4631:
4615:
4596:
4585:(4): 321–330,
4569:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4560:
4513:
4501:
4489:
4477:
4464:
4432:
4416:
4405:
4389:
4378:
4363:
4344:
4332:
4320:
4308:
4296:
4294:, p. 322.
4284:
4280:Deichmann 2006
4272:
4260:
4248:
4246:, p. 412.
4242:, p. 14;
4232:
4220:
4208:
4196:
4184:
4168:
4156:
4154:, p. 410.
4150:, p. 73;
4140:
4128:
4126:, p. 118.
4112:
4100:
4080:
4078:, p. 467.
4074:, p. 90;
4056:
4050:, p. 42;
4040:
4036:Steketee 1958b
4028:
4026:, p. 117.
4016:
4014:, p. 483.
4000:
3988:
3986:, p. 167.
3982:, p. 84;
3972:
3956:
3954:, p. 164.
3944:
3932:
3916:
3904:
3902:, p. 484.
3888:
3886:, p. 115.
3873:
3857:
3825:
3813:
3800:
3784:
3772:
3759:
3747:
3735:
3715:
3713:, p. 112.
3700:
3676:
3664:
3652:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3609:
3599:
3595:
3585:
3567:
3553:
3539:
3525:
3506:
3502:
3499:
3496:
3486:
3485:
3479:
3478:15,000,000,000
3476:
3469:
3465:
3464:
3458:
3455:
3448:
3444:
3443:
3434:
3428:
3421:
3417:
3416:
3407:
3401:
3394:
3390:
3389:
3380:
3374:
3367:
3363:
3362:
3353:
3347:
3340:
3336:
3335:
3329:
3323:
3316:
3312:
3311:
3308:
3305:
3298:
3294:
3293:
3292:(12,5 kT TNT)
3284:
3277:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3256:
3255:
3242:
3239:
3233:
3228:
3224:
3221:
3215:
3211:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3192:
3186:
3183:
3177:
3172:
3168:
3165:
3159:
3153:
3147:
3142:
3127:
3126:
3113:
3110:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3092:
3086:
3082:
3076:
3071:
3044:
3039:
3022:
3019:
3014:
3007:
3006:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2959:
2956:
2950:
2946:
2941:
2937:
2932:
2926:
2922:
2896:
2892:
2869:
2865:
2842:
2838:
2833:
2827:
2823:
2810:
2804:
2793:
2786:
2774:
2771:
2767:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2748:
2744:
2727:
2719:
2716:
2700:
2695:
2683:
2682:
2670:
2667:
2661:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2637:
2634:
2628:
2622:
2617:
2587:
2582:
2559:
2555:
2531:
2526:
2499:
2494:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2441:
2437:
2427:but different
2414:
2410:
2379:
2375:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2320:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2271:
2267:
2255:
2254:
2241:
2237:
2230:
2227:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2185:
2158:
2155:
2133:
2130:
2119:but different
2106:
2102:
2079:
2076:
2050:
2035:shear stresses
2017:
2014:
2001:
2000:
1987:
1983:
1977:
1973:
1970:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1944:
1943:
1930:
1926:
1914:
1901:
1897:
1885:
1871:
1867:
1842:
1839:
1820:elastic energy
1814:
1811:
1806:
1799:
1792:
1785:
1778:
1772:Hiroo Kanamori
1760:
1749:
1722:
1715:
1708:
1701:
1694:
1687:
1681:Hiroo Kanamori
1670:
1666:+ 11.8, where
1663:
1656:
1650:Hiroo Kanamori
1642:
1632:
1625:
1618:
1606:
1599:
1594:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1491:
1486:
1480:
1475:
1460:Hiroo Kanamori
1451:
1443:
1439:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1414:
1410:
1407:
1392:
1388:
1376:
1375:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1301:
1300:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1196:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1108:
1096:
1082:
1075:
1074:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1017:
999:
996:seismic moment
987:
986:
975:
972:
967:
963:
959:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
935:
930:
926:
910:
907:Hiroo Kanamori
898:
894:
891:
890:
879:
874:
870:
866:
863:
860:
857:
852:
848:
844:
839:
835:
819:
814:
811:
805:
761:
760:
759:
758:
754:μūS
747:
742:
695:
691:Seismic moment
686:
685:Seismic moment
683:
653:
650:
585:
582:
577:
565:
561:
557:
548:Beno Gutenberg
541:
522:
490:Main article:
487:
484:
482:
479:
474:
466:
458:
450:
435:
428:Hiroo Kanamori
417:
412:seismic moment
393:
375:
374:
372:
371:
364:
357:
349:
346:
345:
344:
343:
341:Related topics
338:
332:
331:
323:
322:
319:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
287:
284:
283:
280:
279:
276:
275:
270:
263:
260:
255:
254:
251:
250:
247:
246:
241:
236:
230:
227:
226:
223:
222:
219:
218:
213:
208:
203:
198:
193:
188:
182:
179:
178:
175:
174:
171:
170:
165:
160:
158:Fault movement
154:
151:
150:
147:
146:
143:
142:
