266:
392:
53:
175:
981:
122:
947:. Otherwise, Kuskatan is not known for the kind of monumental architecture used by the Classical Maya because its later Spanish rulers dismantled most of the palaces and temples over the centuries to build walls and roads. El Salvador is one of the most looted archeological places in the western hemisphere, with many artifacts being looted in recent years, including the Izalco Jaguar heads and artifacts in museums.
645:(place of the water man); this could have been a name or a title for a person as well. After the collapse of the Nawat standing warriors in the first two battles with Alvarado's forces, Alvarado entered the capital of Cuzcatlan without resistance. Initially the people had to accept this conquest, offering gifts and service. Alvarado then enslaved those Nawat Pipil that they could capture. The
759:, salt, dried fish, honey, and beeswax. However, it was also common to be assigned firewood, woven cotton clothes and clothing. These contributions were expected and required of the settlements and acted as payment to the Spaniards. Those who failed to pay their contributions were typically faced with threats and even violent force.
735:
labor which were carried out by the areas indigenous people. This became a large way for people to survive as the landowning class grew due to its labor system. Its production involved the construction of an elaborate irrigation network, parts of which can still be seen today. Cacao served in the region as currency.
911:. Over the next three years, various attempts by the Nahuas of Cuzcatan to destroy the newly founded town resulted in the decision to move the town a few kilometers south to its present location, to the valley commonly known as "the valley of the hammocks" (due to significant seismic activity) next to the
676:
The warriors of
Cuzcatlan had a variety of weapons, most made of wood and volcanic rock shards. Pedro de Alvarado reported that they also wore thick cotton armor, which were evidently designed to repel the caliber of throwing weapons they themselves had (see list below) as it could not repel Spanish
574:
The leader of
Cuzcatan was the head of state; below him the state elders and priests who advised the ruling family; then a caste of commoners. Upon the death of a Lord, the succession was hereditary starting with the eldest son and so on. In case there were no sons available, the closest male family
738:
Other agricultural products grown by the Pipil were cotton, squash, corn, beans, fruits, balsam, some peppers, and chocolate; but chocolate could only be prepared and served to the ruling class. There was modest mining of gold and silver, although these were not used as currency but as offering to
661:
Warrior service was obligatory for men from about age 15 or 20 until they were unable to serve due to age. The warrior's attire consisted of a breastplate, a corselete or vest (made of cotton) and a mashte (species of loin cloth) and each painted their faces and bodies with unique colored abstract
746:
began establishing slave labor throughout
Central America beginning in modern-day Guatemala. This was then established into Cuzcatlan during his first invasion in 1524. As Spaniards continued to settle in the Cuzcatlan, it became common for their households to contain indigenous slaves, typically
734:
was a major export crop that was carefully cultivated in the
Izalcos area and traded throughout the isthmus. Indigo specifically was a large part of Cuzcatlan economy, it was the base for agrarian and industrial products. The large dependency on Indigo and Cocoa beans required massive amounts of
489:
around the year 1054. In the 13th century the Pipil city states were most likely unified, and by 1400, a hereditary monarchy had been established. The Pipil people aided in the flourishing of
Cuzcatlan and referred to this region as the "Land of the Jewel". Using techniques that were heavily
762:
There were large contributions to the
Cuzcatlan economy due to the creation of Spanish industries in the area. They began to overtake the economy due to the large local force that they exerted. A new dynamic was established as these industries consisted of Spanish overseers and
366:
allies of the
Spanish that the Nahuas of Cuzcatan were speaking a corrupted version of their language in those regions. An alternative theory is that it meant "nobles," from the Nahuas social class "Pipiltin" and the Nawat Pipil origin story that they are descendants of
883:
to conquer the native city states further south. After subduing or striking alliances with the Mayan peoples in the highlands, on June 6, 1524, Pedro de
Alvarado crossed the Paz river with a few hundred soldiers and thousands of Kaqchikel Mayan allies and subdued the
677:
lances. So heavy was this cotton when it became wet, Alvarado reported, that the Nahuat soldiers could not rise from the ground when thrown down. No pictorial depiction of this armor has survived. Some of the documented weapons are described below.
