Messinian salinity crisis

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cyclic bands, or for erosion to have coincidentally removed just the right amount of sediment everywhere before the gypsum was deposited. The proponents claim that the gypsum was deposited directly above the correlated marl layers, and slumped into them, giving the appearance of an unconformable contact. However, their opponents seize upon this apparent inconformity, and claim that the

1150:. The kinematics and dynamics of this plate boundary and of the Gibraltar Arc during the late Miocene are closely related to the causes of the Messinian salinity crisis. Tectonic movements may have closed and re-opened passages, as the region where the connection with the Atlantic Ocean was situated is permeated by 626:, closely followed the contours of the present seafloor, suggesting that it was laid down evenly and consistently at some point in the past. The origin of this layer was largely interpreted as related to salt deposition. However, different interpretations were proposed for the age of salt and its deposition. 3658:

Pierre; Bajo Campos, Ildefonso; Borghi, Enrico; Iliopoulos, George; Antonarakou, Assimina; Kontakiotis, George; Besiou, Evangelia; Zarkogiannis, Stergios D.; Harzhauser, Mathias; Sierro, Francisco Javier; Coll, Marta; Vasiliev, Iuliana; Camerlenghi, Angelo; Garcia-Castellanos, Daniel (30 August 2024).

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experiments showed that for completely desiccated conditions, the Mediterranean basin would warm by up to 15 °C (27 °F) in summer and 4 °C (7.2 °F) in winter, while for a depressed water surface, temperatures would warm by only about 4 °C (7.2 °F) in summer and 5 °C

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Several possible causes of the series of Messinian crises have been considered. While there is disagreement on all fronts, the most general consensus seems to agree that climate had a role in forcing the periodic filling and emptying of the basins, and that tectonic factors must have played a part in

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of around 10 °C (18 °F) per kilometer, the maximum possible temperature of an area 4 km (2.5 mi) below sea level would be about 40 °C (72 °F) warmer than it would be at sea level. Under this extreme assumption, maxima would be near 80 °C (176 °F) at the lowest

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Using the concept of deposition in both shallow and deep basins during the Messinian (i.e. assuming that both Basin types existed during this period), two major groupings are evident: one that favours a synchronous deposition (image c) of the first evaporites in all the basins before the major phase

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Research since then has suggested that the desiccation-flooding cycle may have repeated several times during the last 630,000 years of the Miocene epoch. This could explain the large amount of salt deposited. Recent studies, however, show that the repeated desiccation and flooding is unlikely from a

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Glacioeustatic sea level falls with an amplitude of around 10 metres (33 ft) that began approximately 6.14 Ma were likely responsible for modulating the connection between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. One particularly major glacioeustatic fluctuation, a sea level drop of about 30 metres

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The proponents of this hypothesis claim that cyclic variations in bed compositions are astronomically tuned, and the beds' magnitude can be calibrated to show they were contemporaneous—a strong argument. In order to refute it, it is necessary to propose an alternative mechanism for generating these

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closed about 5.96 million years ago, sealing the Mediterranean off from the Atlantic. This resulted in a period of partial desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea, the first of several such periods during the late Miocene. After the strait closed for the last time around 5.6 Ma, the region's generally

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Agiadi, K.; Hohmann, N.; Gliozzi, E.; Thivaiou, D.; Bosellini, F. R.; Taviani, M.; Bianucci, G.; Collareta, A.; Londeix, L.; Faranda, C.; Bulian, F.; Koskeridou, E.; Lozar, F.; Mancini, A. M.; Dominici, S. (2024). "The marine biodiversity impact of the Late Miocene Mediterranean salinity crisis".

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Only the inflow of Atlantic water maintains the present Mediterranean level. When that was shut off sometime between 6.5 to 6 MYBP, net evaporative loss set in at the rate of around 3,300 cubic kilometers yearly. At that rate, the 3.7 million cubic kilometres of water in the basin would dry up in

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Agiadi, Konstantina; Hohmann, Niklas; Gliozzi, Elsa; Thivaiou, Danae; Bosellini, Francesca R.; Taviani, Marco; Bianucci, Giovanni; Collareta, Alberto; Londeix, Laurent; Faranda, Costanza; Bulian, Francesca; Koskeridou, Efterpi; Lozar, Francesca; Mancini, Alan Maria; Dominici, Stefano; Moissette,

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the remnant Tethys became joined to the Atlantic, roughly along the line of what was to become the Strait of Gibraltar. About 5.96 million years ago this gap closed, initiating what is known as the Messinian Salinity Crisis, which lasted for more than half a million years before the Atlantic was

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Assuming that this major drawdown corresponds to the major Messinian drawdown, they concluded that the Mediterranean bathymetry significantly decreased before the precipitation of central basins evaporites. Regarding these works, a deep water formation seems unlikely. The assumption that central

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The Messinian salinity crisis resulted in major extinctions of marine fish and other marine fauna native to the basin. The present day biodiversity gradient of the Mediterranean, where diversity decreases eastward, developed after the crisis. Due to the fusion of the Iberian Peninsula and North

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was a source of water north of the Mediterranean basin until the middle Pleistocene before becoming the Hungarian plain. Debate exists whether the waters of the Wallachian-Pontic basin (and the possibly connected Pannonian Sea) would have had access (thus bringing water) to at least the eastern

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As highlighted in the work of van Dijk (1992) and van Dijk et al. (1998) the history of desiccation and erosion was complexly interacting with tectonic uplift and subsidence events, and erosional episodes. They also questioned again like some previous authors had done, whether the basins now

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deposits that have since been brought above sea level by tectonic activity, the salinity crisis started at the same time over all the Mediterranean basin, at 5.96 ± 0.02 million years ago. This episode comprises the second part of what is called the "Messinian" age of the

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Artistic interpretation of the Mediterranean geography during its evaporative drawdown, after complete disconnection from the Atlantic. The rivers carved deep gorges in the exposed continental margins; The concentration of salt in the remaining water bodies led to rapid

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Another school suggests that desiccation was synchronous, but occurred mainly in shallower basins. This model would suggest that the sea level of the whole Mediterranean basin fell at once, but only shallower basins dried out enough to deposit salt beds. See image b.

910:(but this estimate may be reduced by 50 to 75% when more information becomes available) and more than 1 million cubic kilometres, 50 times the amount of salt normally in the Mediterranean waters. This suggests either a succession of desiccations or a long period of 1277:

The climate of the abyssal plain during the drought is unknown. There is no situation on Earth directly comparable to the dry Mediterranean, and thus it is not possible to know its climate by direct observation of comparable geographic settings. Simulation using a

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van Dijk, J.P. (1992, d); Late Neogene fore-arc basin evolution in the Calabrian Arc (Central Mediterranean). Tectonic sequence stratigraphy and dynamic geohistory. With special reference to the geology of Central Calabria. Geologica Ultrajectina, 92, 288 pp.

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c: Synchronous, basin-wide deposition. Closure or restriction of the Atlantic seaway by tectonic activity (dark grey) causes evaporite deposition simultaneously across the entire basin; the basin may not need to empty completely, as salts are concentrated by

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ocean provided water to the area north of the Mediterranean basin. The Wallachian-Pontic and Hungarian basins were underwater during the Miocene, modifying the climate of what is now the Balkans and other areas north of the Mediterranean basin. The

1418: 1265:, when less solar energy reached the northern hemisphere. This led to less evaporation of the North Atlantic, hence less rainfall over the Mediterranean. This would have starved the basin of water supply from rivers and allowed its desiccation. 1082:

was exposed—therefore eroding—while the Mediterranean sea was depositing evaporites. This would result in the Sorbas Basin being filled with evaporites at 5.5 million years ago (Ma), compared to the main basin at 5.96 Ma.).

