Manusmriti - Knowledge

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India Company, and later the British Crown, sought profits for its British shareholders through trade as well as sought to maintain effective political control with minimal military engagement. The administration pursued a path of least resistance, relying upon co-opted local intermediaries that were mostly Muslims and some Hindus in various princely states. The British exercised power by avoiding interference and adapting to law practices as explained by the local intermediaries. The existing legal texts for Muslims, and resurrected Manusmriti manuscript thus helped the colonial state sustain the pre-colonial religious and political law and conflicts, well into the late nineteenth century. The colonial policy on the system of personal laws for India, for example, was expressed by Governor-General Hastings in 1772 as follows,

1814:, but endorses the political exclusion conveyed in the Manu text. Nietzsche considered Manu's social order as far from perfect, but considers the general idea of a caste system to be natural and right, and stated that "caste-order, order of rank is just a formula for the supreme law of life itself", a "natural order, lawfulness par excellence". According to Nietzsche, states Julian Young, "Nature, not Manu, separates from each other: predominantly spiritual people, people characterized by muscular and temperamental strength, and a third group of people who are not distinguished in either way, the average". He wrote that "To prepare a book of law in the style of Manu means to give a people the right to become master one day, to become perfect, – to aspire to the highest art of life." 1590:, Siam (Thailand), Cambodia and Java-Bali (Indonesia) as the defining documents of the natural order, which kings were obliged to uphold. They were copied, translated and incorporated into local law code, with strict adherence to the original text in Burma and Siam, and a stronger tendency to adapt to local needs in Java (Indonesia)". The medieval era derived texts and Manusmriti manuscripts in Southeast Asia are, however, quite different than the "vulgate" version that has been in use since its first use in British India. The role of then extant Manusmriti as a historic foundation of law texts for the people of Southeast Asia has been very important, states Hooker. 1149:(7.1 – 9.324) (contains 960 verses, includes description of institutions and officials of state, how officials are to be appointed, tax laws, rules of war, the role and limits on the power of the king, and long sections on eighteen grounds for litigation, including those related to non-delivery under contract, breach of contract, non-payment of wages, property disputes, inheritance disputes, humiliation and defamation, physical assault, theft, violence of any form, injury, sexual crimes against women, public safety, and others; the section also includes rules of evidence, rules on interrogation of witnesses, and the organisation of court system) 1343:), such as between a Brahmin man and a Shudra woman in verses 9.149–9.157, a widow becoming pregnant by a man she is not married to in verses 9.57–9.62, marriage where a woman elopes with her lover, and then grants legal rights in these cases such as property inheritance rights in verses 9.143–9.157, and the legal rights of the children so born. The text also provides for a situation when a married woman may become pregnant by a man other than her husband, and dedicates verses 8.31–8.56 to conclude that the child's custody belongs to the woman and her legal husband, and not to the biological father. 1658:

codification of complex and interdependent traditional systems froze certain aspects of the status of women, for instance, outside the context of constantly evolving social and economic relations, which in effect limited or restricted women's rights. The selectivity of the process, whereby colonial authorities sought the assistance of Hindu and Muslim religious elites in understanding the law, resulted in the Brahminization and Islamization of customary laws . For example, the British orientalist scholar William Jones translated the key texts

1706:, states John Bowker. Many of these texts have been lost completely or in parts, but they are referred to in other ancient Indian texts suggesting that they were influential in some regions or time. Of the numerous jurisprudence-related commentaries and Smriti texts, after Manu Smriti and other than the older Dharma Sutras, Yajnavalkya Smriti has attracted the attention of many scholars, followed by Narada Smriti and Parashara Smriti (the oldest Dharma-smriti). According to Ghose and other scholars, evidence suggests that 1258:

giving, Vedic recitation, restraining the sexual organs, observances, fasts, silence and bathing" as secondary. A few manuscripts of the text contain a different verse 4.204, according to Olivelle, and list the recommended virtues to be, "not injuring anyone, speaking the truth, chastity, honesty and not stealing" as central and primary, while "not being angry, obedience to the teacher, purification, eating moderately and vigilance" to desirable and secondary.

1614:, but laws for non-Muslims – such as Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains, Parsis – were not codified - both in regions of the subcontinent that witnessed anything up to 600 years of Islamic rule - as well as others. With the arrival of the British colonial officials, Manusmriti played a historic role in constructing a legal system for non-Muslims in South Asia and early Western perceptions about the ancient and medieval Indian society. 1649:

Dharmasastra texts, it was not in use for centuries during the Islamic rule period of India. The officials resurrected Manusmriti, constructed statements of positive law from the text for non-Muslims, in order to remain faithful to its policy of using sharia for the South Asian Muslim population. Manusmriti thus played a role in constructing the Anglo-Hindu law, as well as Western perceptions about ancient and medieval era

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widow her son; and that a woman should always worship her husband as a god and a man should consider his wife an embodiment of goddess. In verses 3.55–3.56, Manusmriti also declares that women must be honored, and "here women are revered, there the gods rejoice; but where they are not, no rite bears any fruit". Elsewhere, in verse 5.148, states Olivelle, the text declares, " must never seek to live independently".

