Landscape ecology - Knowledge

787:, since change effects are likely to be seen at ecotones first because of the unstable nature of a fringe habitat. Research in northern regions has examined landscape ecological processes, such as the accumulation of snow, melting, freeze-thaw action, percolation, soil moisture variation, and temperature regimes through long-term measurements in Norway. The study analyzes gradients across space and time between ecosystems of the central high mountains to determine relationships between distribution patterns of animals in their environment. Looking at where animals live, and how vegetation shifts over time, may provide insight into changes in snow and ice over long periods of time across the landscape as a whole. 348:(e.g. Leser; Naveh; Zonneveld): Landscape ecology is defined as an interdisciplinary super-science that explores the relationship between human societies and their specific environment, making use of not only various natural sciences, but also social sciences and humanities. This conception is grounded in the assumption that social systems are linked to their specific ambient ecological system in such a way that both systems together form a co-evolutionary, self-organising unity called 'landscape'. Societies' cultural, social and economic dimensions are regarded as an integral part of the global ecological hierarchy, and landscapes are claimed to be the manifest systems of the ' 922: 342:(e.g. Urban et al.): On the basis of ecological hierarchy theory, it is presupposed that nature is working at multiple scales and has different levels of organisation which are part of a rate-structured, nested hierarchy. Specifically, it is claimed that, above the ecosystem level, a landscape level exists which is generated and identifiable by high interaction intensity between ecosystems, a specific interaction frequency and, typically, a corresponding spatial scale. Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that focuses on the influence exerted by spatial and temporal patterns on the organisation of, and interaction among, functionally integrated multispecies ecosystems. 730:, which in turn are composed of local ecosystems, which are in turn composed of individual trees and gaps. Recent theoretical developments in landscape ecology have emphasized the relationship between pattern and process, as well as the effect that changes in spatial scale has on the potential to extrapolate information across scales. Several studies suggest that the landscape has critical thresholds at which ecological processes will show dramatic changes, such as the complete transformation of a landscape by an 894: 2920: 28: 20: 4857: 2933: 336:): Explicitly rejecting views expounded by Troll, Zonneveld, Naveh, Forman & Godron, etc., landscape and landscape ecology are defined independently of human perceptions, interests, and modifications of nature. 'Landscape' is defined – regardless of scale – as the 'template' on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes. Not humans, but rather the respective species being studied is the point of reference for what constitutes a landscape. 39: 2945: 936: 908: 2957: 878:

coined in 2003, the field of landscape genetics had expanded to over 655 studies by 2010, and continues to grow today. As genetic data has become more readily accessible, it is increasingly being used by ecologists to answer novel evolutionary and ecological questions, many with regard to how landscapes effect evolutionary processes, especially in human-modified landscapes, which are experiencing

476:. Scale represents the real world as translated onto a map, relating distance on a map image and the corresponding distance on earth. Scale is also the spatial or temporal measure of an object or a process, or amount of spatial resolution. Components of scale include composition, structure, and function, which are all important ecological concepts. Applied to landscape ecology, 448:, Isaak S. Zonneveld, Zev Naveh, Richard T. T. Forman/Michel Godron and others that landscapes are arenas in which humans interact with their environments on a kilometre-wide scale; instead, he defines 'landscape'—regardless of scale—as "the template on which spatial patterns influence ecological processes". Some define 'landscape' as an area containing two or more 365:. It provides the ecological knowledge necessary to achieve these goals. It investigates how to sustain and develop those populations and ecosystems which (i) are the material 'vehicles' of lifeworldly, aesthetic and symbolic landscapes and, at the same time, (ii) meet societies' functional requirements, including provisioning, regulating, and supporting 590:, the edge is the location where the two types adjoin. In a continuous landscape, such as a forest giving way to open woodland, the exact edge location is fuzzy and is sometimes determined by a local gradient exceeding a threshold, such as the point where the tree cover falls below thirty-five percent. 440:, a landscape is a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is repeated in similar form throughout, whereby they list woods, meadows, marshes and villages as examples of a landscape's ecosystems, and state that a landscape is an area at least a few kilometres wide. 857:

In forestry, from structuring stands for fuelwood and timber to ordering stands across landscapes to enhance aesthetics, consumer needs have affected conservation and use of forested landscapes. Landscape forestry provides methods, concepts, and analytic procedures for landscape forestry. Landscape

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By 1980, landscape ecology was a discrete, established discipline. It was marked by the organization of the International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE) in 1982. Landmark book publications defined the scope and goals of the discipline, including Naveh and Lieberman and Forman and Godron.

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to form the field of landscape genetics, which addresses how landscape features influence the population structure and gene flow of plant and animal populations across space and time and on how the quality of intervening landscape, known as "matrix", influences spatial variation. After the term was

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Developments in landscape ecology illustrate the important relationships between spatial patterns and ecological processes. These developments incorporate quantitative methods that link spatial patterns and ecological processes at broad spatial and temporal scales. This linkage of time, space, and

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is a spatial term representing the smallest ecologically distinct unit in mapping and classification of landscapes. Relatively homogeneous, they are spatially explicit landscape units used to stratify landscapes into ecologically distinct features. They are useful for the measurement and mapping of

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has included a strongly geographical approach which has led to the acceptance of the idea of multifunctional properties of landscapes. There are still calls for a more unified theory of landscape ecology due to differences in professional opinion among ecologists and its interdisciplinary approach

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Landscape ecology theory stresses the role of human impacts on landscape structures and functions. It also proposes ways for restoring degraded landscapes. Landscape ecology explicitly includes humans as entities that cause functional changes on the landscape. Landscape ecology theory includes the

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is another type of landscape boundary, but it is a gradual and continuous change in environmental conditions of an ecosystem or community. Ecoclines help explain the distribution and diversity of organisms within a landscape because certain organisms survive better under certain conditions, which

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Heterogeneity is the measure of how parts of a landscape differ from one another. Landscape ecology looks at how this spatial structure affects organism abundance at the landscape level, as well as the behavior and functioning of the landscape as a whole. This includes studying the influence of

95:. Landscapes are spatially heterogeneous geographic areas characterized by diverse interacting patches or ecosystems, ranging from relatively natural terrestrial and aquatic systems such as forests, grasslands, and lakes to human-dominated environments including agricultural and urban settings. 870:. Lastly, landscape ecology has been very influential for progressing sustainability science and sustainable development planning. For example, a recent study assessed sustainable urbanization across Europe using evaluation indices, country-landscapes, and landscape ecology tools and methods. 794:

measures because plant and animal composition differs between samples taken from sites within different landscape categories. Taxa, or different species, can "leak" from one habitat into another, which has implications for landscape ecology. As human land use practices expand and continue to

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An important consequence of repeated, random clearing (whether by natural disturbance or human activity) is that contiguous cover can break down into isolated patches. This happens when the area cleared exceeds a critical level, which means that landscapes exhibit two phases: connected and

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Ellis, Erle C.; Gauthier, Nicolas; Klein Goldewijk, Kees; Bliege Bird, Rebecca; Boivin, Nicole; Díaz, Sandra; Fuller, Dorian Q.; Gill, Jacquelyn L.; Kaplan, Jed O.; Kingston, Naomi; Locke, Harvey; McMichael, Crystal N. H.; Ranco, Darren; Rick, Torben C.; Shaw, M. Rebecca (2021-04-27).