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a: Diachronous deposition: Evaporites (pink) were deposited in landward basins first, and closer to the Atlantic as the extent of the Mediterranean Sea (dark blue) diminished towards the gateway. The light blue shows the original sea level.

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dry climate at the time dried the Mediterranean basin out nearly completely within a thousand years. This massive desiccation left a deep dry basin, reaching 3 to 5 km (1.9 to 3.1 mi) deep below normal sea level, with a few

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Some major questions remain concerning the beginning of the crisis in the central Mediterranean Basin. The geometric physical link between the evaporitic series identified in marginal basins accessible for field studies, such as the

1247:, and the subsequent upward motion of the overlying crust (which has lost its dense mantle "anchor") may also have caused the observed phenomena although the validity of the "deblobbing" hypothesis has been called into question. 1889:(In these circumstances, I think that I am permitted as the creator of a consistent and logical classification to propose for the stage in question a name that suits it in every way. That name is that of the Messinian stage.) 1887:"Dans ces circonstances, je crois qu'il m'est permis comme créateur d'une classification conséquente et logique de proposer pour l'étage en question un nom qui lui convient en tous points. Ce nom est celui d'Etage messinien." 1036:

of erosion; and the other that favours a diachronous deposition (image a) of the evaporites through more than one phases of desiccation which would first have affected the marginal basins and later the central basins.

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remained at all times. The extent of desiccation is very hard to judge, owing to the reflective seismic nature of the salt beds, and the difficulty in drilling cores, making it difficult to map their thickness.

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b: Synchronous deposition in marginal basins. Sea level drops slightly, but the whole basin is still connected to the Atlantic. Reduced inflow allows the accumulation of evaporites in shallow basins only.

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Krijgsman, W.; Garcés, M.; Langereis, C. G.; Daams, R.; Van Dam, J.; Van Der Meulen, A. J.; Agustí, J.; Cabrera, L. (1996). "A new chronology for the middle to late Miocene continental record in Spain".

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can indicate physically consistent responses to the desiccation. There is no consensus as to whether the Mediterranean Sea dried out completely; it seems likeliest that at least three or four large

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The Mediterranean-Atlantic strait closed tight time and time again, and the Mediterranean Sea, for the first time and then repeatedly, partially desiccated. The basin was finally isolated from the

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Braga, J.C.; Martín, J.M.; Riding, R.; Aguirre, J.; Sánchez-almazo, I.M.; Dinarès-turell, J. (2006). "Testing models for the Messinian salinity crisis: The Messinian record in Almería, SE Spain".

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applied) lowering of the Mediterranean sea level. During the initial, very dry stages (5.6–5.5 Ma), there was extensive erosion, creating several huge canyon systems (some similar in scale to the

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In many places in the Mediterranean, fossilized cracks have been found where muddy sediment had dried and cracked in the sunlight and drought. In the Western Mediterranean series, the presence of

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Riding, R.; Braga, J.C.; Martín, J.M. (2000). "Late Miocene Mediterranean desiccation: topography and significance of the 'Salinity Crisis' erosion surface on-land in southeast Spain: Reply".

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van Dijk, J.P., Barberis, A., Cantarella, G., and Massa, E. (1998); Central Mediterranean Messinian basin evolution. Tectono-eustasy or eustato-tectonics? Annales Tectonicae, 12, n. 1-2, 7-27.

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Garcia-Castellanos D.; Estrada F.; Jiménez-Munt I.; Gorini C.; Fernàndez M.; Vergés J.; De Vicente R. (2009). "Catastrophic flood of the Mediterranean after the Messinian salinity crisis".

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Shortening and extension occur at the same time in close proximity; sedimentary sequences and their relations to fault activity constrain the rates of uplift and subsidence quite precisely

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The massive presence of salt does not require a desiccation of the sea. The main evidence for the evaporative drawdown of the Mediterranean comes from the remains of many (now submerged)

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Clauzon, Georges; Suc, Jean-Pierre; Gautier, François; Berger, André; Loutre, Marie-France (1996). "Alternate interpretation of the Messinian salinity crisis: Controversy resolved?".

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Murphy L, Kirk-Davidoff D, Mahowald N, Otto-Bliesner B (2009). "A numerical study of the climate response to lowered Mediterranean Sea level during the Messinian Salinity Crisis".

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Of these, only the first model, invoking rollback, seems to explain the rotations observed. However, it is difficult to fit it with the pressure and temperature histories of some

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controlling the height of the sills restricting flow between the Atlantic and Mediterranean. The magnitude and extent of these effects, however, is widely open to interpretation.

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points strongly to several cycles of the Mediterranean Sea completely drying and being refilled (Gargani and Rigollet, 2007), with drying periods correlating to periods of cooler

541:). The Messinian salinity crisis ended with the Strait of Gibraltar finally reopening 5.33 Ma, when the Atlantic rapidly filled up the Mediterranean basin in what is known as the 1158:, the geography of the region may have altered enough to open and close seaways. However, the precise tectonic activity behind the motion can be interpreted in a number of ways. 1354:. Climates throughout the central and eastern basin of the Mediterranean and surrounding regions to the north and east would have been drier even above modern sea level. The 1197:

There are three contending geodynamic models that may fit the data, models which have been discussed in an equal way for the other arc shaped features in the Mediterranean:

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Distinguishing between these hypotheses requires the calibration of gypsum deposits. Gypsum is the first salt (calcium sulphate) to be deposited from a desiccating basin.

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Gautier, F., Clauzon, G., Suc, J.P., Cravatte, J., Violanti, D., 1994. Age and duration of the Messinian salinity crisis. C.R. Acad. Sci., Paris (IIA) 318, 1103–1109.

1541:, but recent studies of the underground structures at the Gibraltar Strait show that the flooding channel descended in a rather gradual way to the dry Mediterranean. 914:

during which incoming water from the Atlantic Ocean was evaporated with the level of the Mediterranean brine being similar to that of the Atlantic. The nature of the

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Seismic surveying of the Mediterranean basin in 1961 revealed a geological feature some 100–200 m (330–660 ft) below the seafloor. This feature, dubbed the

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would have poured a vast volume of water through what would have presumably been a relatively narrow channel. This refill has been envisaged as resulting in a large

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response to the introduction of the topographic depression causes patterns of warming and cooling by up to 4 °C (7.2 °F) around the Northern Hemisphere.

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New and high-quality seismic data on the M-reflector were acquired in the Mediterranean Basin in 1970. At the same time, the salt was cored during Leg 13 of the

3261:"Thermal evolution, rate of exhumation, and tectonic significance of metamorphic rocks from the floor of the Alboran extensional basin, western Mediterranean" 3164: 1302:

with altitude. In the empty Mediterranean Basin, the summertime temperatures would probably have been extremely high. As a first approximation, using the dry

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Weijermars, Ruud (May 1988). "Neogene tectonics in the Western Mediterranean may have caused the Messinian salinity crisis and an associated glacial event".

4114: 2584: 1090:"; the termination of the "Mes-1" unconformity bound depositional sequence of van Dijk, 1992) responding to a major drawdown of the Mediterranean seawater. 116: 3893:

Gargani J.; Rigollet C; Scarselli S. (2010). "Isostatic response and geomorphological evolution of the Nile valley during the Messinian salinity crisis".