767:. One of the most significant industries they cultivated were war supplies. During the years 1525 - 1539, there was an influx of raids that occurred in the area. This led to slave labor being utilized for the creation of war supplies such as iron.
723:
post colonization. Indigenous economy consisted of the Pipil people and even indigenous
Mexican, including Nahua and Mixtec. The economy was based on the barter or exchange of agriculture and handcrafted goods such as multicolored textiles.
747:
women to act as servants. Many of these slaves were obtained through war or through barter. Those who were not placed into households would be forced to contribute to local cultivation. Settlements would be assigned to an "
460:
The Nawat Pipil arrived in El
Salvador around the year 900. On arrival, they had to fight their way to the new land due to the fact of the Mayan civil wars that were taking place as well but with the treaty or "cult" of
578:
At the time of the Spanish conquest, Cuzcatan had developed into a powerful state that maintained a strong standing army. It had successfully resisted Mayan invasions and was the strongest military force in the region.
848:
Cuzcatlan was within proximity to other indigenous groups, with their music being made up of new ideologies and borrowed traditions. A specific instrument used music was a slit drum that Cuzcatlan's referred to as
557:
of Cuzcatán although the four Pipil tribes became a loose confederation, unifying in times of war or natural disasters. With time, they were all annexed by the chiefdom of Cuzcatán, today the modern city of
839:
and others. In addition there were some deities identified with the SeñorĂo of Cuzcatlán like Itzqueye. TĂ©otl, Quetzalcoatl and Itzqueye were three of the most important to the people's spiritual beliefs.
637:
Over time, a legend developed that the last leader of Cuzcatlan was named Atacat, some authors say this is a mistake originating from a misreading of a few Spanish accounts. Historical accounts of the
354:
The people of Cuzcatan came to be called Pipiles in the historical chronicles, a term that today is usually translated as "boys" or less likely as "young nobles." This was due to the perception of the
379:
The name Kuskatan (place of jewel necklaces) possibly comes from the Náwat words "kuskat" (necklace) and Kuzti (jewel) meaning "jewel necklace", and "tan", meaning "among/in/near/place of/with.". In
771:
and architecture also gained prevalence in the area due to Spanish influence. This is another industry that was dependent on male indigenous labor for brick making, roof and tile manufacturing,
494:
and Pokomam Maya and expressed similarities in their culture and traditions. Pipil's created towns and cities that were able to support large populations which were supported by
485:
eventually became absorbed into the Cuzcatlan polity confederation. According to legend, the city of Cuzcatlán (the capital city of Cuzcatan), was founded by the exiled Toltec
857:, which means drum. In Aztec ceremonies this drum was used for religious, military, and royal ceremonies which reflected the use of this instrument in Cuzcatlan.
853:. This drum was not specific to the Cuzcatlan people. It is believed that this sacred drum could be dated back to ancient Mesoamerica. This word derives from the Aztec word
474:
331:, Palaces, Lozano, and others claim that some codices did exist but have since disappeared. Their Nawat language, art and temples revealed that they had significant
908:
1335:
789:) and archaeological investigations we know that the SeñorĂo de Cuzcatlán was well organized with respect to its "Creator" or "Divine energy of life" Tiyut/
1439:
904:
490:
influenced by ancient Mayan culture. Pipil people inhabited this land but also resided with other indigenous groups. They were alongside specifically
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covering a large part of the central and western areas of present-day El Salvador and covering different varieties of environments with a total of 7
588:
328:
1444:
1350:
150:
595:
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Another large contribution to Cuzcatlan economy was the establishment of slave trafficking and labor which appeared after Spaniard colonization.