137:
132:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
71:
66:
65:
62:
61:
53:
52:
46:
45:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6173:
6162:
6159:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6148:
6146:
6131:
6128:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6107:
6105:
6101:
6090:
6087:
6085:
6082:
6080:
6077:
6075:
6072:
6070:
6067:
6065:
6062:
6061:
6059:
6055:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6010:
6008:
6004:
6001:
5999:Modern scales
5997:
5993:
5986:
5981:
5979:
5974:
5972:
5967:
5966:
5963:
5957:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5944:
5934:
5932:
5927:
5920:
5916:
5911:
5906:
5902:
5898:
5894:
5890:
5886:
5881:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5865:
5861:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5835:
5833:9780120188338
5829:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5813:
5809:
5804:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5754:
5749:
5744:
5740:
5736:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5702:
5698:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5678:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5659:9780120188093
5655:
5651:
5647:
5643:
5642:
5636:
5633:
5629:
5625:
5619:
5615:
5610:
5600:on 2018-07-10
5596:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5572:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5451:
5445:
5441:
5437:
5433:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5412:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5368:
5363:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5319:
5314:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5298:
5293:
5289:
5288:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5243:
5235:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5208:
5204:
5200:
5195:
5191:
5186:
5183:
5179:
5175:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5126:
5121:
5118:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5098:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5061:
5056:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5022:
5018:
5011:
5006:
5003:
4999:
4994:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4968:
4964:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4938:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4857:
4854:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4834:
4828:
4819:on 2019-08-04
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4788:
4781:
4776:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4736:
4729:
4722:
4719:
4717:9780444538024
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4700:
4694:
4690:
4683:
4678:
4675:
4673:0-935702-96-2
4669:
4665:
4660:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4632:
4628:
4621:
4616:
4612:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4588:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4571:
4570:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4517:
4510:
4505:
4498:
4493:
4486:
4481:
4474:
4468:
4450:
4443:
4436:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4420:
4414:
4409:
4402:
4398:
4393:
4387:
4382:
4375:
4370:
4368:
4360:
4359:Kanamori 1977
4355:
4353:
4351:
4349:
4341:
4336:
4329:
4324:
4317:
4316:Kanamori 1977
4312:
4305:
4300:
4293:
4288:
4281:
4276:
4269:
4264:
4257:
4252:
4245:
4241:
4236:
4230:, p. 84.
4229:
4224:
4217:
4212:
4206:, p. 24.
4205:
4200:
4193:
4188:
4181:
4177:
4172:
4165:
4160:
4153:
4149:
4144:
4138:, p. 14.
4137:
4132:
4125:
4121:
4116:
4109:
4104:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4084:
4077:
4076:Maruyama 1963
4073:
4069:
4065:
4060:
4054:, p. 48.
4053:
4049:
4044:
4037:
4032:
4025:
4020:
4013:
4012:Maruyama 1963
4009:
4004:
3997:
3992:
3985:
3981:
3976:
3969:
3965:
3960:
3953:
3948:
3941:
3936:
3929:
3925:
3920:
3913:
3908:
3901:
3900:Maruyama 1963
3897:
3892:
3885:
3880:
3878:
3871:, p. 39.
3870:
3866:
3861:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3829:
3822:
3821:Kanamori 1977
3817:
3810:
3804:
3797:
3793:
3788:
3781:
3776:
3769:
3763:
3756:
3751:
3744:
3739:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3719:
3712:
3707:
3705:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3683:
3681:
3674:, p. 18.
3673:
3668:
3662:, p. 86.