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of perception, modification, etc. Landscape ecology describes and explains the landscapes' characteristic patterns of ecosystems and investigates the flux of energy, mineral nutrients, and species among their component ecosystems, providing important knowledge for addressing land-use

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is central to landscape ecology theory in many aspects. Landscape ecology consists of four main principles: the development and dynamics of spatial heterogeneity, interactions and exchanges across heterogeneous landscapes, influences of spatial heterogeneity on biotic and

838:, the interdisciplinary of land use and land cover change and their effects on surrounding ecology. Another recent development has been the more explicit consideration of spatial concepts and principles applied to the study of lakes, streams, and wetlands in the field of 378:

Some research programmes of landscape ecology theory, namely those standing in the European tradition, may be slightly outside of the "classical and preferred domain of scientific disciplines" because of the large, heterogeneous areas of study. However, general

321:'Landscape' is defined as a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems (woods, meadows, marshes, villages, etc.) that is repeated in similar form throughout. It is explicitly stated that landscapes are areas at a kilometres wide 511:, or the uneven distribution of objects across the landscape. Heterogeneity is a key element of landscape ecology that separates this discipline from other branches of ecology. Landscape heterogeneity is able to quantify with agent-based methods as well. 314:

School): Landscapes are defined in terms of uniformity in land use. Landscape ecology explores the landscape's natural potential in terms of functional utility for human societies. To analyse this potential, it is necessary to draw on several natural

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increase the proportion of edges in landscapes, the effects of this leakage across edges on assemblage integrity may become more significant in conservation. This is because taxa may be conserved across landscape levels, if not at local levels.

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Today, theory and application of landscape ecology continues to develop through a need for innovative applications in a changing landscape and environment. Landscape ecology relies on advanced technologies such as remote sensing, GIS, and

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problems. The increased attention in recent years on spatial dynamics has highlighted the need for new quantitative methods that can analyze patterns, determine the importance of spatially explicit processes, and develop reliable models.

854:. In agriculture, landscape ecology has introduced new options for the management of environmental threats brought about by the intensification of agricultural practices. Agriculture has always been a strong human impact on ecosystems. 696:

is the breaking up of a habitat, ecosystem, or land-use type into smaller parcels. Disturbance is generally considered a natural process. Fragmentation causes land transformation, an important process in landscapes as development occurs.

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in 1939. He developed this terminology and many early concepts of landscape ecology as part of his early work, which consisted of applying aerial photograph interpretation to studies of interactions between environment and vegetation.

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sciences. Key research topics in landscape ecology include ecological flows in landscape mosaics, land use and land cover change, scaling, relating landscape pattern analysis with ecological processes, and landscape conservation and

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Ochoa-Hueso R, Delgado-Baquerizo M, King PT, Benham M, Arca V, Power SA (February 2019). "Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition".

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An important related theory is hierarchy theory, which refers to how systems of discrete functional elements operate when linked at two or more scales. For example, a forested landscape might be hierarchically composed of

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means the portion of an ecosystem near its perimeter, where influences of the adjacent patches can cause an environmental difference between the interior of the patch and its edge. This edge effect includes a distinctive

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pattern, or the internal order of a landscape, on process, or the continuous operation of functions of organisms. Landscape ecology also includes geomorphology as applied to the design and architecture of landscapes.

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Landscape ecology not only created new terms, but also incorporated existing ecological terms in new ways. Many of the terms used in landscape ecology are as interconnected and interrelated as the discipline itself.

532:. Patches have a definite shape and spatial configuration, and can be described compositionally by internal variables such as number of trees, number of tree species, height of trees, or other similar measurements. 427:

defines landscapes as sections within the uninterrupted earth-wide interconnection of geofactors which are defined as such on the basis of their uniformity in terms of a specific land use, and are thus defined in an

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is the measure of how connected or spatially continuous a corridor, network, or matrix is. For example, a forested landscape (matrix) with fewer gaps in forest cover (open patches) will have higher connectivity.

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Forman wrote that although study of "the ecology of spatial configuration at the human scale" was barely a decade old, there was strong potential for theory development and application of the conceptual framework.

528:, a term fundamental to landscape ecology, is defined as a relatively homogeneous area that differs from its surroundings. Patches are the basic unit of the landscape that change and fluctuate, a process called 714:, and promoting total system stability. This principle is a major contribution to general ecological theories which highlight the importance of relationships among the various components of the landscape. 388:

processes, and the management of spatial heterogeneity. The main difference from traditional ecological studies, which frequently assume that systems are spatially homogenous, is the consideration of

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However, not always under the designation 'landscape ecology', but as part of landscape stewardship, landscape architecture and, first and foremost, environmental or urban and landscape planning.

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from a forest. The ecotonal community retains characteristics of each bordering community and often contains species not found in the adjacent communities. Classic examples of ecotones include

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scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy. Landscape ecology can be described as the science of "landscape diversity" as the synergetic result of

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is another way to determine the vegetation structure across a landscape or to help delineate critical wetland habitat for conservation or mitigation purposes (Choesin and Boerner 2002).

358:(frequently pursued in practice but not defined, but see, e.g., Hard; Trepl): Landscape ecology is defined as ecology that is guided by an external aim, namely, to maintain and develop 255:. There has been associated development of powerful quantitative methods to examine the interactions of patterns and processes. An example would be determining the amount of 243:, and communities), landscape ecology built upon heterogeneity in space and time. It frequently included human-caused landscape changes in theory and application of concepts. 231:. While general ecology theory and its sub-disciplines focused on the study of more homogenous, discrete community units organized in a hierarchical structure (typically as 783:

is another major component in structuring current research in landscape ecology. Ecotones, as a basic unit in landscape studies, may have significance for management under

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Other landscape-scale studies maintain that human impact is likely the main determinant of landscape pattern over much of the globe. Landscapes may become substitutes for

818:, and other disciplines to gain a clear understanding of the course of a landscape. In recent years, much of the Earth's land cover has changed rapidly, whether from 4552: 633: 52:

is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of

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Integrity of landscape components helps maintain resistance to external threats, including development and land transformation by human activity. Analysis of

649: 369:. Thus landscape ecology is concerned mainly with the populations and ecosystems which have resulted from traditional, regionally specific forms of land use. 199:

model (which can be applied e.g. to forest islands in the agricultural landscape). This generalization spurred the growth of landscape ecology by providing

111:. Landscape ecology also studies the role of human impacts on landscape diversity in the development and spreading of new human pathogens that could trigger 846:

is a marine and coastal application of landscape ecology. In addition, landscape ecology has important links to application-oriented disciplines such as

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Computer sumulation "Substrate" launch applet creates fractal iterations that resemble urban streetscape. Algorithm written 2004 by Jared Tarbell

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data for a region. Remote sensing work has been used to extend landscape ecology to the field of predictive vegetation mapping, for instance by

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landscape stability principle, which emphasizes the importance of landscape structural heterogeneity in developing resistance to disturbances,

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Nowadays, at least six different conceptions of landscape ecology can be identified: one group tending toward the more disciplinary concept of

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change along the ecocline. They contain heterogeneous communities which are considered more environmentally stable than those of ecotones. An

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Landscape patches have a boundary between them which can be defined or fuzzy. The zone composed of the edges of adjacent ecosystems is the

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Kirchhoff T, Trepl L, Vicenzotti V (February 2013). "What is landscape ecology? An analysis and evaluation of six different conceptions".