1330:
607:
601:
795:
897:
630:
793:, its priesthood, first ancestors, religious rites, etc. One of the pilgrimage sites was the sanctuary dedicated to the ancestor goddess
1380:
893:
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or Atacat: He is said to have killed off many of Diego de Alvarado's horses and horsemen during the last stand for Cuzcatlan at the
17:
553:
The Lordship did not form a unified political system and were at first independent, and were obligated to pay tribute/taxes to the
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There were many Lords of Cuzcatan; most have been forgotten with time, but historical writings by Spanish chroniclers, including
1123:
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land is believed to be inhabited by the first wave of Pipils as early as 3000 BCE. Another wave of Nahua migrants, known as the
1244:
1219:
1186:
1169:
Fowler, William R.; Card, Jeb J. (2019). "Material Encounters and Indigenous Transformations in Early Colonial El Salvador".
1098:
1052:
900:. On June 17, de Alvarado arrived in Cuzcatan. Some of the population acquiesced to his rule; others fled to the mountains.
751:" which indicates what type of contribution they must provide. Typically an "encomienda" consisted of food products such as
265:
143:
105:
1340:
1325:
1434:
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that took place during first contact with Pedro De Alvarado and his tribal allies, wounding Alvarado with Atunal's lance.
98:
91:
86:
719:
The economy of Cuzcatlan had contributions from both the indigenous Pipil people who inhabited the land and Spanish
1089:
Sacolick, Robin (2018). "Cuzcatlán (El Salvador) and Maria de Baratta's Nahualismo". In Beezley, William H. (ed.).
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52:
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RodrĂguez, Ana Patricia (2009). "The Power of Indigo: Testimonio, Historiography, and Revolution in Cuzcatl".
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and located on Lake GĂĽija. Human sacrifice was practiced during war time as part of a warrior code of honor.
347:. It is believed that the first settlers to arrive came from the Toltec people in central Mexico, mostly
1287:
892:(the first major city state en route to Cuzcatlan). Fierce battles were fought in defense of Izalco in
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shapes and forms. The warriors were organized in teams or platoons bearing distinctive names, such as:
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The people living in the ancient Cuzcatlán possibly attributed cosmic power to the following:
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their many gods. Only the priests and the ruling family could use gold and silver as ornaments.
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The Pipil people are an ethnic group who resided in western modern day El Salvador and parts of
951:
912:
41:
1140:
1139:
Francisco Hernández Arana Xajilá; Francisco DĂaz Gebuta Quej; Daniel Garrison Brinton (1885).
1038:
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Tecuz (Lance): there were two types, a long spear that according to the Spanish conquistador
650:
441:. They are a subgroup of Nahua people, who can also be known as Nawats, Nahuats, or Southern
419:
1142:
The Annals of the Cakchiquels: The Original Text, with a Translation, Notes and Introduction
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people in the eastern zone maintained a guerrilla resistance for a further decade with Lord
292:
110:
185:
8:
1263:
1212:
Dividing the Isthmus: Central American Transnational Histories, Literatures, and Cultures
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Malacate (disc): Most likely made of sharpened rock and used in the hand-to-hand combat.
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598:: Governed before the Spanish conquest, he was overthrown and executed by the priests.
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332:
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The seal of Kuskatan based on the "Lienzo de Tlaxcala" with the symbol of an altepetl
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it was 6.3 metres (20.6 feet). The second one was a more maneuverable shorter spear.
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Material Encounters and Indigenous Transformations in the Early Colonial Americas
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Macuáhuit (mallet): made out of strong wood with sharpened obsidian at the end.
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Maxwell, Judith M.; Hill, Robert M., eds. (2006). "Linguistic Commentary".
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The Lordship of Cuzcatan covered an area of approximately 10,000
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with waves of Pipil people migrating to what was Cuzcatlan. This
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307:); this was the nation that Spanish chroniclers came to call the
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604:: Successor of the previous one, restored the hereditary system.
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during the Chichimeca-Toltec civil wars in the 10th century AD.