3661:
3656:
3649:
3643:
3639:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3616:
3605:
3600:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3573:
3568:
3565:
3559:
3554:
3551:
3545:
3540:
3537:
3531:
3526:
3523:
3517:
3512:
3511:
3510:
3498:Subtypes of M
3495:
3493:
3492:Earth's crust
3480:
3477:
3474:
3470:
3467:
3466:
3459:
3456:
3453:
3449:
3446:
3445:
3435:
3429:
3426:
3422:
3419:
3418:
3408:
3402:
3399:
3395:
3392:
3391:
3381:
3375:
3372:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3354:
3348:
3345:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3330:
3324:
3321:
3317:
3314:
3313:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3285:
3278:
3270:
3264:
3263:
3260:
3240:
3237:
3226:
3222:
3219:
3213:
3209:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3190:
3184:
3181:
3170:
3166:
3163:
3157:
3151:
3140:
3132:
3131:
3130:
3111:
3108:
3097:
3093:
3090:
3084:
3080:
3069:
3061:
3060:
3059:
3037:
3028:
3018:
3012:
2993:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2957:
2954:
2948:
2944:
2939:
2935:
2930:
2924:
2920:
2912:
2911:
2910:
2894:
2890:
2867:
2863:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2825:
2821:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2772:
2769:
2765:
2759:
2755:
2746:
2742:
2733:
2715:
2693:
2668:
2665:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2641:
2635:
2632:
2626:
2615:
2607:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2580:
2557:
2553:
2524:
2514:
2492:
2469:
2465:
2439:
2435:
2412:
2408:
2399:
2395:
2377:
2373:
2364:
2346:
2342:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2300:
2296:
2288:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2239:
2235:
2228:
2225:
2218:
2214:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2183:
2175:
2174:
2173:
2170:
2156:
2128:
2104:
2100:
2074:
2064:
2048:
2040:
2036:
2033:
2012:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1968:
1962:
1959:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1928:
1924:
1915:
1899:
1895:
1886:
1869:
1865:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1840:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1810:
1805:
1798:
1791:
1784:
1777:
1773:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1714:
1707:
1700:
1693:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1662:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1624:
1617:
1612:
1611:
1605:
1598:
1591:
1573:
1561:
1557:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1518:
1514:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1492:
1489:
1484:
1473:
1465:
1464:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1454: is a
1449:
1435:
1424:
1422:
1406:
1390:
1386:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1348:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1330:
1326:
1319:
1316:
1309:
1308:
1307:
1305:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1215: and M
1206:
1203:seismologist
1202:
1174:
1170:
1163:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1142:
1138:
1131:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1113:
1112:
1094:
1080:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1038:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1007:
1006:
1005:
997:
993:
973:
970:
965:
961:
957:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
933:
928:
924:
916:
915:
914:
908:
905:seismologist
904:
877:
872:
868:
864:
861:
858:
855:
850:
846:
842:
837:
833:
825:
824:
823:
810:
804:
800:
798:
794:
789:
788:dislocation.
786:
755:
746:
741:
740:
739:
738:
737:
734:
730:
726:
721:
719:
715:
711:
710:Newton meters
707:
706:moment tensor
703:
693:
692:
682:
678:
675:
671:
667:
666:Vito Volterra
663:
658:
649:
647:
638:
636:
632:
626:
620:
618:
617:double couple
614:
613:single couple
610:
609:simple couple
606:
605:
600:
596:
590:
581:
575:
571:
555:
549:
545:
536:
530:
528:
527:Richter scale
520:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
498:seismic waves
493:
478:
472:
464:
461: ) and
456:
447:
445:
441:
433:
429:
425:
421:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
390:
386:
382:
370:
365:
363:
358:
356:
351:
350:
348:
347:
342:
339:
337:
334:
333:
330:
327:
326:
325:
324:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
288:
282:
281:
274:
271:
268:
262:
261:
258:
253:
252:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
231:
225:
224:
217:
214:
212:
209:
207:
206:Seismic waves
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
183:
177:
176:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
155:
149:
148:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
91:
88:
86:
83:
81:
78:
76:
73:
72:
69:
64:
63:
59:
55:
54:
51:
48:
47:
43:
39:
38:
33:
19:
6089:Energy class
6078:
5923:
5892:
5888:
5859:
5842:
5807:
5797:
5796:Waveforms",
5793:
5786:
5761:
5757:
5738:
5734:
5709:
5705:
5680:
5676:
5640:
5613:
5602:, retrieved
5595:the original
5574:
5570:
5525:
5521:
5478:
5468:
5458:
5431:
5417:
5377:
5373:
5341:
5337:
5300:
5296:
5286:
5265:
5261:
5217:
5213:
5193:
5173:
5138:(2): 57–69,
5135:
5131:
5100:
5096:
5059:
5048:, retrieved
5041:the original
5020:
5016:
4975:
4971:
4945:
4941:
4930:, retrieved
4926:the original
4905:
4901:
4864:
4860:
4852:
4846:, retrieved
4842:the original
4832:
4821:, retrieved
4814:the original
4800:
4786:
4747:
4743:
4734:
4727:
4698:
4688:
4663:
4639:
4635:
4626:
4610:
4582:
4578:
4530:
4526:
4516:
4504:
4492:
4480:
4467:
4456:. Retrieved
4435:
4424:
4419:
4408:
4397:Kostrov 1974
4392:
4381:
4342:, p. 86
4335:
4323:
4311:
4299:
4287:
4275:
4270:, p. 7.