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Gargani J.; Rigollet C; Scarselli S. (2010). "Isostatic response and geomorphological evolution of the Nile valley during the Messinian salinity crisis".

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is relied upon to compare the dates of sediments. The typical case study compares the gypsum evaporites in the main Mediterranean basin with those of the

926:, or by a river flowing eastwards below sea level into the "Mediterranean Sink" cutting its valley head back west until it let the sea in, similarly to a 3748: 4134: 954:

lake. The fine sediments deposited on a quiet or deep bottom had perfectly even lamination. As the basin was drying up and the water depth decreased,

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An enormous deposit of unsorted debris washed in by a massive catastrophic flood-wash has been found in the seabed southeast of the south corner of

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This has led to some interesting combinations of the models which at first hand looked bizarre, in attempts to approach the true state of affairs.

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Krijgsman W.; Hilgen F. J.; Raffi I.; Sierro F. J.; Wilson D. S. (1999). "Chronology, causes and progression of the Messinian salinity crisis".

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and before the major phase of erosion should imply the observation of a major detritic event above evaporites in the basin. Such a depositional

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scarcely more than a thousand years, leaving an extensive layer of salt some tens of meters thick and raising global sea level about 12 meters.

3749:"Terrestrial colonization of the Balearic Islands: New evidence for the Mediterranean sea-level drawdown during the Messinian Salinity Crisis" 1044:

observed as "deep" were actually also deep during the Messinian Episode and gave different names to the end-member scenarios described above.

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The first drilling of the Messinian salt at the deeper parts of the Mediterranean Sea came in the summer of 1970, when geologists aboard the

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Garcia-Castellanos, D., A. Villaseñor, 2011. Messinian salinity crisis regulated by competing tectonics and erosion at the Gibraltar Arc.

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In any case, the causes of the closing and isolation of the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean must be found in the area where the

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Rivers emptying into the basin would have cut their beds much deeper (at least a further 2,400 m (7,900 ft) in the case of the

669:, which formed on the sea floor as a result of evaporation. Evaporation of one metre of seawater precipitates around 1 mm of gypsum. 4089: 4096: 2223:

Blanc, P.-L. (2002) The opening of the Plio-Quaternary Gibraltar Strait: assessing the size of a cataclysm. Geodin. Acta, 15, 303–317.

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Garcia-Castellanos Villaseñor (2011). "Messinian salinity crisis regulated by competing tectonics and erosion at the Gibraltar Arc".

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Changes in climate must almost certainly be invoked to explain the periodic nature of the events. They occur during cool periods of

922:; which were therefore drier in the Mediterranean region. Each refilling was presumably caused by a seawater inlet opening, either 490: 109: 1394:

between the two regions occurred. The crisis also allowed the dispersal of terrestrial animals to remote landmasses such as the

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Today the evaporation from the Mediterranean Sea supplies moisture that falls in frontal storms, but without such moisture, the

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and rotating blocks of continental crust. As faulting accommodated the regional compression caused by Africa's convergence with

2945:"Neogene tectonostratigraphy and kinematics of Calabrian Basins. implications for the geodynamics of the Central Mediterranean" 2153: 4139: 4032: 3859: 3832: 2136: 1745: 2340: 1229:

underlying the western Mediterranean. However, this does not account for the periodic emptying and refilling of the basin.

564:), the Mediterranean would mostly evaporate in about a thousand years, after which continued northward movement of Africa 3992: 747:. These layers alternated with layers containing marine fossils, indicating a succession of drying and flooding periods. 102: 658:. These deposits were dated and interpreted for the first time as deep-basin products of the Messinian salinity crisis. 3989: 3165:"Extensional collapse of thickened continental lithosphere: A working hypothesis for the Alboran Sea and Gibraltar arc" 1318:. Further, the altitude 3–5 km (2–3 mi) below sea level would result in 1.45 to 1.71 atm (1102 to 1300 mmHg) 1102:

has not been observed on data. This theory corresponds to one of the end-member scenarios discussed by van Dijk et al.

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Meynard, Christine N.; Mouillot, David; Mouquet, Nicolas; Douzery, Emmanuel J. P. (2012-05-08). Knapp, Michael (ed.).

2677:"Astrochronology for the Messinian Sorbas basin (SE Spain) and orbital (precessional) forcing for evaporite cyclicity" 2660: 2428: 1866: 1294:

Atmospheric forces can be studied to arrive at a speculation on the climate. As winds blew across the "Mediterranean

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of the salt. The inset evokes the transit of mammals (e.g. camels and mice) from Africa to Iberia across the exposed

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Scientists find new evidences of the megaflood that ended the Messinian Salinity Crisis in the eastern Mediterranean

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Catalogue systématique et descriptif des fossiles des terrains tertiaires qui se trouvent du Musée fédéral de Zürich

3708:"Late Miocene turnover in the Spanish mammal record in relation to palaeoclimate and the Messinian Salinity Crisis" 2289:

Gargani J.; F. Bache; G. Jouannic; C. Gorini (2014). "Slope destabilization during the Messinian Salinity Crisis".

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are now) linked the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. These must have closed, isolating the basin from the open ocean.

1322:, further increasing heat stress. However, these simple estimates are likely far too extreme. Murphy et al.'s 2009 2807:"The Messinian Erosional and Salinity Crises: View from the Provence Basin (Gulf of Lions, Western Mediterranean)" 4110: 3797: 3747:

Mas, Guillem; Maillard, Agnès; Alcover, Josep A.; Fornós, Joan J.; Bover, Pere; Torres-Roig, Enric (2018-06-01).

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for a longer period, between 5.59 and 5.33 million years ago, resulting in a large or smaller (depending on the

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Recent works have highlighted a pre-evaporite phase corresponding to a prominent erosional crisis (also named "

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epoch), the barrier at the Strait of Gibraltar broke one last time, re-flooding the Mediterranean basin in the

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A possible palaeogeographical reconstruction of the west end of the Miocene Mediterranean. North to the left.

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would also be much drier than they are today, even if the westerlies prevailed as they do now. However, the

3969: 2861: 2450: 1944:

Ruggieri, G.; Adams, C.J.; Ager, D.V. (1967). "The Miocene and latter evolution of the Mediterranean Sea".

1063:. The relationship between these two basins is assumed to represent the relationships of the wider region. 3315: 594:, and freshwater sediment layers, and identified them as having been deposited just before the end of the 2944: 681:(Yesares member). The upward-growing cones suggest precipitation on the sea floor (not within sediments). 3964: 3928:

Gargani J. (2004). "Modelling of the erosion in the Rhone valley during the Messinian crisis (France)".

2090:

Gargani J. (2004). "Modelling of the erosion in the Rhone valley during the Messinian crisis (France)".

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Duggen, Svend; Hoernle, Kaj; van den Bogaard, Paul; Rüpke, Lars; Phipps Morgan, Jason (10 April 2003).

1905: 1087: 529:. Then, around 5.5 Ma, wetter climatic conditions resulted in the basin receiving more freshwater from 2496: 2154:"Calcareous nannofossils in extreme environments: The Messinian Salinity Crisis, Polemi Basin, Cyprus" 4154: 4044:"A high-resolution stratigraphic framework for the latest Messinian events in the Mediterranean area" 2676: 1323: 1279: 641: 36: 3099:"Geophysical evidence for lithospheric delamination beneath the Alboran Sea and Rif–Betic mountains" 2992: 3930: 3314:

Jolivet, Laurent; Augier, Romain; Robin, Cécile; Suc, Jean-Pierre; Rouchy, Jean Marie (June 2006).

