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620:, simulating the Earth, suspended in an evacuated chamber. Birkeland's face appears a second time in a watermark in the blank space above the drawing of the terrella, and his rudimentary magnetosphere appears on the back, but is only visible under ultraviolet light. The ring encircling the magnetic pole depicted on the back of the bank note is similar to the patterns predicted by Birkeland and shown more recently by satellites. His drawing of what became known as
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387:, a model of the Earth consisting of a spherical magnet, was guided toward the magnetic poles and produced rings of light around the poles and concluded that the aurora could be produced in a similar way. He developed a theory in which energetic electrons were ejected from sunspots on the solar surface, directed to the
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In 1913, Birkeland may have been the first to predict that plasma was ubiquitous in space. He wrote: "It seems to be a natural consequence of our points of view to assume that the whole of space is filled with electrons and flying electric ions of all kinds. We have assumed that each stellar system
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and arranged a demonstration with the express aim of selling the company. At the demonstration, one of the coils shorted and produced a sensational inductive arc complete with noise, flame, and smoke. This was the first failure of any of the launchers that
Birkeland had built. It could easily have
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who argued the mainstream view that currents could not cross the vacuum of space and therefore the currents had to be generated by the Earth. Birkeland's theory of the aurora continued to be dismissed by mainstream astrophysicists after his death in 1917. It was notably championed by the
Swedish
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and, with some investors, formed a firearms company. The coil-gun worked, except the high muzzle velocities he predicted (600 m/s) were not produced. The most he could get from his largest machine was 100 m/s, corresponding to a disappointing projectile range of only 1 km. So he
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behaves as do all charged particles in an electric field: "From a physical point of view it is most probable that solar rays are neither exclusively negative nor positive rays, but of both kinds". In other words, the solar wind consists of both negative electrons and positive ions.
358:. A post-mortem revealed that Birkeland had taken 10 g of barbital the night he died, instead of the 0.5 g recommended. The time of death was estimated at 3am on 15 June 1917. Some authors have claimed that he committed suicide. "On the nightstand lay a revolver".
477:. Magnetic disturbances were observed on nearly every pass over the high-latitude regions of the Earth. These were originally interpreted as hydromagnetic waves, but on later analysis it was realized that they were due to field-aligned or Birkeland currents.
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today) to
Reinart Birkeland and Ingeborg (née Ege) and wrote his first scientific paper at the age of 18. Birkeland married Ida Charlotte Hammer in May 1905. They had no children and, due to Birkeland's preoccupation with his work, they divorced in 1911.
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in evolutions throws off electric corpuscles into space. It does not seem unreasonable therefore to think that the greater part of the material masses in the universe is found, not in the solar systems or nebulae, but in 'empty' space."
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data. The results of the
Norwegian Polar Expedition conducted from 1899 to 1900 contained the first determination of the global pattern of electric currents in the polar region from ground magnetic field measurements. The discovery of
69:, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Knowledge.
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became the source of a controversy that continued for over half a century, because their existence could not be confirmed from ground-based measurements alone. His theory was disputed and ridiculed at the time as a
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Proof of
Birkeland's theory of the aurora only came in 1967 after a probe was sent into space. The crucial results were obtained from U.S. Navy satellite 1963-38C, launched in 1963 and carrying a
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As a scholar with wide interests, Birkeland joined the control commission of NSFPS (Norwegian
Society For Psychic Research). The 299 members of the society included, by 1922, people like
497:. At a dinner party only one week later, Eyde told Birkeland that there was an industrial need for the biggest flash of lightning that can be brought down to Earth in order to make
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The scale of
Birkeland's research enterprises was such that funding became an overwhelming obstacle. Recognizing that technological invention could bring wealth, he developed an
501:. Birkeland's reply was, "I have it!" There were no more attempts to sell the firearms company, and he worked with Eyde only long enough to build a plasma arc device for the
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A very few lonely pioneers make their way to high places never before visited . . . they create the living conditions of mankind and the majority are living on their work.
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experiment is shown on the front at the left with a portrait of
Birkeland on the right. The book on the 1902–1903 expedition contains chapters on magnetic storms on the
410:, were connected to a system of currents that flowed along geomagnetic field lines into and away from the polar region. Such field-aligned currents are known today as
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Birkeland organized several expeditions to Norway's high-latitude regions where he established a network of observatories under the auroral regions to collect
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It seems to be a natural consequence of our points of view to assume that the whole of space is filled with electrons and flying electric ions of all kinds.
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inspired
Birkeland to develop vacuum chambers to study the influence of magnets on cathode rays. Birkeland noticed that an electron beam directed toward a
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is relatively inefficient in terms of energy consumption. Therefore, in the 1910s and 1920s, it was gradually replaced in Norway by a combination of the
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Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.