4263:
4251:
4235:
4223:
4211:
4199:
4187:
4171:
4166:, p. 5.
4159:
4143:
4131:
4115:
4103:
4083:
4059:
4048:Stauder 1962
4043:
4031:
4019:
4003:
3991:
3975:
3959:
3947:
3935:
3919:
3907:
3891:
3869:Stauder 1962
3860:
3828:
3816:
3803:
3787:
3775:
3762:
3755:Richter 1935
3750:
3738:
3727:Richter 1958
3718:
3687:
3667:
3655:
3647:
3642:
3603:
3589:
3579:
3571:
3563:
3557:
3549:
3543:
3535:
3529:
3521:
3515:
3504:
3489:
3472:
3451:
3424:
3397:
3370:
3343:
3319:
3301:
3257:
3128:
3024:
3008:
2798:
2790:
2731:
2721:
2684:
2602:
2515:
2256:
2171:
2063:shear moduli
2031:
2002:
1945:
1816:
1803:
1796:
1789:
1782:
1775:
1769:
1765:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1712:
1705:
1698:
1691:
1690:in place of
1684:
1679:
1675:
1667:
1660:
1653:
1648:
1639:
1638:
1637:
1629:
1622:
1615:
1613:
1603:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1570:, while the
1547:
1441:
1425:
1412:
1377:
1302:
1194:
1078:
1076:
988:
901: 8.2.
892:
816:
808:
801:
790:
784:
762:
753:
744:
722:
689:
688:
679:
659:
655:
639:
627:
621:
616:
612:
608:
602:
591:
587:
574:1964 Alaskan
570:1960 Chilean
534:
531:
526:
506:Kiyoo Wadati
495:
448:
415:
403:
399:
391:
388:
384:
380:
378:
285:Other topics
90:Blind thrust
6130:Rossi–Forel
5577:(1): 1–32,
5504:10220/44522
5268:(2): 1–98,
5103:(1): 3–12,
4600:Aki, Keiiti
4401:Dahlen 1977
4124:Miyake 2017
4120:Pujol 2003b
4088:Miyake 2017
4024:Miyake 2017
4008:Miyake 2017
3984:Pujol 2003b
3968:Miyake 2017
3964:Pujol 2003b
3952:Pujol 2003b
3940:Miyake 2017
3928:Byerly 1960
3924:Miyake 2017
3884:Miyake 2017
3865:Miyake 2017
3723:Suzuki 2001
3711:Miyake 2017
3520:– Based on
3457:475,000,000
3286:equivalence
3281:equivalency
1588:10 N⋅m
1580:10 N⋅m
1568:10 N⋅m
1458:defined by
1409:Current use
1111: by
521:, labeled M
273:Forecasting
234:Seismometer
228:Measurement
201:Shadow zone
50:Earthquakes
6156:Geophysics
6145:Categories
5604:2019-03-05
4848:2008-05-12
4823:2017-08-15
4458:2022-03-17
4328:Boyle 2008
4108:Udías 1991
4072:Udías 1991
4064:Honda 1962
3433:15,000,000
3288:Hiroshima-
1802:≤ 7.0 and
1438:Definition
725:Keiiti Aki
694:– symbol M
674:F. Nabarro
670:E. H. Love
535:saturation
408:earthquake
316:Seismology
257:Prediction
196:Hypocenter
130:Supershear
110:Megathrust
105:Intraplate
100:Interplate
85:Aftershock
6091:(K-class)
5931:CC BY 4.0
5919:0921-030X
5538:CiteSeerX
4988:CiteSeerX
4772:130294359
4602:(1966a),
4555:0094-8276
4228:Aki 1966b
4204:Aki 1966a
4192:Aki 1966a
4180:Aki 1966b
4148:Aki 1966b
3998:, §2.2.1.