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After the fall of Cuzcatan in 1525, Pedro de Alvarado's cousin
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resembling those of Toltec temple sites. Other sites include
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195:
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Museo arqueolĂłgico digital: CrĂłnica de Diego GarcĂa Palacios
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between the coast and elevations greater than 2,000 meters.
963:
395:
Map of El Salvador's Indigenous Peoples at the time of the
1345:
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The area of Cuzcatan was divided into different regions:
319:
survive that shed light on this confederation except the
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member was chosen by the counsel of elders and priests.
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as the Pipil had many Mayan allies. City states such as
1351:
Asociación Tikal: Investigaciónes en Antiguo Cuscatlán
1091:
Cultural Nationalism and Ethnic Music in Latin America
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Deities/Spirits associated with the Nahuas of Cuzcatan
1249:. Ediciones del Ministerio del Interior. p. 202.
1121:
976:
1242:
1093:. University of New Mexico Press. pp. 97–128.
927:complex, which has Mesoamerican masonry, including
1359:Compendio de la historia de la ciudad de Guatemala
1411:
445:. Nahua people originally resided in modern-day
923:Archeological sites in El Salvador include the
100:Greater Republic of Central America (1895–1898)
93:Federal Republic of Central America (1823–1841)
1214:. University of Texas Press. pp. 76–102.
1246:Toponimia autĂłctona de El Salvador occidental
1132:
1125:Los cakchiqueles en la conquista de Guatemala
1047:. University of Texas Press. pp. 23–68.
144:
1288:"AsociaciĂłn de FĂştbol Kuskatan Joins CONIFA"
1045:Kaqchikel Chronicles: The Definitive Edition
1032:
896:(today Acajutla in the Spanish version) and
562:a city and municipality that is part of the
1440:9th-century establishments in North America
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339:influence from the ties they had with the
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1331:Fuerza Armada precolombina de El Salvador
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291:state confederation of the Mesoamerican
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1445:1524 disestablishments in North America
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1326:Museo arqueolĂłgico digital: los pipiles
619:, Atecozol: He is said to have won the
14:
1412:
1309:
591:, mention some that may have existed:
77:Intendancy of San Salvador (1785–1821)
457:Pipils, voyaged in the 10th century.
1336:Historia precolombina de El Salvador
1258:
1256:
860:
582:
24:
755:, beans, chilli peppers, turkeys,
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25:
1456:
1253:
383:its cognate term is Cuzcat(l)an.
106:Military dictatorship (1931–1979)
1128:. Editorial Cultura. p. 70.
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691:TahuĂtul (bow) and Mit (arrows):
641:called the Pipil coastal people
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111:Salvadoran Civil War (1979–1992)
51:
1370:Manual de arqueologia americana
867:Spanish conquest of El Salvador
801:Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl
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1268:The Metropolitan Museum of Art
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1122:Francis Polo Sifontes (1974).
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13:
1:
1145:. D. G. Brinton. p. 181.
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783:Through Spanish chroniclers (
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1243:Jorge LardĂ© y LarĂn (1977).
995:Anastasio Aquino's Rebellion
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72:Spanish conquest (1524–1539)
7:
1264:"Drum (Teponaztli) | Aztec"
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10:
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1435:Capitals of former nations
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714:
566:Metropolitan Area (AMSS).
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303:(covering most of western
82:1811 Independence Movement
1356:Juarros, Domingo (1857).
1179:10.1163/9789004273689_010
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639:Annals of the Cakchiquels
321:Annals of the Cakchiquels
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915:(San Salvador) volcano.
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87:Mexican rule (1822–1823)
1367:Beuchat, Henri (1818).
962:governing body for non-
775:, and charcoal making.
295:that extended from the
192:Official languages
1420:History of El Salvador
1197:10.1163/j.ctvrxk2gr.15
952:Kuskatan football team
871:After the fall of the
502:Political organization
496:irrigated agricultural
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270:
241:• Disestablished
127:El Salvador portal
63:Kingdom of Cuzcatlan (
18:Kuzshkatán (Cuzcatlan)
909:Villa De San Salvador
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268:
1321:SeñorĂo de Cuzcatlán
1173:. pp. 197–220.