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Earlier suggestions from Denizot in 1952 and Ruggieri in 1967 proposed that this layer was of Late

723:, left where the last bitter, mineral-rich waters dried up. One drill core contained a wind-blown 4149: 3707: 3422:

Aharon, Paul; Goldstein, Steven L.; Wheeler, Christopher W.; Jacobson, Gerry (1 September 1993).

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Bache, F.; Olivet, J. L.; Gorini, C.; Rabineau, M.; Baztan, J.; Aslanian, D.; Suc, J. P. (2009).

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The high level of salinity cannot be tolerated by many known organisms, a factor in reducing the

3879: 2326:"Modeling the magnitude and timing of evaporative drawdown during the Messinian salinity crisis" 1713: 3618:"Tethyan changes shaped aquatic diversification: Aquatic diversification in the Tethyan region" 3058: 1233: 986: 4066: 2126: 3849: 3822: 2545:

Govers, R (2009). "Choking the Mediterranean to dehydration: The Messinian salinity crisis".

2420: 1909: 1882: 1735: 1447: 1335: 1138:. In the present day area of the Mediterranean Sea, are three of these arc-shaped belts: the 2825: 1646: 1610: 1001: 978:, or there would be an unusual influx of brackish water from the eastern European lake. The 3939: 3762: 3721: 3562: 3482: 3437: 3373: 3325: 3274: 3226: 3178: 3112: 3063: 3006: 2958: 2917: 2870: 2821: 2779: 2734: 2691: 2608: 2554: 2511: 2459: 2373: 2298: 2247: 2168: 2099: 2007: 1972: 1829: 1781: 1642: 1606: 868: 857: 560:. If the Strait of Gibraltar closes again (which is likely to happen in the near future in 3290: 754:

that were cut into the sides of the dry Mediterranean basin by rivers flowing down to the

8: 3265: 2997: 1557: 1518: 1439: 1244: 1115: 1059:, a smaller basin on the flanks of the Mediterranean Sea that is now exposed in southern 1048: 975: 966:

zone. The intertidal flat was eventually exposed by the final desiccation, at which time

939: 919: 565: 561: 517: 3977:, by Julien Gargani, Isabelle Moretti, Jean Letouzey, First published: 16 January 2008, 3943: 3766: 3725: 3617: 3566: 3486: 3441: 3377: 3329: 3278: 3230: 3182: 3116: 3010: 2962: 2921: 2874: 2783: 2738: 2695: 2612: 2558: 2515: 2463: 2377: 2302: 2251: 2172: 2103: 2011: 1976: 1833: 1785: 1074:

beds, which appear to have given way to gypsum at exactly the same time in both basins.

4144: 3910: 3622: 3593: 3548: 3397: 3138: 3097:

Seber, Dogan; Barazangi, Muawia; Ibenbrahim, Aomar; Demnati, Ahmed (29 February 1996).

3032: 2888: 2837: 2634: 2527: 2497:"Evaporite accumulation during the Messinian Salinity Crisis : The Suez Rift Case" 2477: 2389: 2271: 2237: 2069: 2031: 1799: 1689: 1391: 876: 350: 3659: 2746: 2703: 2587: 504:

Sediment samples from below the deep seafloor of the Mediterranean Sea, which include

4028: 4021: 3914: 3855: 3828: 3778: 3753: 3681: 3664: 3639: 3598: 3580: 3529: 3428: 3389: 3217: 3169: 3036: 2970: 2929: 2892: 2656: 2531: 2481: 2424: 2413: 2408: 2385: 2275: 2263: 2132: 2073: 2035: 2023: 1915: 1862: 1803: 1741: 1654: 1618: 1591: 1473: 1451: 1347: 1303: 1262: 1151: 1067: 1052: 781: 687: 646: 60: 2841: 2393: 2184: 1472:

The basin's low altitude would have made it extremely hot during the summer through

549: 4058: 3947: 3902: 3770: 3729: 3673: 3631: 3588: 3570: 3521: 3490: 3445: 3401: 3381: 3364: 3333: 3282: 3234: 3186: 3142: 3128: 3120: 3103: 3072: 3059:"Magmatism Associated with Orogenic Collapse of the Betic-Alboran Domain, SE Spain" 3022: 3014: 2966: 2925: 2878: 2829: 2787: 2750: 2742: 2707: 2699: 2638: 2624: 2616: 2562: 2519: 2467: 2381: 2310: 2306: 2255: 2176: 2107: 2061: 2015: 1980: 1837: 1789: 1681: 1650: 1614: 1395: 1295: 1252: 979: 950:

The oldest sediment of each cycle was either deposited in a deep sea or in a great

583: 522: 40: 3660:"The marine biodiversity impact of the Late Miocene Mediterranean salinity crisis" 3258: 3076: 2047: 2045: 533:, progressively filling and diluting the hypersaline lakes into larger pockets of 3951: 3733: 3575: 3494: 3424:"Sea-level events in the South Pacific linked with the Messinian salinity crisis" 3337: 2791: 2180: 2111: 1669: 1363: 1328: 1202: 1135: 1025: 788:

suggests that the area was repeatedly flooded and desiccated over 700,000 years.

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would thus be abruptly buried under the fine muds brought in by the next deluge.

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Evaporite accumulation during the Messinian Salinity Crisis: The Suez Rift case

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Platt, J.P.; Soto, J.I.; Whitehouse, M.J.; Hurford, A.J.; Kelley, S.P. (1998).

2833: 2065: 2042: 1898: 1522: 1512: 1443: 1123: 943: 891: 864: 836: 692: 655: 614:

layers throughout the Mediterranean region have been dated to the same period.

591: 553: 542: 534: 80: 3359: 1960: 556:, owing to its near isolation by the Strait of Gibraltar and its high rate of 4128: 4003:, February 27, 2018. by Ictja-Csic, Institute of Earth Sciences, Jaume Almera 3782: 3685: 3584: 3549:"A Phylogenetic Perspective on the Evolution of Mediterranean Teleost Fishes" 3533: 1854: 1592:"A new chronology for the middle to late Miocene continental record in Spain" 1538: 1459: 1434:

The notion of a completely waterless Mediterranean Sea has some corollaries.

1372: 1311: 1287: 1269:(98 ft), occurred around 5.26 Ma, around the Miocene-Pliocene boundary. 1214: 1206: 1139: 1131: 1130:. This boundary zone is characterised by an arc-shaped tectonic feature, the 1127: 1119: 982: 927: 911: 755: 732: 724: 3677: 3525: 2804: 2769: 2598: 1495:

There is an opinion that during the Messinian, the Red Sea was connected at

796: 739:, mixed with quartz sand blown in from nearby continents, and ended up in a 4062: 3643: 3602: 3393: 3098: 3027: 2267: 2027: 1984: 1737:

On the Ocean: The Mediterranean and the Atlantic from prehistory to AD 1500

1534: 1500: 1466: 1355: 1319: 1315: 1186: 1147: 1079: 1056: 1029: 959: 872: 770: 728: 678: 377: 3211:

Jackson, J. A.; Austrheim, H.; McKenzie, D.; Priestley, K. (1 July 2004).