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then lays out the laws of just war, stating that first and foremost, war should be avoided by negotiations and reconciliations. If war becomes necessary, states Manusmriti, a soldier must never harm civilians, non-combatants or someone who has surrendered, that use of force should be proportionate, and other rules. Fair taxation guidelines are described in verses 7.127–7.137.

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duties, that all work from that of a teacher to a janitor are equally necessary, and of equal status. Gandhi considered Manusmriti to include lofty teachings but a text with inconsistency and contradictions, whose original text is in no one's possession. He recommended that one must read the entire text, accept those parts of Manusmriti which are consistent with "truth and

1008:(chapters), but the original text had no such division. The text covers different topics, and is unique among ancient Indian texts in using "transitional verses" to mark the end of one subject and the start of the next. The text can be broadly divided into four, each of different length. and each further divided into subsections: 1238:(merchant class) and the Shudras (artisans and working class) in the text is extraordinarily brief. Olivelle suggests that this may be because the text was composed to address the balance "between the political power and the priestly interests", and because of the rise in foreign invasions of India in the period it was composed. 1526:

by the British colonial officials. It is the most reproduced and famous, not because, according to Olivelle, it is the oldest or because of its excellence, but because it was the lucky version found first. The Kullūka commentary dated to be sometime between the 13th to 15th century, adds Olivelle, is

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I hold Manusmriti as part of Shastras. But that does not mean that I swear by every verse that is printed in the book described as Manusmriti. There are so many contradictions in the printed volume that, if you accept one part, you are bound to reject those parts that are wholly inconsistent with it.

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Nelson in 1887, in a legal brief before the Madras High Court of British India, had stated, "there are various contradictions and inconsistencies in the Manu Smriti itself, and that these contradictions would lead one to conclude that such a commentary did not lay down legal principles to be followed

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Other scholars point to the inconsistencies and have questioned the authenticity of verses, and the extent to which verses were changed, inserted or interpolated into the original, at a later date. Sinha, for example, states that less than half, or only 1,214 of the 2,685 verses in Manusmriti, may be

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Numerous verses relate to the practice of meat eating, how it causes injury to living beings, why it is evil, and the morality of vegetarianism. Yet, the text balances its moral tone as an appeal to one's conscience, states Olivelle. For example, verse 5.56 as translated by Olivelle states, "there is

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opposed the book burning. The latter stated that while caste discrimination was harmful to spiritual and national growth, it had nothing to do with Hinduism and its texts such as Manusmriti. Gandhi argued that the text recognises different callings and professions, defines not one's rights but one's

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Regarding the 18 titles of law, Yajnavalkya follows the same pattern as in Manu with slight modifications. On matters such as women's rights of inheritance and right to hold property, status of Sudras, and criminal penalty, Yajnavalkya is more liberal than Manu. ... He deals exhaustively on subjects

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states that Manusmriti is a complex commentary from women's rights perspective, and the British colonial era codification of women's rights based on it for Hindus, and from Islamic texts for Muslims, picked and emphasised certain aspects while it ignored other sections. This construction of personal

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Manusmriti has various verses on duties a person has towards himself and to others, thus including moral codes as well as legal codes. Olivelle states that this is similar to the modern contrast between informal moral concerns to birth out of wedlock in the developed nations, along with simultaneous

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He deemed it "an incomparably spiritual and superior work" to the Christian Bible, observed that "the sun shines on the whole book" and attributed its ethical perspective to "the noble classes, the philosophers and warriors, stand above the mass". Nietzsche does not advocate a caste system, states

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written under sponsorship of Aurangzeb. For Hindus and other non-Muslims such as Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains, and Parsis, this information was unavailable. The substance of Hindu law, was derived by the British colonial officials from Manusmriti, and it became the first Dharmasastra that was translated

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Donald Davis writes, "there is no historical evidence for either an active propagation or implementation of Dharmasastra by a ruler or any state – as distinct from other forms of recognizing, respecting and using the text. Thinking of Dharmasastra as a legal code and of its authors as lawgivers is

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The belief in the authenticity of Kulluka's text was openly articulated by Burnell (1884, xxix): "There is then no doubt that the textus receptus, viz., that of Kulluka Bhatta, as adopted in India and by European scholars, is very near on the whole to the original text." This is far from the truth.

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Personal behaviours covered by the text are extensive. For example, verses 2.51–2.56 recommend that a monk must go on his begging round, collect alms food and present it to his teacher first, then eat. One should revere whatever food one gets and eat it without disdain, states Manusmriti, but never

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Most scholars consider the text a composite produced by many authors put together over a long period. Olivelle states that the various ancient and medieval Indian texts claim revisions and editions were derived from the original text with 100,000 verses and 1,080 chapters. However, the text version

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In the 18th century, the earliest British of the East India Company acted as agents of the Mughal emperor. As the British colonial rule took over the political and administrative powers in India, it was faced with various state responsibilities such as legislative and judiciary functions. The East

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Manusmriti provides a woman with property rights to six types of property in verses 9.192–9.200. These include those she received at her marriage, or as gift when she eloped or when she was taken away, or as token of love before marriage, or as gifts from her biological family, or as received from

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The colonial administration began the codification of Hindu and Muslim laws in 1772 and continued through the next century, with emphasis on certain texts as the authentic "sources" of the law and custom of Hindus and Muslims, which in fact devalued and retarded those dynamic social systems. The