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Wiens JA, Milne BT (December 1989). "Scaling of 'landscapes' in landscape ecology, or, landscape ecology from a beetle's perspective".

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Manel S, Schwartz MK, Luikart G, Taberlet P (April 2003). "Landscape genetics: combining landscape ecology and population genetics".

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refers to the number of patch types (see below) represented on a landscape and their relative abundance. For example, the amount of

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Troll C (1939). "Luftbildplan und ökologische Bodenforschung" [Aerial photography and ecological studies of the earth].

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Certainly, 'landscape' is a central concept in landscape ecology. It is, however, defined in quite different ways. For example:

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Haase G (1990). "Approaches to, and methods of landscape diagnosis as a basis of landscape planning and landscape management".

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biology as a distinct biological science discipline, and is frequently incorporated in study design for wetland delineation in

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techniques are frequently used to examine landscape level vegetation patterns. Studies use statistical techniques, such as

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Landscape ecology has been incorporated into a variety of ecological subdisciplines. For example, it is closely linked to

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Shaker RR (September 2015). "The well-being of nations: an empirical assessment of sustainable urbanization for Europe".

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Troll C (2007). "The geographic landscape and its investigation.". In Wiens JA, Moss MR, Turner MG, Mladenoff DJ (eds.).

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is determined by the composition, the configuration, and the proportion of different patches across the landscape, while

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or abundance. For example, when a landscape is a mosaic of perceptibly different types, such as a forest adjacent to a

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The most salient characteristics of landscape ecology are its emphasis on the relationship among pattern, process and

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Löffler J, Finch OD (November 2005). "Spatio-temporal gradients between high mountain ecosystems of central Norway".

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have important functions as strips of a particular type of landscape differing from adjacent land on both sides. A

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Lyon J, Sagers CL (September 1998). "Structure of herbaceous plant assemblages in a forested riparian landscape".

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Land ecology: an introduction to landscape ecology as a base for land evaluation, land management and conservation

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landscape structure, function, and change over time, and to examine the effects of disturbance and fragmentation.

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Land cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin. Fields are colored yellow and brown and urban surfaces are colored red.

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from historical planning on human-dominated landscapes. Concepts from general ecology theory were integrated in

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Wilson JB, King WM (August 1995). "Human-mediated vegetation switches as processes in landscape ecology".

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is an event that significantly alters the pattern of variation in the structure or function of a system.

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Dangerfield JM, Pik AJ, Britton D, Holmes A, Gillings M, Oliver IA, Briscoe D, Beattie AJ (June 2003).

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Wiens JA (1999). "The science and practice of landscape ecology.". In Klopatek JM, Gardner RH (eds.).

628:, forest to marshlands transitions, forest to grassland transitions, or land-water interfaces such as 4702: 4457: 4069: 3961: 3819: 3804: 3799: 3478: 3190: 2973: 5289: 4447: 4442: 4412: 4216: 3679: 3561: 960: 784: 3720: 3351: 2056:

Attrill MJ, Rundle SD (December 2002). "Ecotone or ecocline: ecological boundaries in estuaries".

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Forman RT, Godron M (November 1981). "Patches and structural components for a landscape ecology".

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affects population viability. Recent growth of landscape ecology owes much to the development of

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Science of relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems

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conceives of landscape not as a mental construct but as an objectively given 'organic entity', a

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describes the pattern of patches, corridors, and matrix that form a landscape in its entirety.

539: 455: 352:' (Naveh) which encompasses both the physical ('geospheric') and mental ('noospheric') spheres. 5294: 4735: 4341: 4286: 4149: 4134: 3917: 3874: 3864: 3859: 3616: 3596: 3452: 3442: 3384: 3379: 3215: 3067: 2606:

Storfer A, Murphy MA, Evans JS, Goldberg CS, Robinson S, Spear SF, et al. (March 2007).

1025: 927: 758: 684: 680: 465: 349: 204: 172: 616:, or the transitional zone between two communities. Ecotones can arise naturally, such as a 154:

is the study of how geological formations are responsible for the structure of a landscape.

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Analysis of social-ecological systems using the natural and social sciences and humanities

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Sayer J (2009). "Reconciling conservation and development: are landscapes the answer?".

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refers to how each element in the landscape interacts based on its life cycle events.

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Walker S, Wilson JB, Steel JB, Rapson GL, Smith B, King WM, Cottam YH (August 2003).

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study of relations between human societies and their environment—inclined toward the

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Wiens JA (2005). "Toward a unified landscape ecology". In Wiens JA, Moss MR (eds.).

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ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences

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Naveh N (2000). "What is holistic landscape ecology? A conceptual introduction".

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is the term for the contents and internal order of a heterogeneous area of land.

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due to small changes in temperature characteristics which favor the invasive's

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is an application of landscape ecology designed to predict future changes in

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Scale and heterogeneity (incorporating composition, structure, and function)

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is the "background ecological system" of a landscape with a high degree of

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Manel S, Holderegger R (October 2013). "Ten years of landscape genetics".

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Storfer A, Murphy MA, Spear SF, Holderegger R, Waits LP (September 2010).

19: 5190: 4911: 4820: 4781: 4614: 3789: 3336: 3298: 3273: 3263: 3228: 3175: 3155: 2835: 2821: 2238:"People have shaped most of terrestrial nature for at least 12,000 years" 1427:"Free and open source geographic information tools for landscape ecology" 1363:

Turner MG (1989). "Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process".

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Advancing Land Change Modeling: Opportunities and Research Requirements

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Leser H, Nagel P (2001). "Landscape diversity — a holistic approach".

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Troll C (1950). "Die geographische Landschaft und ihre Erforschung".

1072:"Landscape ecology, cross-disciplinarity, and sustainability science" 863: 587: 449: 410: 359: 340:

Topological ecology at the landscape level of biological organisation

300: 291:; in conceptions 2, 3, and 4) and another group—characterized by the 232: 53: 2538:

International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology

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All the following quotations and descriptions come from this source.

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environmental change can assist managers in applying plans to solve

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A landscape with structure and pattern implies that it has spatial

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Interdisciplinary analysis of subjectively defined landscape units

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ecology has been cited as a contributor to the development of

211:(GIS) and the availability of large-extent habitat data (e.g. 191:

were generalized from physical islands to abstract patches of

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Ecology guided by cultural meanings of lifeworldly landscapes

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Magnuson JJ (February 1991). "Fish and fisheries ecology".

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10.1657/1523-0430(2005)037[0499:sgbhme]2.0.co;2

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based on landform over a landscape, derived from GIS maps,

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Wu J (2008). "Landscape ecology.". In Jorgensen SE (ed.).

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Balkenhol N, Cushman S, Storfer A, Waits L (2015-11-09).