2883: 2857:"Mediterranean Sea level variations during the Messinian Salinity Crisis" 2856: 2523: 2472: 2446:"Mediterranean Sea level variations during the Messinian Salinity Crisis" 2445: 1958: 1794: 1770:"Mediterranean Sea level variations during the Messinian Salinity Crisis" 1769: 1530: 1327:(9.0 °F) in winter. In addition, the model results indicated global 1237: 1172: 1002:

Synchronism versus diachronism—deep water versus shallow water evaporites

773:

in 1967), and 2,500 m (8,200 ft) below sea level just north of

557: 538: 359: 64: 3472: 3385: 3316:"Lithospheric-scale geodynamic context of the Messinian salinity crisis" 2259: 2019: 3978: 3798:"How a salt giant radically reshaped Mediterranean marine biodiversity" 3213:"Metastability, mechanical strength, and the support of mountain belts" 2675:

Krijgsman, W.; Fortuin, A.R.; Hilgen, F.J.; Sierro, F.J. (April 2001).

1693: 1562: 1480:, which is only deposited in water warmer than 35 °C (95 °F). 1367: 1306: 1283: 1210: 1190: 1180: 1095: 1032:, and the evaporitic series of the central basins has never been made. 1006: 995: 963: 955: 942:

broke wide open permanently. Upon closely examining the Hole 124 core,

894:; favouring slope destabilization. The basin has not desiccated since. 736: 696: 413: 305: 3635: 3286: 3018: 2566: 2288: 875:) around the Mediterranean. Later stages (5.50–5.33 Ma) are marked by 27:

Drying-up of the Mediterranean Sea from 5.96 to 5.33 million years ago

3965:

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2007GL032494

3774: 3238: 3133: 3124: 2755: 2711: 2629: 1959:

Auzende J.M.; Bonnin J.; Olivet J.L.; Pautot G.; Mauffret A. (1971).

1763: 1761: 1533:

at 979 m (3,212 ft), and far more powerful than either the

1526: 1477: 1400: 1299: 1218: 967: 849: 840: 785: 712: 704: 611: 505: 395: 386: 273: 68: 1685: 1051:

offers a broad constraint on timing, but no fine detail. Therefore,

3996: 3553: 2364:

William Ryan (2008). "Decoding the Mediterranean salinity crisis".

1948:. London, England: Systematic Association Publication. p. 283. 1406: 1118:

is now, the location of one of the tectonic boundaries between the

1099: 951: 935: 923: 887: 883: 767: 526: 404: 368: 335: 249: 30: 2620: 1758: 1548:. This is suspected to have been deposited by the Zanclean flood. 731:

ooze that had dried into dust and been blown about on the hot dry

4023:

The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of the Glomar Challenger

3357: 3210: 2724: 1359: 1351: 1222: 1176: 1155: 931: 915: 853: 845: 673: 630: 603: 595: 473: 314: 283: 72: 3892: 3851:

Evaporite sequences in petroleum exploration: Geological methods

2051: 1168:

Fault-bounded continental blocks can often be observed to rotate

4084: 3096: 2494: 1545: 1343: 1339: 971: 958:

became more irregular on account of increasing wave agitation.

860:

events, all more or less interrelated (van Dijk et al., 1998).

751: 744: 720: 708: 700: 666: 661: 607: 587: 513: 3421: 3546: 1997: 1943: 1488: 1226: 1060: 774: 763: 762:

cut its bed down to 200 metres (660 feet) below sea level at

740: 716: 610:, Italy. Since then, several other salt-rich and gypsum-rich 530: 3656: 3510: 2674: 962:

was formed then, when the site of deposition fell within an

582:

In the 19th century, the Swiss geologist and paleontologist

3876:"Vast "Grand Canyon" Lurks 8,200 Feet BENEATH Cairo, Egypt" 3450:

10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0771:SLEITS>2.3.CO;2

3191:

10.1130/0091-7613(1989)017<0540:ECOTCL>2.3.CO;2

2942: 1842:

10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0363:AIOTMS>2.3.CO;2

1496: 1484: 1071: 902:

The amount of Messinian salts has been estimated as around

759: 509: 3706:

van der Made, J.; Morales, J.; Montoya, P. (August 2006).

3705: 1398:, where several animal species, such as the goat-antelope 1161:

Any model must explain a variety of features of the area:

3746: 2085: 2083: 2936: 2443: 1961:"Upper Miocene salt layer in the western Mediterranean" 1819: 848:

epoch. This age was characterised by several stages of

1189:

varies—this constrains the location and extent of any

3878:. Biot Report 403. September 21, 2006. Archived from 3313: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2204: 2080: 1767: 1499:

to the Mediterranean, but was not connected with the

1205:

may have caused periodic regional uplift. Changes in

1881:(Zürich, Switzerland: Librairie Schabelitz, 1867), 617: 3506: 3504: 2650: 2648: 970:was precipitated by saline ground water underlying 879:into a large "lake-sea" basin ("Lago Mare" event). 85: 4020: 2412: 2201: 1010:Hypotheses of evaporite formation during the MSC. 882:About 5.33 million years ago, at the start of the 3824:Evaporites: sediments, resources and hydrocarbons 3713:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3475:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2798: 2161:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2128:Evaporites: sediments, resources and hydrocarbons 1670:"Neogene Expansion of the North American Prairie" 1376:Mediterranean basin at times during the Miocene. 4126: 3848:Majithia, Margaret; Nely, Georges, eds. (1994). 3795: 3501: 2645: 1859:Oasis in space. Earth history from the beginning 1667: 1209:suggest that subduction zones at the rim of the 852:activity and sea level fluctuations, as well as 63:went into a cycle of partial or nearly complete 3163:Platt, J. P.; Vissers, R. L. M. (1 June 1989). 2899: 2854: 1232:The same features can be explained by regional 1094:basin evaporites partly deposited under a high 4095:Arizona University: Geology 212, Lecture 17: " 4015: 3468: 3466: 2151: 1503:, and dried out along with the Mediterranean. 548:Even today, the Mediterranean is considerably 67:(drying-up) throughout the latter part of the 3360:"Deep roots of the Messinian salinity crisis" 2990: 2670: 2668: 2233: 2231: 2229: 1861:, New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Inc., 440. 650:under the supervision of co-chief scientists 586:(1826–1907) studied fossils embedded between 110: 3847: 3162: 2984: 2848: 2495:Gargani J.; Moretti I.; Letouzey J. (2008). 2363: 2323: 1815: 1813: 1661: 1625: 1476:, a conclusion supported by the presence of 577: 489:Subdivision of the Neogene according to the 3463: 3307: 3204: 2991:Lonergan, Lidia; White, Nicky (June 1997). 633:age, and the same Ruggieri coined the term 566:may obliterate the Mediterranean altogether 4111:A brief history of the Messinian on Sicily 3927: 3351: 3050: 2905: 2718: 2665: 2226: 2089: 1753:reunited once more with the Mediterranean. 1272: 117: 103: 59:) was a geological event during which the 4135:Events in the geological history of Earth 3592: 3574: 3252: 3156: 3132: 3090: 3026: 2882: 2763: 2754: 2628: 2471: 2406: 1810: 1793: 1589: 974:. Suddenly seawater would spill over the 1933:. Rev. Geogr. Lyon 27. pp. 327–357. 1733: 1411: 1405:would continue to be isolated until the 1005: 795: 715:minerals that often form from drying of 672: 660: 598:Epoch. In 1867, he named the period the 83:, when the Atlantic reclaimed the basin. 29: 2993:"Origin of the Betic-Rif mountain belt" 1952: 1928: 1740:. Oxford University Press. p. 56. 1429: 1126:and its southern fragments such as the 743:lake interbedded between two layers of 719:or seawater, including in a few places 516:plants, show that the precursor of the 79:(million years ago). It ended with the 14: 4127: 4041: 3820: 3616:Hou, Zhonge; Li, Shuqiang (May 2018). 3056: 2544: 2124: 486: 3615: 1442:was not open, but other seaways (the 1384: 1236:or the loss of a layer of the entire 985:would then again be under water. The 766:(where Ivan S. Chumakov found marine 677:The scale of gypsum formation in the 496:Vertical axis: millions of years ago. 95: 3979:https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL032494 2943:van Dijk J.P., Okkes F.W.M. (1991). 2145: 1243:Deblobbing, the loss of a "blob" of 1134:, which includes southern Spain and 461: 441: 88: 4107:by Ian West (Internet Archive copy) 2573: 2407:Hsu, K.J. (1983). "A Voyage of the 2400: 1931:Le Pliocène dans la vallée du Rhône 1635:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1599:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1425:Messinian salinity crisis animation 1314:, permitting no permanent life but 24: 4009: 1734:Cunliffe, Sir Barry (2017-09-29). 1454:is now, or to the south where the 691:brought up drill cores containing 25: 4166: 4077: 897: 618:Further evidence and confirmation 55:, and in its latest stage as the 4083: 2444:Gargani J., Rigollet C. (2007). 2386:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2008.01031.x 1768:Gargani J.; Rigollet C. (2007). 1506: 930:. The last refilling was at the 4097:When the Mediterranean Dried Up 3983: 3958: 3921: 3886: 3868: 3841: 3814: 3789: 3740: 3699: 3650: 3609: 3540: 3415: 2592: 2538: 2488: 2437: 2357: 2317: 2282: 2217: 2152:Wade, B.S.; Brown P.R. (2006). 2118: 1991: 1946:Aspects of Tethyan Biogeography 1937: 1922: 1903:The Mediterranean Was a Desert, 1892: 1871: 1491:shows) and in the Rhone valley. 1171:The depth and structure of the 4027:. Princeton University Press. 2855:Gargani J, Rigollet C (2007). 2423:: Princeton University Press. 2415:The Mediterranean Was a Desert 2311:10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.12.042 1848: 1727: 1706: 1583: 1574: 1338:that we associate with Italy, 440: 13: 1: 4105:The Messinian Salinity Crisis 2747:10.1016/S0037-0738(00)00039-7 2704:10.1016/S0037-0738(00)00171-8 1568: 1521:was ultimately breached, the 1487:, as the buried canyon under 1409:, over 5 million years later. 1175:is constrained by records of 791: 4140:History of the Mediterranean 4042:Roveri; et al. (2008). 3970:Geophysical Research Letters 3952:10.1016/j.quaint.2004.01.020 3734:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.03.030 3576:10.1371/journal.pone.0036443 3495:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.04.016 3338:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2006.02.004 2971:10.1016/0040-1951(91)90288-4 2930:10.1016/0040-1951(88)90129-1 2862:Geophysical Research Letters 2792:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2006.03.002 2504:Geophysical Research Letters 2451:Geophysical Research Letters 2181:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.10.007 2112:10.1016/j.quaint.2004.01.020 1774:Geophysical Research Letters 1655:10.1016/0012-821X(96)00109-4 1619:10.1016/0012-821X(96)00109-4 1590:Krijgsman, W (August 1996). 1070:to correlate the underlying 7: 3827:. Birkhäuser. p. 147. 3077:10.1093/petrology/40.6.1011 2131:. Birkhäuser. p. 352. 1551: 1298:", they would heat or cool 877:cyclic evaporite deposition 525:pockets similar to today's 487: 244: 10: 4171: 3907:10.2113/gssgfbull.181.1.19 3057:TURNER, S. (1 June 1999). 2834:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.06.021 2339:(3–4): 229. Archived from 2066:10.2113/gssgfbull.181.1.19 1906:Princeton University Press 1510: 1379: 1088:Messinian erosional crisis 1066:Recent work has relied on 695:gravels and red and green 90:Neogene graphical timeline 4090:Messinian salinity crisis 1877:Mayer-Eymar, Karl (1867) 1668:Retallack, G. J. (1997). 1324:general circulation model 1280:general circulation model 1105: 886:age (at the start of the 642:Deep Sea Drilling Program 635:Messinian Salinity Crisis 578:Naming and first evidence 453:Messinian salinity crisis 75:epoch, from 5.96 to 5.33 51:(also referred to as the 49:Messinian salinity crisis 18:Messinian Salinity Crisis 3931:Quaternary International 3821:Warren, John K. (2006). 