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The British colonial officials, however, mistook the Manusmriti as codes of law, failing to recognise that it was a commentary on morals and law and not a statement of positive law. The colonial officials of the early 19th century also failed to recognise that Manusmriti was one of many competing

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Chapter 7 of the Manusmriti discusses the duties of a king, what virtues he must have, what vices he must avoid. In verses 7.54–7.76, the text identifies precepts to be followed in selecting ministers, ambassadors and officials, as well as the characteristics of well fortified capital. Manusmriti

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Similarly, in verse 4.204, states Olivelle, some manuscripts of Manusmriti list the recommended virtues to be, "compassion, forbearance, truthfulness, non-injury, self-control, not desiring, meditation, serenity, sweetness and honesty" as primary, and "purification, sacrifices, ascetic toil, gift

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The structure and contents of the Manusmriti suggest it to be a document predominantly targeted at the Brahmins (priestly class) and the Kshatriyas (king, administration and warrior class). The text dedicates 1,034 verses, the largest portion, on laws for and expected virtues of Brahmins, and 971

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such as in verses 5.158–5.160, and opposing a woman marrying someone outside her own social class in verses 3.13–3.14, in other verses, such as 2.67–2.69 and 5.148–5.155, Manusmriti preaches that as a girl, she should obey and seek protection of her father, as a young woman her husband, and as a

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Manusmriti offers an inconsistent and internally conflicting perspective on women's rights. The text, for example, declares that a marriage cannot be dissolved by a woman or a man, in verse 8.101–8.102. Yet, the text, in other sections, allows either to dissolve the marriage. For example, verses

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in ancient India. The Yajnavalkya text is also different from Manu text in adding chapters to the organisation of monasteries, land grants, deeds execution and other matters. The Yajnavalkya text was more referred to by many Hindu kingdoms of the medieval era, as evidenced by the commentary of

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Scholars doubt Manusmriti was ever administered as law text in ancient or medieval Hindu society. David Buxbaum states, "in the opinion of the best contemporary orientalists, it does not, as a whole, represent a set of rules ever actually administered in Hindustan. It is in great part an ideal

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The verses 12.1, 12.2 and 12.82 are transitional verses. This section is in a different style than the rest of the text, raising questions whether this entire chapter was added later. While there is evidence that this chapter was extensively redacted over time, it is unclear whether the entire

1470:. Kane places him in the late 10th or early 11th century, Olivelle places him in the 8th century, and Derrett places him between 600 and 800 CE. From these three opinions we can place Bhāruci anywhere from the early 7th century CE to the early 11th century CE. Bhāruci's commentary, titled 1878:

and open the Manu Smriti. It has an affirmation of life, a triumphing agreeable sensation in life and that to draw up a lawbook such as Manu means to permit oneself to get the upper hand, to become perfection, to be ambitious of the highest art of living."

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authentic. Further, the verses are internally inconsistent. Verses such as 3.55–3.62 of Manusmriti, for example, glorify the position of women, while verse such as 9.3 and 9.17 do the opposite. Other passages found in Manusmriti, such as those relating to

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Manusmriti, Olivelle states, was not a new document - it drew on other texts, and reflects "a crystallization of an accumulated knowledge" in ancient India. The root of theoretical models within Manusmriti rely on at least two shastras that pre-date it:

1794:. His version was published in 1794. This interest in its translation was encouraged by British administrative requirements, which they believed to be legal codes. In fact, states Romila Thapar, these were not codes of law but social and ritual texts. 1710:

was the more referred to text than Manu Smriti in matters of governance and practice. This text, of unclear date of composition but likely to be a few centuries after Manusmriti, is more "concise, methodical, distilled and liberal". According to Jois,

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That in all suits regarding inheritance, marriage, caste and other religious usages or institutions, the law of the Koran with respect to Mahometans , and those of the Shaster with respect to Gentoos shall be invariably be adhered to.

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The verses 6.97, 9.325, 9.336 and 10.131 are transitional verses. Olivelle notes instances of likely interpolation and insertions in the notes to this section, in both the presumed vulgate version and the critical edition.

1670:. In short, British colonial administrators reduced centuries of vigorous development of total ethical, religious and social systems to fit their own preconceived European notions of what Muslim and Hindu "law" should be. 1307:

overeat, as eating too much harms health. In verse 5.47, the text states that work becomes without effort when a man contemplates, undertakes and does what he loves to do and when he does so without harming any creature.

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Manu; Olivelle, Alma Cowden Madden Centennial Professor in Liberal Arts Professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions Patrick; Olivelle, Patrick; umetnostite, Makedonska akademija na naukite i; Olivelle, Suman (2005).

1534:, is probably from the 14th century and little is known about the author. This commentary includes many variant readings, and Olivelle found it useful in preparing a critical edition of the Manusmriti text in 2005. 1060:

Translation 1: The whole Veda is the (first) source of the sacred law, next the tradition and the virtuous conduct of those who know the (Veda further), also the customs of holy men, and (finally) self-satisfaction

1821:. He, states "These regulations are instructive enough: here we encounter for once Aryan humanity, quite pure, quite primordial,—we learn that the concept of "pure blood" is the opposite of a harmless concept". 1320:

9.72–9.81 allow the man or the woman to get out of a fraudulent or abusive marriage and remarry.The text also provides legal means for a woman to remarry when her husband has been missing or has abandoned her.