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Die Geographie. Eine wissenschaftstheoretische Einführung

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Landschaftsökologie. Ansatz, Modelle, Methodik, Anwendung

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Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 279:Definitions/conceptions of landscape ecology 124: 2010: 1866: 1617: 1589:The theoretical basics of landscape science 1492: 1418: 1383: 966:Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography 4895: 4881: 4560: 4546: 3957:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity 3743: 3729: 2996: 2982: 2798: 2784: 2294: 2118: 2084: 1956: 1708: 1679: 1670: 1595: 1523: 1474: 1190: 1182:Turner MG, Gardner RH, O'Neill RV (2001). 1168: 1141: 444:opposes the traditional view expounded by 319:Topological ecology at the landscape scale 2664: 2623: 2447:. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 2347: 2271: 2253: 2176: 2037: 1993: 1888:Quantitative Methods in Landscape Ecology 1833: 1794:Landscape ecology. Theory and application 1573: 1486:Landscape ecology: theory and application 1350:Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde 1324: 1314: 1265: 1107: 1105: 492:can be aspects of landscape composition. 3855:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations 3494:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense 2457: 1409: 1399:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 1365:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1184:Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice 1116:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 37: 26: 18: 4902: 3887:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model 2649:"Landscape genetics: where are we now?" 2427: 1959:GIS and Multicriteria Decision Analysis 1111: 798: 470:A main concept in landscape ecology is 67:As a highly interdisciplinary field in 5277: 3695:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense 2805: 2535: 2202:Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 1903:Foundation papers in landscape ecology 1528:. Florida, USA: CRC Press, Boca Raton. 1468:Landscape Ecology: A Top-Down Approach 1425:Steiniger S, Hay GJ (September 2009). 1394: 1362: 1223: 1102: 746: 162: 4876: 4541: 3724: 2977: 2779: 2771:Napolisoundscape Urban Space Research 2500: 2494: 2442: 2097:. Amsterdam: Springer. Archived from 1941: 1908: 1900: 1890:. New York, NY, USA: Springer-Verlag. 1806: 1776: 1719: 1604: 1488:. New York, NY, USA: Springer-Verlag. 1466:Sanderson J, Harris LD, eds. (2000). 1347: 1186:. New York, NY, USA: Springer-Verlag. 3710:Predator avoidance in schooling fish 2956: 2147: 2058:Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 1886:Turner MG, Gardner RH, eds. (1991). 1862:. Berlin: deGruyter. pp. 92–95. 1857: 1582: 562: 45:cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin 4160:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis 1995:10.5194/isprs-annals-iii-8-145-2016 1377:10.1146/annurev.es.20.110189.001131 1297:Bausch DG, Schwarz L (2014-07-31). 773:(DCA), for classifying vegetation. 514: 432:and relativistic way. According to 13: 3913:Ecological effects of biodiversity 2363:National Research Council (2014). 2039:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2003.tb02185.x 1126: 1069: 395: 14: 5336: 3249:Generalist and specialist species 2754: 2725:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2573:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 1913:. Vol. 3. pp. 163–181. 1724:. NY: Springer. pp. 371–383. 830:Relationship to other disciplines 810:. Land change models are used in 771:detrended correspondence analysis 767:canonical correspondence analysis 594:Ecotones, ecoclines, and ecotopes 374:Relationship to ecological theory 177:The Theory of Island Biogeography 4856: 4855: 3972:Occupancy–abundance relationship 2955: 2943: 2932: 2931: 2918: 2666:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04691.x 2515:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2009.00575.x 2400:"GLCF: Global Land Cover Change" 2349:10.1046/j.1442-9993.2003.01240.x 1591:] (in German). Gotha: Haack. 1303:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 1051:Tobler's second law of geography 934: 920: 906: 892: 4620:Integrated landscape management 3992:Relative abundance distribution 3705:Plant defense against herbivory 3572:Competitive exclusion principle 3284:Mesopredator release hypothesis 2716: 2689: 2640: 2599: 2564: 2529: 2451: 2436: 2421: 2391: 2356: 2323: 2288: 2228: 2193: 2112: 2094:Complexity in Landscape Ecology 1965: 1950: 1935: 1894: 1851: 1842: 1827: 1800: 1785: 1770: 1728: 1655: 1403: 1356: 1341: 1114:Key Topics in Landscape Ecology 1046:Tobler's first law of geography 991:Integrated landscape management 868:integrated landscape management 223:Landscape ecology developed in 71:, landscape ecology integrates 3577:Consumer–resource interactions 1792:Naveh Z, Lieberman AS (1984). 1290: 1241: 1232: 1146:. Springer. pp. 129–143. 1135: 1120: 1063: 741: 303:(in conceptions 1, 5, and 6): 209:geographic information systems 144: 118: 34:surrounding Madison, Wisconsin 1: 4831:Drainage system (agriculture) 4423:Biological data visualization 4250:Environmental niche modelling 3977:Population viability analysis 2585:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00008-9 2550:10.1080/13504509.2015.1055524 2169:10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009 2157:Soil Biology and Biochemistry 2026:Journal of Vegetation Science 1821:10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00077-3 1484:Naveh Z, Lieberman A (1984). 1352:(in German). Berlin: 241–298. 1057: 981:European Landscape Convention 675:Disturbance and fragmentation 4567: 3908:Density-dependent inhibition 1919:10.1007/978-3-662-38240-0_20 1809:Landscape and Urban Planning 1662:Forman RT, Godron M (1986). 1558:10.1080/01426397.2011.640751 1504:Forman RT, Godron M (1986). 1446:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2009.07.004 1397:Oxford Dictionary of Ecology 1316:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003056 1112:Wu J, Hobbs R, eds. (2007). 421:harmonic individuum of space 404: 7: 4608:Sustainable land management 4377:Liebig's law of the minimum 4212:Resource selection function 3103:Metabolic theory of ecology 1152:10.1007/978-3-662-06071-1_9 885: 219:Development as a discipline 10: 5341: 5305:Environmental soil science 4277:Niche apportionment models 3997:Relative species abundance 3201:Primary nutritional groups 3098:List of feeding behaviours 2737:10.1016/j.tree.2013.05.012 1524:Ryszkowski L, ed. (2002). 1267:10.1007/s10980-020-00995-w 712:recovery from disturbances 678: 612:A type of boundary is the 597: 566: 518: 459: 408: 157: 5224: 5181: 5093: 5039: 5002: 4961: 4938: 4910: 4851: 4754: 4711: 4703:Locally unwanted land use 4575: 4526: 4458:Ecosystem based fisheries 4400: 4300: 4225: 4098: 4070:Interspecific competition 4035: 3962:Minimum viable population 3895: 3820:Maximum sustainable yield 3805:Intraspecific competition 3800:Effective population size 3763: 3680:Anti-predator adaptations 3665: 3544: 3471: 3428: 3350: 3317: 3214: 3191:Photosynthetic efficiency 3126: 3020: 2927: 2916: 2813: 2702:. John Wiley & Sons. 1412:Ecology of Forest Islands 1088:10.1007/s10980-006-7195-2 704: 203:a new tool to assess how 4448:Ecological stoichiometry 4413:Alternative stable state 2428:Pittman SJ, ed. (2017). 