2092:Quaternary International 1346:would be limited to the 1217:westwards, changing the 127: 3678:10.1126/science.adp3703 3526:10.1126/science.adp3703 2826:2009E&PSL.286..139B 2814:Earth Planet. Sci. Lett 1647:1996E&PSL.142..367K 1611:1996E&PSL.142..367K 1458:or corridors where the 1446:to the north where the 1273:Relationship to climate 806: current coastline 784:interbedded within the 4063:10.29041/strat.05.3.08 3796:University of Vienna. 1985:10.1038/physci230082a0 1426: 1020: 991: 987:chicken-wire anhydrite 832: 682: 670: 575: 200:−10 — 190:−12 — 180:−14 — 170:−16 — 160:−18 — 150:−20 — 140:−22 — 130:−24 — 44: 4099:". (Accessed 7/16/06) 2421:Princeton, New Jersey 2324:William Ryan (2008). 2125:Warren, J.K. (2006). 1910:Princeton, New Jersey 1714:"ICS Timescale Chart" 1469:of much of the basin. 1424: 1336:Mediterranean climate 1179:activity, as well as 1009: 948: 799: 676: 664: 570: 240:−2 — 230:−4 — 220:−6 — 210:−8 — 33: 4092:at Wikimedia Commons 3854:. Editions TECHNIP. 3064:Journal of Petrology 2884:10.1029/2007GL029885 2524:10.1029/2007gl032494 2473:10.1029/2007GL029885 1929:Denizot, G. (1952). 1795:10.1029/2007gl029885 1721:www.stratigraphy.org 1529:higher than today's 1430:Dehydrated geography 727:deposit of deep-sea 711:, and various other 3944:2004QuInt.121...13G 3895:Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr 3767:2018Geo....46..527M 3726:2006PPP...238..228V 3567:2012PLoSO...736443M 3487:2009PPP...279...41M 3442:1993Geo....21..771A 3386:10.1038/nature01553 3378:2003Natur.422..602D 3330:2006SedG..188....9J 3321:Sedimentary Geology 3279:1998Tecto..17..671P 3231:2004Geo....32..625J 3183:1989Geo....17..540P 3117:1996Natur.379..785S 3011:1997Tecto..16..504L 2963:1991Tectp.196...23V 2922:1988Tectp.148..211W 2875:2007GeoRL..3410405G 2784:2006SedG..188..131B 2772:Sedimentary Geology 2739:2000SedG..133..175R 2727:Sedimentary Geology 2696:2001SedG..140...43K 2684:Sedimentary Geology 2613:1999Natur.400..652K 2559:2009Geo....37..167G 2516:2008GeoRL..35.2401G 2464:2007GeoRL..3410405G 2378:2009Sedim..56...95R 2303:2014Geomo.213..128G 2260:10.1038/nature08555 2252:2009Natur.462..778G 2173:2006PPP...233..271W 2104:2004QuInt.121...13G 2054:Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr 2020:10.1038/nature10651 2012:2011Natur.480..359G 1977:1971NPhS..230...82A 1834:1996Geo....24..363C 1786:2007GeoRL..3410405G 1558:Messinian evaporite 1519:Strait of Gibraltar 1440:Strait of Gibraltar 1245:lithospheric mantle 1185:The composition of 1116:Strait of Gibraltar 1049:Magnetostratigraphy 976:Strait of Gibraltar 940:Strait of Gibraltar 938:boundary, when the 920:global temperatures 826:Strait of Gibraltar 811:Sorbas basin, Spain 758:. For example, the 644:conducted from the 537:(much like today's 518:Strait of Gibraltar 3623:Biological Reviews 2869:(L10405): L10405. 2458:(L10405): L10405. 1427: 1392:faunal interchange 1385:Effects on biology 1310:points of the dry 1152:strike-slip faults 1021: 833: 683: 671: 602:after the city of 45: 4088:Media related to 4034:978-0-691-02406-6 3999:, February 2018, 3882:on June 30, 2013. 3861:978-2-7108-0624-0 3834:978-3-540-26011-0 3672:(6712): 986–991. 3636:10.1111/brv.12376 3520:(6712): 986–991. 3372:(6932): 602–606. 3324:. 188–189: 9–33. 3287:10.1029/98TC02204 3111:(6568): 785–790. 3019:10.1029/96TC03937 2607:(6745): 652–655. 2567:10.1130/G25141A.1 2409:Glomar Challenger 2246:(7274): 778–781. 2138:978-3-540-26011-0 2006:(7377): 359–363. 1916:Glomar Challenger 1747:978-0-19-107534-6 1474:adiabatic heating 1452:Baetic Cordillera 1438:At the time, the 1422: 1348:Iberian Peninsula 1263:Milankovic cycles 1253:metamorphic rocks 1068:cyclostratigraphy 1053:cyclostratigraphy 831:Mediterranean sea 688:Glomar Challenger 652:William B.F. Ryan 647:Glomar Challenger 502: 501: 482: 481: 460: 459: 61:Mediterranean Sea 16:(Redirected from 4162: 4155:Regional geology 4120:Messinian online 4087: 4073: 4071: 4065:. Archived from 4057:(3–4): 323–342. 4048: 4038: 4026: 4004: 3987: 3981: 3962: 3956: 3955: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3890: 3884: 3883: 3872: 3866: 3865: 3845: 3839: 3838: 3818: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3808: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3775:10.1130/G40260.1 3744: 3738: 3737: 3720:(1–4): 228–246. 3703: 3697: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3654: 3648: 3647: 3613: 3607: 3606: 3596: 3578: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3508: 3499: 3498: 3470: 3461: 3460: 3458: 3456: 3419: 3413: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3355: 3349: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3311: 3305: 3304: 3302: 3301: 3295: 3289:. Archived from 3256: 3250: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3239:10.1130/G20397.1 3208: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3160: 3154: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3136: 3125:10.1038/379785a0 3094: 3088: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3071:(6): 1011–1036. 3054: 3048: 3047: 3045: 3043: 3030: 2988: 2982: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2940: 2934: 2933: 2916:(3–4): 211–219. 2903: 2897: 2896: 2886: 2852: 2846: 2845: 2820:(3–4): 139–157. 2811: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2767: 2761: 2760: 2758: 2733:(3–4): 175–184. 2722: 2716: 2715: 2681: 2672: 2663: 2652: 2643: 2642: 2632: 2596: 2590: 2577: 2571: 2570: 2542: 2536: 2535: 2501: 2492: 2486: 2485: 2475: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2418: 2404: 2398: 2397: 2361: 2355: 2354: 2352: 2351: 2345: 2330: 2321: 2315: 2314: 2286: 2280: 2279: 2235: 2224: 2221: 2215: 2212: 2199: 2198: 2196: 2195: 2189: 2183:. Archived from 2167:(3–4): 271–286. 2158: 2149: 2143: 2142: 2122: 2116: 2115: 2087: 2078: 2077: 2049: 2040: 2039: 1995: 1989: 1988: 1956: 1950: 1949: 1941: 1935: 1934: 1926: 1920: 1914:A Voyage of the 1896: 1890: 1875: 1869: 1852: 1846: 1845: 1817: 1808: 1807: 1797: 1765: 1756: 1755: 1731: 1725: 1724: 1718: 1710: 1704: 1703: 1701: 1700: 1665: 1659: 1658: 1641:(3–4): 367–380. 1629: 1623: 1622: 1605:(3–4): 367–380. 1596: 1587: 1581: 1578: 1423: 1396:Balearic Islands 1350:and the western 909: 907: 869:scientific model 805: 584:Karl Mayer-Eymar 477: 467: 462: 455: 447: 442: 416: 407: 398: 389: 380: 371: 362: 353: 344: 329: 299: 267: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 131: 119: 112: 105: 99: 86: 41:Gibraltar Strait 21: 4170: 4169: 4165: 4164: 4163: 4161: 4160: 4159: 4125: 4124: 4113:by Rob Butler. 