1109:chapter 2451565
1071:chapter 1764951
409:Kakawira o Cacaopera
293:postclassical period
1396:13.6667°N 89.2333°W
1392: /
1310:Consulted Web Sites
633:stone masonry fort.
323:, although Spanish
284:: Cuzcatlan) was a
226:• Established
1230:chapter 63272
1010:el Mozote Massacre
987:El Salvador portal
929:truncated pyramids
765:indigenous mestizo
621:Battle of Acajutla
487:Ce Acatl Topiltzin
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431:Mangue o Chorotega
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1401:13.6667; -89.2333
1346:Proyecto Cihuatán
1315:Sites in Spanish:
1226:Project MUSE
1221:978-0-292-79372-9
1188:978-90-04-27368-9
1105:Project MUSE
1100:978-0-8263-5976-6
1067:Project MUSE
1054:978-0-292-71270-6
905:Diego de Alvarado
881:Pedro de Alvarado
861:Fall of Cuzcatlan
744:Pedro de Alvarado
683:Pedro de Alvarado
583:Lords of Cuzcatan
560:Antiguo Cuscatlan
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1399: /
769:Archaeology
666:The Jaguars
596:CuachimicĂn
570:Confederacy
540:Apastepeque
519:Panchimalco
369:Nanahuatzin
325:chroniclers
313:Cuzcatlecos
305:El Salvador
301:Lempa river
258:El Salvador
234: 1200
44:El Salvador
42:History of
1414:Categories
1387:89°14′00″W
1384:13°40′00″N
1298:2023-12-27
1273:2024-04-18
1026:References
1015:la Matanza
937:Cara Sucia
933:San Andrés
898:Tacuzcalco
865:See also:
855:Teponaztli
813:Xipe Totec
749:encomienda
732:Indigo dye
728:Cocoa bean
669:The Eagles
631:Cinacantan
613:Atunal Tut
533:Guacotecti
529:Ahuachapán
479:Chalchuapa
467:QĘĽuqĘĽumatz
358:-speaking
205:Tributary
202:Government
67:1200–1528)
1020:Kuchkabal
786:cronistas
699:Geography
643:Panatacat
510:Cuzcatlán
375:Etymology
297:Paz river
274:Cuzcatlan
167:Cuzcatlan
1430:Altepetl
973:See also
960:football
945:Cihuatán
833:Tonatiuh
829:Chacmool
796:Nuictlán
779:Religion
627:Atlácatl
544:Tehuacán
536:Ixtepetl
483:Cihuatán
475:Tehuacán
471:Kukulkan
439:Honduras
360:Tlaxcala
327:such as
207:Monarchy
186:Kuskatan
33:a series
31:Part of
1362:. Luna.
1039:Page 64
967:members
954:joined
925:Tazumal
894:Acaxual
886:Cacique
821:Ehécatl
757:venison
715:Economy
651:Lempira
548:Metapan
524:Apaneca
498:lands.
387:Origins
381:Nahuatl
345:Yucatan
317:codices
299:to the
282:Nahuatl
213:History
182:Capital
1292:CONIFA
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919:Legacy
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617:Izalco
555:polity
514:Izalco
455:Izalco
447:Mexico
443:Nahuas
364:Mexica
349:Puebla
337:Toltec
309:Pipils
216:
35:on the
1425:Pipil
1193:JSTOR
1059:JSTOR
879:sent
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791:Teotl
753:maize
647:Lenca
492:Lenca
429:, 7.
422:, 6.
415:, 5.
413:Xinca
411:, 4.
407:, 3.
405:Lenca
403:, 2.
399:: 1.
333:Mayan
315:. No
289:Nahua
278:Nawat
196:Nawat
1216:ISBN
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1041:in:
964:FIFA
943:and
730:and
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469:and
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417:Maya
362:and
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335:and
245:1528
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