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3.2 Rules Relating to Penance (11.1 – 11.265) (includes rules of proportionate punishment; instead of fines, incarceration or death, discusses penance or social isolation as a form of punishment for certain

1474:, has far fewer number of verses than the Kullūka-Calcutta vulgate version in circulation since the British colonial era, and it refers to more ancient texts that are believed to be lost. It is also called 1496:

has been widely studied. Scholars such as Buhler, Kane, and Lingat believe he was from north India, likely the Kashmir region. His commentary on Manusmriti is estimated to be from 9th to 11th century.

980:. The foundational texts of Manusmriti include many of these sutras, all from an era preceding the common era. Most of these ancient texts are now lost, and only four have survived: the law codes of 910:

is a relatively modern term and a late innovation, probably coined because the text is in a verse form. The over-fifty manuscripts discovered of the text never use this title, but state the title as

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Translation 2: The root of the dharma is the entire Veda, and (then) the tradition and customs of those who know (the Veda), and the conduct of virtuous people, and what is satisfactory to oneself.

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to around 1250 BCE and 1000 BCE respectively, which, from later linguistic developments, is untenable due to the language of the text which must be later than the late Vedic texts such as the

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For British interest in Dharmashastras due to administrative needs, and their misinterpretation of them as legal codes rather than as social and ritual texts, see: Thapar (2002), pp. 2–3.

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in 1794. The British colonial officials, for practice, attempted to extract from the Dharmaśāstra, the English categories of law and religion for the purposes of colonial administration.

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Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, Writings and Speeches: Philosophy of Hinduism ; India and the pre-requisites of communism ; Revolution and counter-revolution ; Buddha or Karl Marx

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thus a serious misunderstanding of its history". Other scholars have expressed the same view, based on epigraphical, archaeological and textual evidence from medieval Hindu kingdoms in

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as key virtues, while verse 10.63 preaches that all four varnas must abstain from injuring any creature, abstain from falsehood and abstain from appropriating the property of others.

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Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work has been to discover how few of the over fifty manuscripts that I collated actually follow the vulgate in key readings.

1160:(9.326 – 9.335) (shortest section, eight rules for Vaishyas, two for Shudras, but some applicable laws to these two classes are discussed generically in verses 2.26 – 9.324) 1311:

no fault in eating meat, in drinking liquor, or in having sex; that is the natural activity of creatures. Abstaining from such activity, however, brings greatest rewards."

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3.1.2 Rules of Action in Times of Adversity (10.1 – 11.129) (contains revised rules on the state machinery and four varnas in the times of war, famine or other emergencies)

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Translation 1: The Veda, the sacred tradition, the customs of virtuous men, and one's own pleasure, they declare to be the fourfold means of defining the sacred law.

938:, themselves dated a few centuries later, around 500 BCE. Later scholars shifted the chronology of the text to between the 1st or 2nd century CE. Olivelle adds that 867:

topics such as duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and others. The text's influence had historically spread outside India. The text influenced Hindu kingdoms in

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from the colonial times. Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im states the significance and role of Manusmriti in governing India during the colonial era as follows (abridged),

4593: 844:(formerly Calcutta) manuscript with Kulluka Bhatta commentary". Modern scholarship states this presumed authenticity is false, and the various manuscripts of 782: 1053:(Sources of the Law) has twenty-four verses and one transition verse. These verses state what the text considers as the proper and just sources of law: 4146: 2231: 1859:

Pollard et al. state that the code of Manu was derived to answer questions on how men could rebuild their societies following a series of floods.

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was the first Indian legal text introduced to the western world through the translation of Sir William Jones in 1794. ... All the editions of the

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law during the colonial era created a legal fiction around Manusmriti's historic role as a scripture in matters relating to women in South Asia.

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For Manu Smriti as one of the first Sanskrit texts noted by the British and translation by Sir William Jones in 1794, see: Flood (1996), p. 56.

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Translation 2: The Veda, tradition, the conduct of good people, and what is pleasing to oneself – they say that is four-fold mark of dharma.

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The Pedigree of Man: Four Lectures Delivered at the Twenty-eighth Anniversary Meetings of the Theosophical Society, at Adyar, December, 1903

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considers these claims to be exaggerations. Thapar writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by

1387:, except for Jolly's, reproduce the text as found in the manuscript containing the commentary of Kulluka. I have called this as the " 775: 1371:

Patrick Olivelle, credited with a 2005 translation of Manusmriti published by the Oxford University Press, states the concerns in

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Olivelle, Patrick (2010). "Dharmasastra: A Literary History". In Lubin, Timothy; Krishnan, Jayanth; Davis, Jr. Donald R. (eds.).

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but were merely recommendatory in nature." Mahatma Gandhi remarked on the observed inconsistencies within Manusmriti as follows:

1029:(verses), in the form of a dialogue between an exalted teacher and disciples who are eager to learn about the various aspects of 840:

are now known, but the earliest discovered, most translated and presumed authentic version since the 18th century has been the "

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Lariviere, Richard W. (November 1989). "Justices and Paṇḍitas: Some Ironies in Contemporary Readings of the Hindu Legal Past".