4080: 4069: 4046: 4035: 4012: 4010:Further reading 4007: 3993:see this image) 3988: 3984: 3963: 3959: 3926: 3922: 3891: 3887: 3874: 3873: 3869: 3862: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3819: 3815: 3806: 3804: 3794: 3790: 3745: 3741: 3704: 3700: 3690: 3688: 3655: 3651: 3614: 3610: 3545: 3541: 3509: 3502: 3471: 3464: 3454: 3452: 3420: 3416: 3406: 3404: 3356: 3352: 3342: 3340: 3312: 3308: 3299: 3297: 3293: 3257: 3253: 3243: 3241: 3209: 3205: 3195: 3193: 3161: 3157: 3147: 3145: 3095: 3091: 3081: 3079: 3055: 3051: 3041: 3039: 2989: 2985: 2975: 2973: 2941: 2937: 2904: 2900: 2853: 2849: 2809: 2803: 2799: 2768: 2764: 2723: 2719: 2679: 2673: 2666: 2653: 2646: 2597: 2593: 2578: 2574: 2543: 2539: 2499: 2493: 2489: 2442: 2438: 2431: 2405: 2401: 2362: 2358: 2349: 2347: 2343: 2328: 2322: 2318: 2287: 2283: 2236: 2227: 2222: 2218: 2213: 2202: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2156: 2150: 2146: 2139: 2123: 2119: 2088: 2081: 2050: 2043: 1996: 1992: 1957: 1953: 1942: 1938: 1927: 1923: 1897: 1893: 1885:From page 13: 1876: 1872: 1853: 1849: 1818: 1811: 1766: 1759: 1748: 1732: 1728: 1716: 1712: 1711: 1707: 1698: 1696: 1686:10.2307/3515337 1666: 1662: 1630: 1626: 1594: 1588: 1584: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1554: 1515: 1509: 1456:Rifean corridor 1432: 1412: 1387: 1382: 1364:Hungarian plain 1329:stationary wave 1275: 1203:subduction zone 1136:northern Africa 1108: 1026:Tabernas Desert 1017: 1014: 1011: 1004: 998:point of view. 905: 903: 900: 827: 822: 817: 816:Rifean corridor 812: 807: 803: 801: 794: 620: 580: 562:geological time 498: 497: 495: 478: 472:North American 471: 465: 456: 451: 445: 438: 437: 433: 432: 428: 427: 423: 422: 418: 417: 412: 409: 408: 403: 400: 399: 394: 391: 390: 385: 382: 381: 376: 373: 372: 367: 364: 363: 358: 355: 354: 349: 346: 345: 341: 339: 337: 334: 331: 330: 326: 324: 322: 320: 318: 316: 313: 310: 309: 301: 300: 295: 293: 291: 289: 287: 285: 281: 278: 277: 269: 268: 263: 261: 259: 257: 255: 253: 251: 247: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 123: 97: 91: 57:Lago Mare event 53:Messinian event 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4168: 4158: 4157: 4152: 4150:Paleogeography 4147: 4142: 4137: 4123: 4122: 4117: 4108: 4101: 4100: 4093: 4079: 4078:External links 4076: 4075: 4074: 4072:on 2012-01-21. 4039: 4033: 4017:Kenneth J. Hsu 4011: 4008: 4006: 4005: 3982: 3957: 3920: 3885: 3867: 3860: 3840: 3833: 3813: 3788: 3761:(6): 527–530. 3739: 3698: 3649: 3630:(2): 874–896. 3608: 3539: 3500: 3481:(1–2): 41–59. 3462: 3436:(9): 771–775. 3414: 3350: 3306: 3273:(5): 671–689. 3251: 3203: 3177:(6): 540–543. 3155: 3089: 3049: 3005:(3): 504–522. 2983: 2957:(1–2): 23–60. 2950:Tectonophysics 2935: 2909:Tectonophysics 2898: 2847: 2797: 2762: 2717: 2690:(1–2): 43–60. 2664: 2644: 2591: 2572: 2553:(2): 167–170. 2537: 2487: 2436: 2429: 2399: 2356: 2316: 2281: 2225: 2216: 2200: 2144: 2137: 2117: 2079: 2041: 1990: 1965:Nat. Phys. Sci 1951: 1936: 1921: 1899:Kenneth J. Hsu 1891: 1870: 1847: 1809: 1780:(10): L10405. 1757: 1746: 1726: 1705: 1680:(4): 380–390. 1660: 1624: 1582: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1566: 1565: 1560: 1553: 1550: 1523:Atlantic Ocean 1513:Zanclean flood 1511:Main article: 1508: 1505: 1493: 1492: 1481: 1470: 1463: 1444:Betic corridor 1431: 1428: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1288:abyssal plains 1274: 1271: 1249: 1248: 1241: 1230: 1207:volcanic rocks 1195: 1194: 1183: 1169: 1166: 1124:European Plate 1107: 1104: 1003: 1000: 944:Kenneth J. Hsu 899: 898:Several cycles 896: 892:Zanclean flood 865:Atlantic Ocean 837:palaeomagnetic 821:Betic corridor 802: 793: 790: 656:Kenneth J. Hsu 619: 616: 579: 576: 554:North Atlantic 543:Zanclean flood 535:brackish water 500: 499: 484: 483: 480: 479: 470: 468: 458: 457: 450: 448: 439: 435: 434: 430: 429: 425: 424: 420: 419: 411: 410: 402: 401: 393: 392: 384: 383: 375: 374: 366: 365: 357: 356: 348: 347: 333: 332: 312: 311: 303: 302: 280: 279: 271: 270: 246: 245: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 125: 124: 122: 121: 114: 107: 96: 93: 92: 89: 81:Zanclean flood 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4167: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4132: 4130: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4112: 4109: 4106: 4103: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4091: 4086: 4082: 4081: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4045: 4040: 4036: 4030: 4025: 4024: 4018: 4014: 4013: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3932: 3924: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3871: 3863: 3857: 3853: 3852: 3844: 3836: 3830: 3826: 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Retrieved 1677: 1673: 1663: 1638: 1634: 1627: 1602: 1598: 1585: 1576: 1543: 1535:Iguazu Falls 1516: 1501:Indian Ocean 1494: 1467:biodiversity 1433: 1399: 1388: 1356:eastern Alps 1333: 1320:air pressure 1293: 1276: 1267: 1260: 1257: 1250: 1234:delamination 1196: 1160: 1113: 1109: 1092: 1085: 1080:Sorbas Basin 1076: 1065: 1057:Sorbas basin 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030:Sorbas Basin 1022: 1019:evaporation. 992: 960:Stromatolite 949: 946:found that: 924:tectonically 901: 881: 873:Grand Canyon 862: 858:depositional 834: 828: 823: 818: 813: 808: 779: 771:Foraminifera 749: 725:cross-bedded 686: 684: 679:Sorbas basin 645: 639: 634: 628: 623: 621: 599: 581: 571: 547: 503: 488: 452: 378:Serravallian 304: 282: 272: 248: 56: 52: 48: 46: 2778:: 131–154. 2297:: 128–138. 1531:Angel Falls 1284:brine lakes 1238:lithosphere 1215:rolled back 1173:lithosphere 839:datings of 699:silts; and 624:M reflector 558:evaporation 539:Caspian Sea 523:hypersaline 360:Burdigalian 98:This box: 71:age of the 65:desiccation 4129:Categories 3807:2024-09-01 3300:2008-04-04 3294:(abstract) 3225:(7): 625. 2350:2014-11-05 2194:2010-06-09 1828:(4): 363. 1699:2008-02-11 1569:References 1563:Atlantropa 1390:Africa, a 1368:Paratethys 1362:, and the 1342:, and the 1307:lapse rate 1211:Tethys Sea 1191:subduction 1181:tomography 1148:Aegean Arc 1146:, and the 1096:bathymetry 996:geodynamic 964:intertidal 956:lamination 908:10 kg 792:Chronology 786:evaporites 737:sandstorms 697:floodplain 590:-bearing, 508:minerals, 414:Piacenzian 351:Aquitanian 306:Quaternary 4145:Messinian 3915:130839252 3901:: 19–26. 3783:0091-7613 3686:0036-8075 3585:1932-6203 3534:0036-8075 3266:Tectonics 3134:1813/5287 3037:129585666 2998:Tectonics 2893:128771539 2756:1874/1630 2712:1874/1632 2630:1874/1500 2532:129573384 2482:128771539 2276:205218854 2074:130839252 2060:: 19–26. 2036:205227033 1855:Cloud, P. 1804:128771539 1527:waterfall 1517:When the 1478:anhydrite 1401:Myotragus 1304:adiabatic 1219:chemistry 1213:may have 1201:A moving 968:anhydrite 854:erosional 841:Messinian 835:Based on 713:evaporite 709:rock salt 705:anhydrite 665:Cones of 612:evaporite 600:Messinian 552:than the 506:evaporite 396:Messinian 387:Tortonian 274:Paleogene 69:Messinian 4115:Archived 4019:(1987). 3997:Phys.org 3802:phys.org 3644:29024366 3603:22590545 3554:PLOS ONE 3455:20 March 3407:20 March 3394:12686997 3343:20 March 3244:20 March 3196:20 March 3148:20 March 3082:20 March 3042:20 March 2976:20 March 2842:30843908 2585:pdf here 2394:52266741 2268:20010684 2028:22170684 1883:page 13. 1857:(1988). 1552:See also 1407:Holocene 1122:and the 1100:geometry 980:Balearic 952:brackish 936:Pliocene 888:Pliocene 884:Zanclean 850:tectonic 768:Pliocene 592:brackish 527:Dead Sea 405:Zanclean 369:Langhian 3940:Bibcode 3763:Bibcode 3754:Geology 3722:Bibcode 3665:Science 3594:3348158 3563:Bibcode 3514:Science 3483:Bibcode 3438:Bibcode 3429:Geology 3402:4410599 3374:Bibcode 3326:Bibcode 3275:Bibcode 3227:Bibcode 3218:Geology 3179:Bibcode 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