2398:University of Maryland. 1410:Banaszak J, ed. (2000). 961:Conservation communities 824:expansion of urban areas 785:climate change scenarios 87:perspectives across the 5196:Ecological anthropology 4836:Sustainable agriculture 4729:Real estate development 4292:Ontogenetic niche shift 4155:Ideal free distribution 4065:Ecological facilitation 3815:Malthusian growth model 3785:Consumer-resource model 3642:Paradox of the plankton 3607:Energy systems language 3327:Chemoorganoheterotrophy 3294:Optimal foraging theory 3269:Heterotrophic nutrition 2460:Ecological Applications 2255:10.1073/pnas.2023483118 2133:10.1023/A:1009705912710 1129:Encyclopedia of Ecology 1031:Sustainable landscaping 201:conservation biologists 133:– was coined by German 5300:Ecological restoration 5206:Ecological engineering 4691:Developed environments 4674:Environmental planning 4588:Development/Conversion 4438:Ecological forecasting 4382:Marginal value theorem 4180:Landscape epidemiology 4115:Cross-boundary subsidy 4050:Biological interaction 3400:Microbial intelligence 3088:Green world hypothesis 2625:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800917 2078:10.1006/ecss.2002.1036 1434:Ecological Informatics 1036:Landscape architecture 1016:Landscape connectivity 1001:Landscape epidemiology 866:. It has helped shape 634:vegetational sharpness 125: 46: 35: 24: 4736:Land development bank 4443:Ecological humanities 4342:Ecological energetics 4287:Niche differentiation 4150:Habitat fragmentation 3918:Ecological extinction 3865:Small population size 3617:Feed conversion ratio 3597:Ecological succession 3529:San Francisco Estuary 3443:Ecological efficiency 3385:Microbial cooperation 1957:Malczewski J (1999). 1834:Zonneveld IS (1995). 1070:Wu J (January 2006). 1026:Total human ecosystem 928:Earth sciences portal 759:Multivariate analysis 685:Habitat fragmentation 681:Disturbance (ecology) 466:Spatial heterogeneity 350:total human ecosystem 205:habitat fragmentation 41: 30: 22: 5310:Environmental design 5201:Ecological economics 5128:Evolutionary ecology 5095:Ecological phenomena 4925:Quantitative ecology 4841:Land change modeling 4669:Rangeland management 4649:Illegal construction 4468:Evolutionary ecology 4433:Ecological footprint 4428:Ecological economics 4352:Ecological threshold 4347:Ecological indicator 4217:Source–sink dynamics 4170:Land change modeling 4165:Insular biogeography 4017:Species distribution 3756:Modelling ecosystems 3415:Microbial metabolism 3254:Intraguild predation 3043:Biogeochemical cycle 3009:Modelling ecosystems 1907:First published as: 996:Land change modeling 804:Land change modeling 799:Land change modeling 452:in close proximity. 5247:Restoration ecology 5237:Glossary of ecology 5183:Interdisciplinarity 4930:Theoretical ecology 4904:Branches of ecology 4659:Land rehabilitation 4642:Habitat destruction 4518:Theoretical ecology 4493:Natural environment 4357:Ecosystem diversity 4327:Ecological collapse 4317:Bateman's principle 4272:Limiting similarity 4185:Landscape limnology 4007:Species homogeneity 3845:Population modeling 3840:Population dynamics 3657:Trophic state index 2818:Atmospheric science 2432:. Wiley & Sons. 2248:(17): e2023483118. 2070:2002ECSS...55..929A 1986:2016ISPAnIII8..145W 1781:. Stuttgart: Ulmer. 1238:Wu & Hobbs 2002 1131:. Oxford: Elsevier. 1006:Landscape limnology 875:population genetics 840:landscape limnology 836:land change science 747:Research directions 650:spatial mass effect 584:species composition 189:island biogeography 187:. The concepts of 163:Evolution of theory 126:Landschaftsökologie 32:Impervious surfaces 5232:History of ecology 5138:Functional ecology 5103:Behavioral ecology 4982:Population ecology 4777:Soil contamination 4724:Subdivision (land) 4684:Watertable control 4529:Outline of ecology 4478:Industrial ecology 4473:Functional ecology 4337:Ecological deficit 4282:Niche construction 4245:Ecosystem engineer 4022:Species–area curve 3943:Introduced species 3758:: Other components 3690:Deimatic behaviour 3592:Ecological network 3524:North Pacific Gyre 3509:hydrothermal vents 3448:Ecological pyramid 3395:Microbial food web 3206:Primary production 3151:Foundation species 2910:Quaternary science 2807:Physical geography 2445:Landscape Forestry 2309:10.1007/BF00129253 1980:. III-8: 145–151. 1694:10.1007/BF00131172 1546:Landscape Research 1224:Forman RT (1995). 1011:Landscape planning 986:Historical ecology 900:Environment portal 622:agricultural field 367:ecosystem services 287:(subdiscipline of 47: 36: 25: 5285:Landscape ecology 5272: 5271: 5211:Political ecology 5153:Molecular ecology 5148:Landscape ecology 5016:Microbial ecology 4992:Ecosystem ecology 4987:Community ecology 4870: 4869: 4664:Landscape ecology 4535: 4534: 4418:Balance of nature 4175:Landscape ecology 4060:Community ecology 4002:Species diversity 3938:Indicator species 3933:Gradient analysis 3810:Logistic function 3718: 3717: 3675:Animal coloration 3652:Trophic mutualism 3390:Microbial ecology 3181:Photoheterotrophs 3166:Myco-heterotrophy 3078:Ecosystem ecology 3063:Carrying capacity 3028:Abiotic component 2971: 2970: 2905:Landscape ecology 2849:Coastal geography 2653:Molecular Ecology 2443:Boyce SG (1995). 2384:978-0-309-28833-0 2297:Landscape Ecology 1928:978-3-662-37475-7 1838:. Amsterdam: SPB. 1682:Landscape Ecology 1664:Landscape ecology 1506:Landscape Ecology 1395:Allaby M (1998). 1254:Landscape Ecology 1161:978-3-642-08370-9 1076:Landscape Ecology 880:biodiversity loss 775:Gradient analysis 563:Boundary and edge 462:Scale (geography) 293:interdisciplinary 131:landscape ecology 50:Landscape ecology 5332: 5108:Chemical ecology 5080:Tropical ecology 4897: 4890: 4883: 4874: 4873: 4859: 4858: 4741:Land (economics) 4654:Land reclamation 4632:Land consumption 4562: 4555: 4548: 4539: 4538: 4235:Ecological niche 4207:selection theory 4027:Umbrella species 4012:Species richness 3948:Invasive species 3928:Flagship species 3835:Population cycle 3830:Overexploitation 3795:Ecological yield 3745: 3738: 3731: 3722: 3721: 3627:Mesotrophic soil 3567:Climax community 3499:Marine food webs 3438:Biomagnification 3239:Chemoorganotroph 3093:Keystone species 3053:Biotic component 2998: 2991: 2984: 2975: 2974: 2959: 2958: 2947: 2935: 2934: 2922: 2840:Paleoclimatology 2800: 2793: 2786: 2777: 2776: 2749: 2748: 2720: 2714: 2713: 2693: 2687: 2686: 2668: 2659:(17): 3496–514. 2644: 2638: 2637: 2627: 2603: 2597: 2596: 2568: 2562: 2561: 2533: 2527: 2526: 2498: 2492: 2491: 2455: 2449: 2448: 2440: 2434: 2433: 2430:Seascape Ecology 2425: 2419: 2418: 2416: 2415: 2406:. Archived from 2395: 2389: 2388: 2360: 2354: 2353: 2351: 2327: 2321: 2320: 2292: 2286: 2285: 2275: 2257: 2232: 2226: 2225: 2197: 2191: 2190: 2180: 2151: 2145: 2144: 2116: 2110: 2109: 2107: 2106: 2088: 2082: 2081: 2053: 2044: 2043: 2041: 2017: 2008: 2007: 1997: 1969: 1963: 1962: 1954: 1948: 1947: 1939: 1933: 1932: 1911:Studium Generale 1906: 1898: 1892: 1891: 1883: 1864: 1863: 1855: 1849: 1846: 1840: 1839: 1831: 1825: 1824: 1804: 1798: 1797: 1789: 1783: 1782: 1777:Leser H (1991). 