3980:Aki 1966b
3729:(copy in
3534:– From a
3481:1,200,000
3471:6.3
3450:2.0
3423:6.3
3396:2.0
3369:6.3
3342:2.0
3326:000.000.0
3318:6.3
3300:2.0
3276:(Joules)
3238:−
3223:⋅
3194:⋅
3167:⋅
3094:⋅
2976:−
2945:≈
2773:μ
2756:σ
2752:Δ
2743:η
2666:−
2651:
2466:σ
2462:Δ
2436:η
2374:η
2343:σ
2339:Δ
2266:η
2229:μ
2215:σ
2211:Δ
2199:η
2195:≈
2154:Δ
2132:¯
2129:σ
2078:¯
2075:σ
2049:μ
2016:¯
2013:σ
1976:μ
1972:¯
1969:σ
1963:≈
1957:Δ
1838:Δ
1752:), i.e.,
1527:−
1508:
1434: .
1349:−
1336:
1274:−
1261:
1245:≈
1161:−
1148:
1095:⋅
1049:×
1025:≈
992:asymptote
971:−
958:
856:≈
843:
712:(N·m) or
599:mechanics
514:logarithm
502:empirical
186:Epicenter
163:Volcanism
125:Submarine
80:Foreshock
75:Mainshock
5933:license.
5735:Episodes
5513:29195644
5242:citation
4932:21 March
4889:17802489
4449:Archived
4292:Abe 1982
3613:See also
3598: .
3475: 10
3454: 10
3427: 10
3400: 10
3373: 10
3350:000.000.
3346: 10
3322: 10
3304: 10
2516:Because
2032:absolute
1609:) scales
781:D̄A
777:ūS
727:for the
471:Subtypes
336:Category
311:Seismite
42:a series
40:Part of
6110:GEOFIAN
6028:Chinese
5897:Bibcode
5864:Bibcode
5812:Bibcode
5766:Bibcode
5714:Bibcode
5685:Bibcode
5668:52-1226
5632:58-5970
5579:Bibcode
5530:Bibcode
5483:Bibcode
5402:4185100
5382:Bibcode
5346:Bibcode
5305:Bibcode
5222:Bibcode
5140:Bibcode
5105:Bibcode
5064:Bibcode
5025:Bibcode
4980:Bibcode
4950:Bibcode
4910:Bibcode
4869:Bibcode
4861:Science
4752:Bibcode
4644:Bibcode
4565:Sources
4535:Bibcode
3845:ISC-EHB
3843:].
3833:ISC-EHB
3406:475,000
3334:0.0012
3283:(tons)
2801:solving
1548:where M
1077:(where
903:Caltech
773:ū
642:couple,
635:S-waves
607:, also
481:History
420:
396:
135:Tsunami
95:Doublet
5917:
5830:
5666:
5656:
5630:
5620:
5540:
5511:
5446:
5400:
5374:Nature
5050:May 7,
4990:
4887:
4770:
4714:
4670:
4553:
3855:].
3849:869809
3847:Event
3837:879136
3835:Event
3460:38,000
3379:15,000
2685:where
2257:where
2041:) and
2003:where
1824:stress
1659:= 1.5
1378:where
797:torque
785:moment
765:μ
714:Joules
702:scalar
604:couple
595:torque
216:S wave
211:P wave
152:Causes
6125:Omori
5856:(PDF)
5598:(PDF)
5567:(PDF)
5414:(PDF)
5398:S2CID
5370:(PDF)
5334:(PDF)
5210:(PDF)
5170:(PDF)
5128:(PDF)
5093:(PDF)
5044:(PDF)
5013:(PDF)
4838:MSNBC
4817:(PDF)
4783:(PDF)
4768:S2CID
4685:(PDF)
4623:(PDF)
4607:(PDF)
4471:USGS
4452:(PDF)
4445:(PDF)
4096:1958b
4092:1958a
3851:[
3839:[
3635:Notes
3483:,0000
3462:,0000
3441:,0000
3439:1,200
3414:,0000
3383:00.00
3377:000.0
3358:0.038
3356:00.00
3332:00.00
2803:for M
1887:heat
1683:used
1645:scale
763:with
733:WWSSN
597:. In
546:) by
68:Types
5915:ISSN
5828:ISBN
5664:LCCN
5654:ISBN
5628:LCCN
5618:ISBN
5509:PMID
5444:ISBN
5248:link
5052:2019
4934:2010
4885:PMID
4712:ISBN
4668:ISBN
4551:ISSN
3853:IRIS
3841:IRIS
3807:See
3766:See
3590:Mwpd
3410:00.0
3404:000.