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Lariviere, Richard W. (November 1989). "Justices and Paṇḍitas: Some Ironies in Contemporary Readings of the Hindu Legal Past".

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states that the verses from 3.55–60 may be about respect given to a woman in her home, but within a strong patriarchal system.

4564: 4537: 2473: 3733:, pp. 66–68; Also see discussion of 13th-century Wagaru Dhamma-sattha / 11th century Manu Dhammathat manuscripts discussion. 3948:

Kugle, Scott Alan (May 2001). "Framed, Blamed and Renamed: The Recasting of Islamic Jurisprudence in Colonial South Asia".

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4.2 Rules of Action for Supreme Good (12.83–115) (section on karma, duties and responsibilities as a means of supreme good)

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version". It was Kulluka's version that has been translated repeatedly: Jones (1794), Burnell (1884), Buhler (1886) and

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has been subject to appraisal and criticism. Among the notable Indian critics of the text in the early 20th century was

1574:, while acknowledging that Manusmriti was influential to the South Asian history of law and was a theoretical resource. 4809: 4742: 4513: 4476: 4452: 4400: 4376: 4343: 4322: 4301: 4277: 4116: 4087: 4062: 3887: 3775: 3759: 3730: 3670: 3633: 3612: 3591: 3550: 3501: 3481: 3432: 3408: 3381: 3357: 3336: 3312: 3288: 3258: 3234: 3213: 3192: 3169: 3148: 3127: 3106: 3085: 3064: 3043: 3020: 2994: 2973: 2952: 2931: 2905: 2885: 2865: 2848: 2828: 2805: 2785: 2762: 2734: 2711: 2685: 2662: 2599: 2582: 2532: 2502: 2418: 2392: 2339: 2273: 2205: 2182: 2159: 2135: 2107: 2079: 2044: 1928: 946:

in modern use, according to Olivelle, is likely the work of a single author or a chairman with research assistants.

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mostly a plagiary of Govindaraja commentary from about the 11th century, but with Kullūka's criticism of Govindaraja.

1265:, including the most translated Calcutta manuscript, the text declares in verse 4.204 that the ethical precepts under 537: 4632: 1544:

Other known medieval era commentaries on Manusmriti include those by Sarvajnanarayana, Raghavananda and Ramacandra.

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Simultaneously, states Olivelle, the text enumerates numerous practices such as marriages outside one's varna (see

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4.1 Fruits of Action (12.3–81) (section on actions and consequences, personal responsibility, action as a means of

2900:(1975), Bharuci's commentary on the Manusmrti, Schriftenreihe des Sudasien-Instituts der Universitat Heidelberg, 2843:(1975), Bharuci's commentary on the Manusmrti, Schriftenreihe des Sudasien-Instituts der Universitat Heidelberg, 2014: 1522:

manuscript has been "vulgate" or default standard, most studied version, since it was discovered in 18th-century

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A digest of Moohummudan law on the subjects to which it is usually applied by British courts of justice in India

960:(an ancient Indian concept that includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and others discussed in various 4835: 4790: 4771: 4752: 4705: 2441: 2363: 1963: 1944: 1910: 505: 1482:

states Bharuci was "occasionally more faithful to his source's historical intention" than other commentators.

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scholarship about the presumed authenticity and reliability of Manusmriti manuscripts. He writes (abridged),

17: 4176:, London: Faber, 1968, 96. For a related distinction between religious and secular law in Dharmaśāstra, see 4598:, citing p. 11. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918). pp. 7–29 on line, Project South Asia" 4527: 4871: 3246: 1791: 1675: 1636:

For Muslims of India, the British accepted sharia as the legal code for Muslims, based on texts such the

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evidence and the mention of gold coins as a fine suggest the text may date to the 2nd or 3rd century CE.

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Donald R. Davis Jr (2005), "Intermediate Realms of Law: Corporate Groups and Rulers in Medieval India",

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like creation of valid documents, law of mortgages, hypothecation, partnership and joint ventures.

656: 651: 216: 196: 2640:

The Roots of Hindu Jurisprudence: Sources of Dharma and Interpretation in Mīmāṃsā and Dharmaśāstra

2071: 754: 636: 587: 562: 356: 221: 4191: 3766: 2725: 2409: 1078:वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद् धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥ 4723: 3279: 3183: 3034: 2819: 2776: 2753: 2702: 2676: 2653: 2493: 2432: 2383: 2353: 2330: 2286: 2173: 2098: 1999: 1760: 915: 882:

became one of the first Sanskrit texts to be translated into English, by British philologist

567: 468: 2523: 2196: 1867:, held the text to be authentic and authoritative. Other admirers of the text have included 918:

at the end of each chapter. In modern scholarship, these two titles refer to the same text.

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Lubin, Timothy (2007). "Punishment and Expiation: Overlapping Domains in Brahmanical Law".