1774: 1768: 1767: 1741: 1732: 1726: 1725: 1717: 1706: 1705: 1677: 1668: 1667: 1659: 1653: 1652: 1624: 1615: 1614: 1602: 1593: 1592: 1580: 1571: 1569: 1541: 1530: 1529: 1521: 1510: 1509: 1501: 1490: 1489: 1481: 1472: 1471: 1463: 1450: 1449: 1431: 1422: 1416: 1415: 1407: 1401: 1400: 1392: 1381: 1380: 1360: 1354: 1353: 1345: 1339: 1338: 1328: 1318: 1294: 1288: 1287: 1269: 1245: 1239: 1236: 1230: 1229: 1221: 1188: 1187: 1179: 1166: 1165: 1139: 1133: 1132: 1124: 1118: 1117: 1109: 1100: 1099: 1067: 1041:Land development 944: 939: 938: 930: 925: 924: 923: 916: 911: 910: 909: 902: 897: 896: 844:Seascape ecology 763:cluster analysis 732:invasive species 722:(Bastian 2001). 654:species richness 646:ecotonal species 515:Patch and mosaic 390:spatial patterns 128: 123:The German term 89:natural sciences 79:approaches with 5340: 5339: 5335: 5334: 5333: 5331: 5330: 5329: 5290:Systems ecology 5275: 5274: 5273: 5268: 5259:Natural history 5242:Applied ecology 5220: 5216:Systems ecology 5177: 5173:Thermal ecology 5168:Spatial ecology 5143:Genetic ecology 5113:Disease ecology 5089: 5045:biogeographical 5035: 4998: 4957: 4934: 4906: 4901: 4871: 4866: 4847: 4772:Soil compaction 4750: 4707: 4603:Land management 4571: 4566: 4536: 4531: 4522: 4508:Systems ecology 4396: 4367:Extinction debt 4332:Ecological debt 4322:Bioluminescence 4303: 4296: 4265:marine habitats 4240:Ecological trap 4221: 4101: 4094: 4037: 4031: 3987:Rapoport's rule 3982:Priority effect 3923:Endemic species 3891: 3850:Population size 3766: 3759: 3749: 3719: 3714: 3667: 3661: 3647:Trophic cascade 3557:Bioaccumulation 3540: 3467: 3424: 3346: 3313: 3210: 3122: 3083:Ecosystem model 3016: 3002: 2972: 2967: 2923: 2914: 2844:Palaeogeography 2809: 2804: 2757: 2752: 2721: 2717: 2710: 2694: 2690: 2645: 2641: 2604: 2600: 2569: 2565: 2534: 2530: 2499: 2495: 2472:10.2307/1941844 2456: 2452: 2441: 2437: 2426: 2422: 2413: 2411: 2396: 2392: 2385: 2361: 2357: 2336:Austral Ecology 2328: 2324: 2293: 2289: 2233: 2229: 2198: 2194: 2152: 2148: 2117: 2113: 2104: 2102: 2089: 2085: 2054: 2047: 2018: 2011: 1970: 1966: 1955: 1951: 1940: 1936: 1929: 1899: 1895: 1884: 1867: 1858:Hard G (1973). 1856: 1852: 1847: 1843: 1832: 1828: 1805: 1801: 1796:. NY: Springer. 1790: 1786: 1775: 1771: 1756:10.2307/1310366 1739: 1733: 1729: 1718: 1709: 1678: 1671: 1660: 1656: 1641:10.2307/1308780 1625: 1618: 1603: 1596: 1583:Neef E (1967). 1581: 1574: 1542: 1533: 1522: 1513: 1502: 1493: 1482: 1475: 1464: 1453: 1429: 1423: 1419: 1408: 1404: 1393: 1384: 1361: 1357: 1346: 1342: 1295: 1291: 1260:(4): 985–1000. 1246: 1242: 1237: 1233: 1222: 1191: 1180: 1169: 1162: 1140: 1136: 1125: 1121: 1110: 1103: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1055: 940: 933: 926: 921: 919: 912: 907: 905: 898: 891: 888: 832: 801: 749: 744: 728:drainage basins 719:land use change 707: 687: 679:Main articles: 677: 610: 598:Main articles: 596: 571: 565: 523: 517: 468: 460:Main articles: 458: 430:anthropocentric 413: 407: 398: 396:Important terms 376: 281: 259:present in the 221: 213:remotely sensed 165: 160: 147: 121: 93:social sciences 69:systems science 17: 12: 11: 5: 5338: 5328: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5270: 5269: 5267: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5250: 5249: 5239: 5234: 5228: 5226: 5222: 5221: 5219: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5187: 5185: 5179: 5178: 5176: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5163:Social ecology 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5099: 5097: 5091: 5090: 5088: 5087: 5082: 5077: 5072: 5070:Forest ecology 5067: 5065:Desert ecology 5062: 5061: 5060: 5058:Arctic ecology 5049: 5047: 5037: 5036: 5034: 5033: 5028: 5026:Insect ecology 5023: 5018: 5012: 5010: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4974: 4968: 4966: 4959: 4958: 4956: 4955: 4950: 4944: 4942: 4936: 4935: 4933: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4916: 4914: 4908: 4907: 4900: 4899: 4892: 4885: 4877: 4868: 4867: 4865: 4864: 4852: 4849: 4848: 4846: 4845: 4844: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4818: 4817: 4816: 4811: 4809:Infrastructure 4804:Urban planning 4801: 4796: 4791: 4789:Overpopulation 4786: 4785: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4758: 4756: 4755:Related fields 4752: 4751: 4749: 4748: 4746:Customary land 4743: 4738: 4733: 4732: 4731: 4726: 4715: 4713: 4709: 4708: 4706: 4705: 4700: 4699: 4698: 4688: 4687: 4686: 4681: 4679:Leopold matrix 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4645: 4644: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4623: 4622: 4612: 4611: 4610: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4579: 4577: 4573: 4572: 4565: 4564: 4557: 4550: 4542: 4533: 4532: 4527: 4524: 4523: 4521: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4488:Microecosystem 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4404: 4402: 4398: 4397: 4395: 4394: 4389: 4387:Thorson's rule 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4312:Assembly rules 4308: 4306: 4298: 4297: 4295: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4268: 4267: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4231: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4197: 4195:Patch dynamics 4192: 4190:Metapopulation 4187: 4182: 4177: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4106: 4104: 4096: 4095: 4093: 4092: 4087: 4085:Storage effect 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4041: 4039: 4033: 4032: 4030: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3967:Neutral theory 3964: 3959: 3954: 3952:Native species 3945: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3899: 3897: 3893: 3892: 3890: 3889: 3884: 3883: 3882: 3877: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3825:Overpopulation 3822: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3771: 3769: 3761: 3760: 3748: 3747: 3740: 3733: 3725: 3716: 3715: 3713: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3671: 3669: 3663: 3662: 3660: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3632:Nutrient cycle 3629: 3624: 3622:Feeding frenzy 3619: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3602:Energy quality 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3562:Cascade effect 3559: 3554: 3548: 3546: 3542: 3541: 3539: 3538: 3537: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3481: 3475: 3473: 3469: 3468: 3466: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3434: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3423: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3405:Microbial loop 3402: 3397: 3392: 3387: 3382: 3377: 3372: 3370:Lithoautotroph 3367: 3362: 3356: 3354: 3352:Microorganisms 3348: 3347: 3345: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3323: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3312: 3311: 3309:Prey switching 3306: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3220: 3218: 3212: 3211: 3209: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3186:Photosynthesis 3183: 3178: 3173: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3141:Chemosynthesis 3138: 3132: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3121: 3120: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3100: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3080: 3075: 3070: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3045: 3040: 3035: 3033:Abiotic stress 3030: 3024: 3022: 3018: 3017: 3001: 3000: 2993: 2986: 2978: 2969: 2968: 2966: 2965: 2953: 2941: 2928: 2925: 2924: 2917: 2915: 2913: 2912: 2907: 2902: 2893: 2888: 2883: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2855: 2846: 2833: 2831:Phytogeography 2824: 2814: 2811: 2810: 2803: 2802: 2795: 2788: 2780: 2774: 2773: 2768: 2763: 2756: 2755:External links 2753: 2751: 2750: 2731:(10): 614–21. 