3290:bomb
3279:TNT-
3241:8.92
3191:5.25
2882:and
2545:and
2396:and
1826:and
1628:and
1582:and
1556:dyne
1530:10.7
1352:9.05
1201:USGS
793:work
572:and
426:and
389:M or
379:The
120:Slow
5905:doi
5893:117
5872:doi
5820:doi
5774:doi
5743:doi
5722:doi
5693:doi
5646:doi
5587:doi
5548:doi
5499:hdl
5491:doi
5436:doi
5390:doi
5378:271
5354:doi
5313:doi
5270:doi
5230:doi
5178:doi
5148:doi
5113:doi
5072:doi
5033:doi
4998:doi
4958:doi
4918:doi
4906:100
4877:doi
4865:131
4806:doi
4760:doi
4704:doi
4652:doi
4587:doi
4543:doi
3604:Mdt
3572:Mwp
3558:Mww
3544:Mwc
3530:Mwr
3516:Mwb
3387:000
3385:1.2
3352:475
3220:1.5
3185:4.8
3164:1.5
3112:4.8
3091:1.5
3027:TNT
2669:3.2
2642:log
2454:or
1818:of
1590:.
1584:2.8
1576:1.4
1564:1.1
1499:log
1462:as
1363:1.5
1327:log
1288:1.5
1277:9.0
1252:log
1175:1.5
1164:9.1
1139:log
998:, M
974:3.2
949:log
865:1.5
859:4.8
834:log
718:CGS
611:or
400:Mwg
398:or
385:MMS
6147::
5954:–
5913:.
5903:.
5891:.
5887:.
5870:,
5858:,
5826:,
5818:,
5772:,
5762:78
5760:,
5739:24
5737:,
5720:,
5710:36
5708:,
5691:,
5681:36
5679:,
5662:,
5652:,
5626:,
5585:,
5575:25
5573:,
5569:,
5546:,
5536:,
5526:74
5524:,
5507:,
5497:,
5489:,
5442:,
5416:,
5396:,
5388:,
5376:,
5372:,
5352:,
5342:82
5340:,
5336:,
5311:,
5301:36
5299:,
5284:,
5266:10
5264:,
5260:,
5244:}}
5240:{{
5228:,
5218:84
5216:,
5212:,
5192:,
5172:,
5161:;
5146:,
5136:35
5134:,
5130:,
5111:,
5101:35
5099:,
5095:,
5070:,
5031:,
5021:86
5019:,
5015:,
4996:,
4986:,
4976:96
4974:,
4956:,
4946:48
4944:,
4916:,
4904:,
4900:,
4883:,
4875:,
4863:,
4851:,
4836:,
4804:,
4785:,
4766:,
4758:,
4748:15
4746:,
4742:,
4710:,
4687:,
4650:,
4640:13
4638:,
4625:,
4609:,
4583:30
4581:,
4577:,
4549:.
4541:.
4531:44
4529:.
4525:.
4447:.
4399:;
4366:^
4347:^
4094:,
3876:^
3794:,
3703:^
3679:^
3580:Mi
3468:10
3412:38
3328:15
3310:-
3214:10
3202:13
3198:10
3158:10
3085:10
2949:10
2909::
2646:10
2513:.
2169:.
1626:wg
1600:wg
1503:10
1331:10
1256:10
1143:10
1053:10
953:10
838:10
752:=
553:mB
475:ww
465:(M
434:(M
414:.
44:on
5984:e
5977:t
5970:v
5921:.
5907::
5899::
5879:.
5874::
5866::
5847:.
5837:.
5822::
5814::
5802:.
5794:P
5789:w
5787:M
5781:.
5776::
5768::
5752:.
5745::
5729:.
5724::
5716::
5700:.
5695::
5687::
5671:.
5648::
5608:.
5589::
5581::
5555:.