3469: 1787: 1764: 1586:, particularly Manusmriti, states Anthony Reid, were "greatly honored in Burma's (Myanmar) 1479: 1418: 1246:

Manusmriti lists and recommends virtues in many verses. For example, verse 6.75 recommends

641: 206: 163: 36: 2594:

David Levinson (2002), Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment, Volume 1, SAGE Publications,

1736: 8: 4660: 2009: 1920: 1818: 1802: 1541:, provides a useful benchmark on Manusmriti version and its interpretation in the south. 1251: 577: 177: 73: 263: 4866: 4694: 4251: 4231: 4223: 4130: 4028: 3973: 3965: 3930: 3922: 3856: 3848: 3813: 3805: 3704: 2897: 2840: 1845: 1833: 1727: 1707: 1347:

her husband subsequent to marriage, and also from inheritance from deceased relatives.

895: 547: 273: 240: 158: 4159:

Ludo Rocher, "Hindu Law and Religion: Where to draw the line?" In S. A. J. Zaidi, ed.

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This section of Manusmriti, like other Hindu law texts, includes fourfold sources of

855:, is dated to the 1st to 3rd century CE, and presents itself as a discourse given by 823: 802: 646: 616: 582: 520: 361: 245: 235: 4242:

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in a bonfire on 25 December 1927. While Ambedkar condemned Manusmriti,

1571: 1372: 1157: 1138:(2.26 – 6.96) (contains the longest section of Manusmriti, 3.1, called 939: 935: 726: 148: 135: 4255: 4053:

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2860:

Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press,

2800:

Patrick Olivelle (2005), Manu's Code of Law, Oxford University Press,

1459: 2029: 1856:, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Shungas". 1801:

translation of the Calcutta version of "Law of Manu" was reviewed by

1599: 1340: 1223:

Manusmriti 12.125, Calcutta manuscript with Kulluka Bhatta commentary

1146: 891: 872: 696: 626: 527: 101: 4219: 3844: 3801: 3476:, Schriftenreihe des Sudasien-Instituts der Universitat Heidelberg, 1153: 4204:

For reviews of the British misappropriations of Dharmaśāstra, see:

4024: 1837: 1783: 1731: 1558:

picture of that which, in the view of a Brahmin, ought to be law".

1324: 868: 852: 830: 488: 323: 130: 125: 96: 52: 3013:

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3747: 2577:

Brian Smith and Wendy Doniger (1992), The Laws of Manu, Penguin,

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Elizabeth Pollard; Clifford Rosenberg; Robert L. Tignor (2011).

1213:

becomes equal-minded towards all, and enters the highest state,

1004:

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3460:

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2460: 2410:

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at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of

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in connection with social pressures caused by the rise of

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2557: 2113: 1828:

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848:

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4055:

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1207:

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Tomothy Lubin et al (2010), Lubin and Davis (eds.),

3396: 2796: 2794: 1033:. The first 58 verses are attributed by the text to 4559:. Education Department, Government of Maharashtra. 4363: 4361: 2291:

The Indian Empire: Its People, History and Products

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Nobody is in possession of the original text. 968:of the Vedic era, which led to the development of 4382: 4244:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 2918: 2916: 2914: 2791: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2696: 2694: 2487: 2485: 2285: 1668:Institutes of Hindu Law or the Ordinances of Manu 1357: 4858: 4358: 3997:Ludo Rocher (1978), "Hindu Conceptions of Law", 3993: 3991: 3989: 3987: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2450: 2351: 1981:Manusmr̥ti: Bhāratīya ācāra-saṃhitā kā viśvakośa 1552: 1211:), the universal soul that exists in all beings, 4039: 3294: 3273: 3271: 3269: 3267: 2871: 4553:Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji; Moon, Vasant (1987). 4487: 4485: 4469:Friedrich Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography 4004: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3523: 2911: 2740: 2691: 2645: 2573: 2571: 2553: 2551: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2482: 2260: 2258: 2256: 2254: 4214:(4). Association for Asian Studies: 757–769. 3984: 3839:(4). 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Cambridge University Press: 257–313. 3689:Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 3652: 3451: 2372: 1790:. It was first translated into English by 1298:On personal choices, behaviours and morals 1128:3.1 Rules Relating to Law (2.25 – 10.131) 1021:Law of karma, rebirth and final liberation 783: 769: 4700:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4525: 4458: 4336:Legal and Constitutional History of India 4315:Legal and Constitutional History of India 4294:Legal and Constitutional History of India 4288: 4286: 4270:Legal and Constitutional History of India 4205: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4080:Sharia and ambiguity in South Asian Islam 3904: 3830: 3626:Hindu Law: Beyond Tradition and Modernity 3369: 3007: 3005: 3003: 2636:Hindu Law: Beyond Tradition and Modernity 2403: 2401: 2085: 1759:, who held Manusmriti as responsible for 1241: 4826:Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 4799: 4665:. Theosophical Publishing Society. 1904. 4526:Nietzsche, Friedrich (27 January 1977). 4052: 4013:Journal of the American Oriental Society 3867: 3494:Essays in Classical and Modern Hindu Law 3323: 3321: 2618:Journal of the American Oriental Society 2558:Manu (Lawgiver); BÃ¼hler, Georg (1886). 2150:G. Srikantan (2014), Thomas Duve (ed.), 2141: 1953: 1934: 1917:Manusmriti with Kullukabhatta Commentary 4731: 4128: 2358:. Oxford University Press. p. 19. 1989:, Calcutta: Sewell & Debrett, 1796. 1848:. Support of the Buddhist faith by the 1817:The Law of Manu was also criticised by 1462:is the oldest known commentator on the 1105:(local norms of virtuous individuals), 14: 4859: 4818: 4583:Oxford University Press (1960) p. 200. 4283: 4241: 4096: 4010: 3787: 3370:A. Narain (1991). Robert Brown (ed.). 3000: 2398: 914:(Sanskrit: मानव धर्मशास्त्र) in their 4691: 4581:Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, 4177: 4174:Religion, Law, and the State in India 4077: 3947: 3474:Bharuci's commentary on the Manusmrti 3397:Robert E. Van Voorst (January 2016). 3318: 2611: 1939:. New York: Oxford University Press. 1782:The Manu Smriti was one of the first 1314: 1044: 1018:The dharma of the four social classes 4761: 4727:. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 3504:, pp. 10–17, 36–37 with footnote 75a 1604:Prior to the British colonial rule, 1101:(satisfaction of one's conscience), 4740: 4495:, Cambridge University Press, p. 58 3683:BHATTACHARYYA, PARNASABARI (1993). 1983:, Śāśvata Sāhitya Prakāśana, 1997. 1958:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1746: 1684:Comparison with other dharmasastras 1593: 1273:(non-violence) are paramount while 1261:In other discovered manuscripts of 956:(statecraft and legal process) and 24: 4747:. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. 4506:From Shakespeare to Existentialism 4082:. University of California Press. 3770:, University of California Press, 3562:Visvanath Narayan Mandlik (1886), 3283:, University of California Press, 3187:, University of California Press, 3038:, University of California Press, 2780:, University of California Press, 2177:, University of California Press, 25: 4888: 4845: 4802:Law and Hinduism: An Introduction 4715:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). 4627:. New York: Norton. p. 285. 4163:. (New Delhi, 1972), pp. 190–191. 4107:Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im (2010), 3880:Hinduism and Law: An Introduction 2765:, pp. 10, 17–19, 230–236, 290–292 2154:, Max Planck Institute: Germany, 1499:Govindarāja's commentary, titled 1097:, states Levinson, which include 4785:. 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In protest, Ambedkar 1726:Jois suggests that the 1698:Along with Manusmriti ( 1289:alone become outcasts. 926:Philologists Jones and 755:Timeline of Hindu texts 588:Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam 4529:The Portable Nietzsche 4443:Daniel Conway (1997), 4180:Indologica Taurinensia 3764:Robert Lingat (1973), 3624:Werner Menski (2009), 3582:David Buxbaum (1998), 3348:Arun Kumbhare (2009), 3315:, pp. 154–166, 613–658 3277:Robert Lingat (1973), 3181:Robert Lingat (1973), 3067:, pp. 190–207, 746–809 3032:Robert Lingat (1973), 2774:Robert Lingat (1973), 2737:, pp. 237–350, 914–982 2171:Robert Lingat (1973), 2138:, pp. 353–354, 356–382 1724: 1681: 1634: 1441: 1410: 1242:On virtues and outcast 1226: 1091: 1075: 563:Eighteen Greater Texts 4724:Catholic Encyclopedia 4692:Flood, Gavin (1996). 4675:Friedrich Nietzsche, 4467:Julian Young (2010), 4430:Friedrich Nietzsche, 4334:M. Rama Jois (2004), 4313:M. Rama Jois (2004), 4292:M. Rama Jois (2004), 4268:M. 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Derrett 1472:Manu-sastra-vivarana 1419:Robert E. Van Voorst 912:Manava Dharmashastra 4762:Keay, John (2000). 4604:on 10 February 2009 3564:Manavadharmaśastram 2010:Classical Hindu law 1921:Motilal Banarsidass 1803:Friedrich Nietzsche 1700:Manava Dharmasastra 812:Mānava-Dharmaśāstra 578:Iraiyanar Akapporul 538:Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai 284:Related Hindu texts 4872:Ancient Indian law 4783:A History of India 4677:The Will to Power, 4648:The Light of Truth 4172:J. D. M. Derrett, 4078:Ewing, K. (1988). 