2715: 2708: 2688: 2639: 2598: 2579:(4): 189–197. 2563: 2528: 2509:(6): 649–652. 2493: 2450: 2435: 2420: 2390: 2383: 2375:10.17226/18385 2355: 2322: 2287: 2227: 2208:(4): 499–513. 2192: 2146: 2111: 2083: 2045: 2009: 1964: 1949: 1934: 1927: 1893: 1865: 1850: 1841: 1826: 1799: 1784: 1769: 1727: 1707: 1669: 1654: 1635:(10): 733–40. 1616: 1594: 1572: 1531: 1511: 1491: 1473: 1451: 1417: 1402: 1382: 1355: 1340: 1289: 1240: 1231: 1189: 1167: 1160: 1134: 1119: 1101: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1021:Patch dynamics 1018: 1013: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 978: 973: 968: 963: 958: 953: 947: 946: 945: 942:Biology portal 931: 917: 914:Ecology portal 903: 887: 884: 831: 828: 812:urban planning 800: 797: 781:Climate change 748: 745: 743: 740: 738:requirements. 706: 703: 701:disconnected. 676: 673: 642:exotic species 630:riparian zones 595: 592: 567:Main article: 564: 561: 530:patch dynamics 521:Patch dynamics 516: 513: 457: 454: 434:Richard Forman 409:Main article: 406: 403: 397: 394: 381:ecology theory 375: 372: 371: 370: 353: 343: 337: 327: 316: 280: 277: 273:Janet Franklin 220: 217: 197:metapopulation 164: 161: 159: 156: 146: 143: 120: 117: 109:sustainability 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5337: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5282: 5280: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5248: 5245: 5244: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5223: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5188: 5186: 5184: 5180: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5123:Ecotoxicology 5121: 5119: 5118:Ecophysiology 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5100: 5098: 5096: 5092: 5086: 5085:Urban ecology 5083: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5059: 5056: 5055: 5054: 5053:Polar ecology 5051: 5050: 5048: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5032: 5031:Human ecology 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5021:Plant ecology 5019: 5017: 5014: 5013: 5011: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4979: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4960: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4945: 4943: 4941: 4940:Spatial scale 4937: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4920:Field ecology 4918: 4917: 4915: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4898: 4893: 4891: 4886: 4884: 4879: 4878: 4875: 4863: 4860:Categories: 4854: 4853: 4850: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4823: 4822: 4819: 4815: 4814:Urban renewal 4812: 4810: 4807: 4806: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4799:Deforestation 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4764: 4763: 4760: 4759: 4757: 4753: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4721: 4720: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4701: 4697: 4696:Built-up area 4694: 4693: 4692: 4689: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4676: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4643: 4640: 4639: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4627:Land grabbing 4625: 4621: 4618: 4617: 4616: 4613: 4609: 4606: 4605: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4580: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4563: 4558: 4556: 4551: 4549: 4544: 4543: 4540: 4530: 4525: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4513:Urban ecology 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4405: 4403: 4399: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4372:Kleiber's law 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4299: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4266: 4263: 4262: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4224: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4176: 4173: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4145:Foster's rule 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4097: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4042: 4040: 4034: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3894: 3888: 3885: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3872: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3762: 3757: 3753: 3746: 3741: 3739: 3734: 3732: 3727: 3726: 3723: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3672: 3670: 3664: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3543: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3507: 3505: 3502: 3501: 3500: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3490: 3487: 3485: 3482: 3480: 3477: 3476: 3474: 3470: 3464: 3463:Trophic level 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3446: 3444: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3435: 3433: 3431: 3427: 3421: 3420:Phage ecology 3418: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3410:Microbial mat 3408: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3398: 3396: 3393: 3391: 3388: 3386: 3383: 3381: 3378: 3376: 3373: 3371: 3368: 3366: 3365:Bacteriophage 3363: 3361: 3358: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3349: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3332:Decomposition 3330: 3328: 3325: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3316: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3302: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3279:Mesopredators 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3245: 3242: 3240: 3237: 3235: 3232: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3224:Apex predator 3222: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3213: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3199: 3197: 3194: 3192: 3189: 3187: 3184: 3182: 3179: 3177: 3174: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3152: 3149: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3125: 3119: 3116: 3114: 3111: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3091: 3089: 3086: 3084: 3081: 3079: 3076: 3074: 3071: 3069: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3058:Biotic stress 3056: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3039: 3036: 3034: 3031: 3029: 3026: 3025: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3010: 3006: 2999: 2994: 2992: 2987: 2985: 2980: 2979: 2976: 2964: 2963: 2954: 2952: 2951: 2946: 2942: 2940: 2939: 2930: 2929: 2926: 2921: 2911: 2908: 2906: 2903: 2901: 2897: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2887: 2886:Geostatistics 2884: 2882: 2881:Geomorphology 2879: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2856: 2854: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2828: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2816: 2815: 2812: 2808: 2801: 2796: 2794: 2789: 2787: 2782: 2781: 2778: 2772: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2759: 2758: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2719: 2711: 2709:9781118525296 2705: 2701: 2700: 2692: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2643: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2618:(3): 128–42. 