5550::
5532::
5516:.
5501::
5493::
5485::
5473:.
5463:.
5453:.
5438::
5422:.
5405:.
5392::
5384::
5361:.
5356::
5348::
5322:.
5315::
5307::
5277:.
5272::
5252:.
5250:)
5232::
5224::
5198:.
5180::
5150::
5142::
5115::
5107::
5081:.
5074::
5066::
5035::
5027::
5000::
4982::
4960::
4952::
4920::
4912::
4892:.
4879::
4871::
4808::
4762::
4754::
4738:e
4735:M
4731:w
4728:M
4706::
4654::
4646::
4589::
4557:.
4545::
4537::
4487:.
4475:.
4461:.
4403:.
4376:.
4361:.
4330:.
4318:.
4182:.
4098:.
3811:.
3798:.
3782:.
3757:.
3745:.
3698:.
3648:M
3596:w
3576:(
3507:w
3500:w
3473:·
3452:·
3447:9
3437:0
3431:0
3425:·
3420:8
3398:·
3393:7
3371:·
3366:6
3360:0
3344:·
3339:5
3320:·
3315:4
3307:-
3302:·
3297:3
3273:S
3271:E
3267:w
3265:M
3232:S
3227:M
3210:=
3182:+
3176:S
3171:M
3152:=
3146:S
3141:E
3109:+
3103:S
3098:M
3081:=
3075:S
3070:E
3043:S
3038:E
3015:w
2994:.
2989:)
2984:2
2980:m
2971:1
2967:m
2963:(
2958:2
2955:3
2940:2
2936:E
2931:/
2925:1
2921:E
2895:2
2891:m
2868:1
2864:m
2841:2
2837:E
2832:/
2826:1
2822:E
2811:w
2806:0
2794:s
2791:E
2787:w
2770:2
2766:/
2760:s
2747:R
2732:W
2728:w
2699:s
2694:E
2660:s
2655:E
2636:3
2633:2
2627:=
2621:E
2616:M
2586:s
2581:E
2558:0
2554:M
2530:s
2525:E
2498:s
2493:E
2470:s
2440:R
2413:0
2409:M
2378:R
2347:s
2319:)
2314:f
2310:E
2306:+
2301:s
2297:E
2293:(
2289:/
2283:s
2279:E
2275:=
2270:R
2240:0
2236:M
2226:2
2219:s
2203:R
2189:s
2184:E
2157:W
2105:0
2101:M
1986:0
1982:M
1960:W
1929:s
1925:E
1900:h
1896:E
1870:f
1866:E
1841:W
1807:s
1804:M
1800:s
1797:M
1793:s
1790:M
1786:s
1783:M
1779:w
1776:M
1761:o
1758:M
1756:/
1754:E
1750:o
1747:M
1743:E
1739:M
1735:m
1731:E
1727:m
1723:w
1720:M
1716:s
1713:M
1709:o
1706:M
1704:/
1702:0
1699:W
1695:s
1692:E
1688:0
1685:W
1671:0
1668:W
1664:w
1661:M
1657:0
1654:W
1643:w
1640:M
1633:w
1630:M
1623:M
1619:o
1616:M
1607:w
1604:M
1597:M
1586:×
1578:×
1566:×
1551:0
1533:,
1524:)
1519:0
1515:M
1511:(
1493:3
1490:2
1485:=
1479:w
1474:M
1452:w
1444:w
1432:L
1428:w
1416:0
1391:0
1387:M
1359:/
1355:)
1344:0
1340:M
1323:(
1320:=
1317:M
1284:/
1280:)
1269:0
1265:M
1248:(
1240:L
1236:M
1218:0
1213:L
1209:w
1197:w
1171:/
1167:)
1156:0
1152:M
1135:(
1132:=
1127:w
1123:M
1109:w
1084:0
1079:E
1062:)
1057:4
1046:2
1043:(
1039:/
1033:0
1029:M
1020:s
1016:E
1001:0
966:s
962:E
945:3
941:/
937:2
934:=
929:w
925:M
911:w
899:s
895:s
878:,
873:S
869:M
862:+
851:s
847:E
820:s
812:w
809:M
769:S
749:0
745:M
697:0
578:s
566:s
562:s
558:L
542:s
540:M
523:L
467:s
459:L
451:w
436:L
418:w
416:M
404:M
394:w
392:M
383:(
368:e
361:t
354:v
34:.
20:)
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