3543:Manu's Code of Law 3496:, Brill Academic, 3305:Manu's Code of Law 3227:Manu's Code of Law 3206:Manu's Code of Law 3162:Manu's Code of Law 3141:Manu's Code of Law 3120:Manu's Code of Law 3099:Manu's Code of Law 3078:Manu's Code of Law 3057:Manu's Code of Law 2987:Manu's Code of Law 2966:Manu's Code of Law 2945:Manu's Code of Law 2924:Manu's Code of Law 2898:J Duncan M Derrett 2868:, pp. 208–214, 337 2841:J Duncan M Derrett 2820:Manu's Code of Law 2754:Manu's Code of Law 2726:Manu's Code of Law 2703:Manu's Code of Law 2677:Manu's Code of Law 2654:Manu's Code of Law 2524:Manu's Code of Law 2494:Manu's Code of Law 2465:Manu's Code of Law 2384:Manu's Code of Law 2355:Manu's Code of Law 2331:Manu's Code of Law 2197:Manu's Code of Law 2128:Manu's Code of Law 2099:Manu's Code of Law 1728:Yajnavalkya Smriti 1708:Yajnavalkya Smriti 1516:Manvarthamuktavali 1315:On rights of women 1045:Sources of the law 896:East India Company 859:(Svayambhuva) and 27:Ancient Hindu text 4596:A Guide to Sanchi 4566:978-81-901518-9-4 4539:978-1-4406-7419-8 3109:, pp. 98, 146–147 2908:, pp. 30, 439–440 2475:978-0-19-517146-4 2050:Yājñavalkya Smṛti 1863:, the founder of 1792:Sir William Jones 1642:Fatawa-i Alamgiri 1631:, August 15, 1772 1611:Fatawa-e-Alamgiri 1588:Wareru Dhammathat 1488:'s commentary on 1279:Ishvarapranidhana 884:Sir William Jones 793: 792: 583:Abhirami Anthadhi 521:Sangam literature 374:Vaishnava puranas 16:(Redirected from 4884: 4841: 4829: 4815: 4796: 4777: 4764:India: A History 4758: 4737: 4728: 4720: 4711: 4699: 4680: 4673: 4667: 4666: 4657: 4651: 4645: 4639: 4638: 4620: 4614: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4600:. 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Ambedkar 1748: 1745: 1718: 1704:Dharma-sastras 1685: 1682: 1672: 1625: 1598:Main article: 1595: 1592: 1584:Dharma-sastras 1579: 1576: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1445: 1442: 1436:Mahatma Gandhi 1432: 1401: 1368: 1365: 1359: 1356: 1316: 1313: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1243: 1240: 1230: 1227: 1220: 1203: 1198: 1197: 1194: 1181: 1178: 1173: 1172: 1168: 1167: 1166: 1163: 1162: 1161: 1150: 1143: 1118: 1115: 1085: 1072:Manusmriti 2.6 1069: 1046: 1043: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1001: 998: 972:consisting of 923: 920: 903: 900: 791: 790: 788: 787: 780: 773: 765: 762: 761: 758: 757: 751: 748: 747: 744: 743: 740: 739: 734: 729: 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 702:Ramcharitmanas 699: 694: 689: 684: 679: 674: 669: 664: 662:Pramana Sutras 659: 654: 649: 644: 642:Mimamsa Sutras 639: 637:Samkhya Sutras 634: 629: 624: 619: 617:Dharma Shastra 613: 604: 603: 600: 599: 596: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 545: 540: 535: 530: 524: 519: 518: 515: 514: 511: 510: 509: 508: 498: 497: 496: 485: 480: 479: 476: 475: 472: 471: 469:Devi Bhagavata 462:Shakta puranas 458: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 428:Shaiva puranas 424: 423: 418: 413: 408: 403: 398: 393: 388: 383: 370: 369: 364: 359: 357:Brahmavaivarta 354: 349: 342:Brahma puranas 340: 335: 334: 331: 330: 327: 326: 321: 316: 311: 306: 301: 295: 290: 289: 286: 285: 281: 280: 277: 276: 271: 266: 260: 257: 256: 253: 252: 249: 248: 243: 238: 225: 224: 219: 217:Shvetashvatara 214: 209: 204: 199: 197:Brihadaranyaka 186: 185: 180: 167: 166: 161: 152: 147: 146: 143: 142: 139: 138: 133: 128: 123: 110: 109: 104: 99: 94: 88: 83: 82: 79: 78: 77: 76: 71: 65: 57: 56: 48: 47: 41: 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4889: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4864: 4862: 4853: 4850: 4849: 4839: 4833: 4828: 4827: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4807: 4803: 4798: 4794: 4788: 4784: 4779: 4775: 4769: 4765: 4760: 4756: 4750: 4746: 4745: 4739: 4735: 4730: 4726: 4725: 4719: 4713: 4709: 4703: 4698: 4697: 4690: 4689: 4678: 4672: 4664: 4663: 4656: 4649: 4644: 4636: 4634:9780393918472 4630: 4626: 4619: 4603: 4599: 4597: 4589: 4582: 4576: 4568: 4562: 4558: 4557: 4549: 4541: 4535: 4531: 4530: 4522: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4501: 4494: 4488: 4486: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4464: 4462: 4454: 4450: 4447:, Routledge, 4446: 4440: 4433: 4427: 4418: 4409: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4388: 4386: 4379:, pp. 266–269 4378: 4374: 4370: 4364: 4362: 4352: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4331: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4310: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4289: 4287: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4265: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4201: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4175: 4169: 4162: 4156: 4149:. p. 56. 4148: 4142: 4134: 4133: 4125: 4119:, pp. 149–150 4118: 4114: 4110: 4104: 4102: 4100: 4091: 4085: 4081: 4074: 4066: 4060: 4057:. Routledge. 4056: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4043: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4007: 4000: 3994: 3992: 3990: 3988: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3944: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3827: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3784: 3778:, pp. 269–272 3777: 3773: 3769: 3768: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3739: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3718: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3679: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3658: 3656: 3648: 3642: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3621: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3600: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3579: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3559: 3553:, pp. 367–369 3552: 3548: 3544: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3524: 3516: 3510: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3489: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3457: 3455: 3447: 3441: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3420: 3412: 3406: 3402: 3401: 3393: 3385: 3379: 3375: 3374: 3366: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3345: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3324: 3322: 3314: 3310: 3306: 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