2617: 2613: 2609: 2602: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2567: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2544:(5): 375–87. 2543: 2539: 2532: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2497: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2454: 2446: 2439: 2431: 2424: 2410:on 2019-06-09 2409: 2405: 2401: 2394: 2386: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2367: 2359: 2350: 2345: 2342:(3): 227–36. 2341: 2337: 2333: 2326: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2291: 2283: 2279: 2274: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2231: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2196: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2150: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2121:Plant Ecology 2115: 2101:on 2008-06-19 2100: 2096: 2095: 2087: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2064:(6): 929–36. 2063: 2059: 2052: 2050: 2040: 2035: 2032:(4): 579–90. 2031: 2027: 2023: 2016: 2014: 2005: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1968: 1960: 1953: 1945: 1938: 1930: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1904: 1897: 1889: 1882: 1880: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1872: 1870: 1861: 1854: 1845: 1837: 1830: 1822: 1818: 1815:(1–3): 7–26. 1814: 1810: 1803: 1795: 1788: 1780: 1773: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1750:(2): 119–27. 1749: 1745: 1738: 1731: 1723: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1676: 1674: 1665: 1658: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1623: 1621: 1612: 1608: 1601: 1599: 1590: 1586: 1579: 1577: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1527: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1507: 1500: 1498: 1496: 1487: 1480: 1478: 1469: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1447: 1443: 1440:(4): 183–95. 1439: 1435: 1428: 1421: 1413: 1406: 1398: 1391: 1389: 1387: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1359: 1351: 1344: 1336: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1293: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1244: 1235: 1227: 1220: 1218: 1216: 1214: 1212: 1210: 1208: 1206: 1204: 1202: 1200: 1198: 1196: 1194: 1185: 1178: 1176: 1174: 1172: 1163: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1138: 1130: 1123: 1115: 1108: 1106: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1066: 1062: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 992: 989: 987: 984: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 962: 959: 957: 954: 952: 949: 948: 943: 937: 932: 929: 918: 915: 904: 901: 895: 890: 883: 881: 876: 871: 869: 865: 861: 855: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 827: 825: 821: 820:deforestation 817: 814:, geography, 813: 809: 805: 796: 793: 788: 786: 782: 778: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 755: 754:environmental 739: 737: 733: 729: 723: 720: 715: 713: 702: 698: 695: 694:Fragmentation 691: 686: 682: 672: 669: 664: 663: 657: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 609: 605: 601: 591: 589: 585: 580: 576: 570: 560: 558: 554: 550: 545: 541: 537: 533: 531: 527: 522: 512: 510: 509:heterogeneity 505: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 474: 467: 463: 453: 451: 447: 443: 442:John A. Wiens 439: 438:Michel Godron 435: 431: 426: 422: 418: 412: 402: 393: 391: 387: 382: 368: 364: 361: 357: 354: 351: 347: 344: 341: 338: 335: 334:John A. Wiens 331: 328: 324: 320: 317: 313: 309: 306: 305: 304: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 276: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 248: 244: 242: 238: 234: 230: 229:North America 226: 216: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 183: 179: 178: 174: 170: 155: 153: 152:Geomorphology 142: 139: 136: 132: 127: 116: 114: 110: 105: 104:socioeconomic 101: 96: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 65: 63: 59: 55: 51: 44: 40: 33: 29: 21: 5295:Biogeography 5264:Biogeography 5158:Paleoecology 5147: 5133:Fire ecology 5075:Soil ecology 4963:Organisation 4953:Macroecology 4948:Microecology 4826:Permaculture 4767:Soil science 4663: 4498:Regime shift 4483:Macroecology 4204: 4200: 4174: 4140:Edge effects 4110:Biogeography 4055:Commensalism 3903:Biodiversity 3780:Allee effect 3519:kelp forests 3472:Example webs 3337:Detritivores 3176:Organotrophs 3156:Kinetotrophs 3108:Productivity 2960: 2948: 2936: 2904: 2858:Soil science 2853:Oceanography 2827:Biogeography 2728: 2724: 2718: 2698: 2691: 2656: 2652: 2642: 2615: 2611: 2601: 2576: 2572: 2566: 2541: 2537: 2531: 2506: 2502: 2496: 2466:(1): 13–26. 2463: 2459: 2453: 2444: 2438: 2429: 2423: 2412:. 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NY: Wiley. 1663: 1657: 1632: 1628: 1610: 1606: 1588: 1584: 1552:(1): 33–51. 1549: 1545: 1525: 1505: 1485: 1467: 1437: 1433: 1420: 1411: 1405: 1396: 1368: 1364: 1358: 1349: 1343: 1309:(7): e3056. 1306: 1302: 1292: 1257: 1253: 1243: 1234: 1225: 1183: 1144:Biodiversity 1143: 1137: 1128: 1122: 1113: 1079: 1075: 1065: 956:Biogeography 872: 856: 833: 802: 792:biodiversity 789: 779: 750: 724: 716: 708: 699: 693: 689: 688: 667: 660: 658: 638:physiognomic 613: 611: 578: 574: 572: 556: 552: 548: 544:Connectivity 543: 540:connectivity 535: 534: 529: 525: 524: 508: 506: 501: 497: 493: 477: 471: 469: 420: 414: 399: 377: 355: 345: 339: 329: 322: 318: 307: 282: 249: 245: 222: 175: 166: 148: 130: 122: 97: 66: 62:geodiversity 58:biodiversity 49: 48: 5191:Agroecology 4912:Methodology 4821:Agriculture 4782:Alkali soil 4615:Landscaping 4583:Degradation 4135:Disturbance 4038:interaction 3860:Recruitment 3790:Depensation 3582:Copiotrophs 3453:Energy flow 3375:Lithotrophy 3319:Decomposers 3299:Planktivore 3274:Insectivore 3264:Heterotroph 3229:Bacterivore 3196:Phototrophs 3146:Chemotrophs 3118:Restoration 3068:Competition 2836:Climatology 2822:Meteorology 2163:: 144–152. 1613:(1): 31–44. 1371:: 171–197. 951:Agroecology 848:agriculture 742:Application 690:Disturbance 569:Edge effect 478:composition 360:lifeworldly 323:human scale 267:types, and 237:populations 215:datasets). 195:by Levins' 145:Explanation 119:Terminology 73:biophysical 5279:Categories 4977:Synecology 4972:Autecology 4503:Sexecology 4080:Parasitism 4045:Antibiosis 3880:Resistance 3875:Resilience 3765:Population 3685:Camouflage 3637:Oligotroph 3552:Ascendency 3514:intertidal 3504:cold seeps 3458:Food chain 3259:Herbivores 3234:Carnivores 3161:Mixotrophs 3136:Autotrophs 3015:components 2891:Glaciology 2871:Geobiology 2866:Edaphology 2503:Biotropica 2414:2018-12-27 2127:(1): 1–6. 2105:2008-03-22 1744:BioScience 1629:BioScience 1082:(1): 1–4. 1058:References 769:(CCA), or 519:See also: 450:ecosystems 446:Carl Troll 425:Ernst 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