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505:. The pair worked to develop the prototype furnace into a design that was economically viable for large-scale manufacture. The resulting company,
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637:, which will be the world's first autonomous ship and is named after Birkeland. It will enter service in 2018 and be fully autonomous by 2020.
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in the Earth's polar region was developed in 1974 by A.J. Zmuda and J.C. Armstrong and refined in 1976 by T. Iijima and T.A. Potemra
561:, as well as a wide range of doctors, professors and shipowners. The society arranged circles experimenting with dancing tables and
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in his honour. He provided a diagram of field-aligned currents in the book, and this diagram was reproduced on the back of the
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Content in this edit is translated from the existing
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in Oslo. He is best remembered for his theories of atmospheric electric currents that elucidated the nature of the
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An example of one of his experiments is depicted on the left front of a previous version (issued in 1994) of the
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Peratt, A. L.; Peter, W.; Snell, C. M. (1990). "3-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations of spiral galaxies".
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509:, hugely enriched Norway, and Birkeland then enjoyed adequate funding for research, his only real interest.
920:., ser. 3, vol. 18, no. 3, p. 1, 1939. Reprinted in part, with comments by A. J. Dessler and J. Wilcox, in
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Are the Solar Corpuscular Rays that penetrate the Earth's Atmosphere Negative or Positive Rays.
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as a sleeping aid, he died under mysterious circumstances in his room in the Hotel Seiyoken in
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Emberland, Terje and Pettersen, Arnfinn (2006) "Religion for en ny tid", pp. 257–8 in
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Potemra, T. A. (1978). "Observation of Birkeland currents with the TRIAD satellite".
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Potemra, T. A. (1997). "The contributions of Kristian Birkeland to space physics".
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Sato, T.; Iijima, T. (1979). "Primary sources of large-scale Birkeland currents".
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In 1916, Birkeland was probably the first person to successfully predict that the
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Alfvén, Hannes (1939), "Theory of Magnetic Storms and of the Aurorae", K. Sven.
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Geomagnetism and Aeronomy with Special Historical Case Studies. IAGA Newsletters
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Egeland, A.; Leer, E. (1986). "Professor Kr. Birkeland: His Life and Work".
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Murdin, P. (2001). "Birkeland, Kristian (1868–1917)". In Murdin, P. (ed.).
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by mainstream scientists, most notoriously by the eminent British
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Research Group for Plasma and Space Physics, University of Oslo
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Potemra, T. A. (1985). "Field-aligned (Birkeland) currents".
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Videnskapsselskapets Skrifter, I Mat – Naturv. Klasse No.1
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Proceedings of the 140th Symposium of IAU, 19–23 June 1989
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However, fate intervened in the form of an engineer named
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by the geomagnetic field where they produced the visible
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The first complete map of the statistical location of
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a machine-translated version of the Norwegian article.
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More articles from the NASA Astrophysics Data System
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1322:. Yara International. 9 May 2017. Archived from
1038:. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. p.
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1320:"The first ever zero emission, autonomous ship"
1282:"Let's Get Fiscal: More Noteworthy Physicists"
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792:The Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics
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543:Kristian Birkeland and his terrella experiment
322:from the air. Birkeland was nominated for the
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49:Click for important translation instructions.
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1362:Kristian Birkeland, The First Space Scientist
1034:Kristian Birkeland: The First Space Scientist
292:(born 13 December 1867 – 15 June 1917) was a
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631:In 2017, Yara International ordered the
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773:"Olav Christian Bernhard Birkeland"
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834:(1 February 2016). "Haldde".
689:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
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856:Birkeland, Kristian (1908).
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605:Birkeland's theory of the
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1379:. London: Penguin Books.
1244:Dawn of the Awakened Mind
967:(inactive 22 June 2024).
924:., vol. 51, p. 180, 1970.
649:— Kristian Birkeland 1913
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614:Norwegian 200 kroner note
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1195:Potemra, T. A. (1988).
1123:1978Ap&SS..58..207P
808:10.1888/0333750888/5443
771:Professor Alf Egeland.
733:Hockey, Thomas (2009).
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514:Birkeland–Eyde process
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342:Suffering from severe
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110:Knowledge:Translation
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1479:Norwegian physicists
1019:. Christiania, 1916.
657:— Kristian Birkeland
252:Ida Charlotte Hammer
1423:1986ITPS...14..666E
1377:The Northern Lights
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1166:1985SSRv...42..295P
1080:1979SSRv...24..347S
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741:Springer Publishing
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685:The Northern Lights
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408:auroral electrojets
356:University of Tokyo
16:Norwegian scientist
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1375:Lucy Jago (2002).
1260:, Humanist, Oslo,
1221:10.1007/BF00793179
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681:Lucy Jago (2001).
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