718:
20:
294:
1951:
28:
710:
122:
57:. Aside from its use to purify drinking water, the technique is widely applied for purification and separation of a variety of industrially and medicinally important chemicals. Although the term usually refers to applications of synthetic (human-made) resins, it can include many other materials such as soil.
915:
During the filtration process, water flows through the resin column until the resin is considered exhausted. That happens only when water leaving the column contains more than the maximal desired concentration of the ions being removed. Resin is then regenerated by sequentially backwashing the resin
1169:
421:
Ion exchange is widely used in the food and beverage industry, hydrometallurgy, metals finishing, chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical technology, sugar and sweetener production, ground- and potable-water treatment, nuclear, softening, industrial water treatment, semiconductor, power, and many
935:. Aside from the soluble chloride salts of divalent cations removed from the softened water, softener regeneration wastewater contains the unused 50–70% of the sodium chloride regeneration flushing brine required to reverse ion-exchange resin equilibria. Deionizing resin regeneration with
482:. In domestic filtration systems ion exchange is one of the alternatives for water softening in households along with reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. Compared to RO membranes, ion exchange requires repetitive regeneration when inlet water is hard (has high mineral content).
42:
is a reversible interchange of one species of ion present in an insoluble solid with another of like charge present in a solution surrounding the solid. Ion exchange is used in softening or demineralizing of water, purification of chemicals, and separation of substances.
1083:
Ibrahim, Yazan; Abdulkarem, Elham; Naddeo, Vincenzo; Banat, Fawzi; Hasan, Shadi W. (November 2019). "Synthesis of super hydrophilic cellulose-alpha zirconium phosphate ion exchange membrane via surface coating for the removal of heavy metals from wastewater".
1208:
341:
Ion exchange resins are the physical medium that facilitates ion exchange reactions. The resin is composed of cross-linked organic polymers, typically polystyrene matrix and functional groups where the ion exchange process takes place.
740:, which then precipitates, leaving behind fresh water. The desalination occurs at ambient temperature and pressure and requires no membranes or solid ion exchangers. The theoretical energy efficiency of this method is on par with
916:
bed to remove accumulated suspended solids, flushing removed ions from the resin with a concentrated solution of replacement ions, and rinsing the flushing solution from the resin. Production of backwash, flushing, and rinsing
675:, which is also very important for the nuclear industry. Physically, zirconium is practically transparent to free neutrons, used in building nuclear reactors, but hafnium is a very strong absorber of neutrons, used in reactor
1136:
587:
in the 1940s, ion-exchange processes were formerly the only practical way to separate them in large quantities, until the development of the "solvent extraction" techniques that can be scaled up enormously.
892:
Ion exchange resins have finite capacities for adsorbing ions, and once saturated, they must be regenerated or replaced, which can limit their effectiveness in treating high-concentration or high-volume
886:
Regeneration of ion exchange resins requires the use of chemicals and generates wastewater containing concentrated contaminants, which may require appropriate handling and disposal measures.
728:
Ion exchange can also be used to remove hardness from water by exchanging calcium and magnesium ions for sodium ions in an ion-exchange column. Liquid-phase (aqueous) ion-exchange
1143:
644:. Thus the waste products can be separated out for disposal. Next, the plutonium and uranium are available for making nuclear-energy materials, such as new reactor fuel (
330:
133:
of both the ion exchanger and ion. This can be dependent on the size, charge, or structure of the ions. Common examples of ions that can bind to ion exchangers are:
849:
Ion exchange resins can be regenerated multiple times by flushing them with a regenerating solution, extending their lifespan and reducing operational costs.
713:
Idealised image of water-softening process, involving exchange of calcium ions in water with sodium ions from a cation-exchange resin on an equivalent basis.
1044:
Ibrahim, Yazan; Naddeo, Vincenzo; Banat, Fawzi; Hasan, Shadi W. (1 November 2020). "Preparation of novel polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)-Tin(IV) oxide (SnO
572:, from each other. The separation of neodymium and praseodymium was a particularly difficult one, and those were formerly thought to be just one element
1011:
732:
has been demonstrated. In this technique anions and cations in salt water are exchanged for carbonate anions and calcium cations respectively using
1534:
1397:
114:
that are able to exchange both cations and anions simultaneously. However, the simultaneous exchange of cations and anions is often performed in
1369:
583:, the lanthanides and the actinides, both of whose families all have very similar chemical and physical properties. Using methods developed by
118:, which contain a mixture of anion- and cation-exchange resins, or passing the solution through several different ion-exchange materials.
1474:
943:
is approximately 20–40% efficient. Neutralized deionizer regeneration wastewater contains all of the removed ions plus 2.5–5 times their
1415:
1840:
880:
If target ions are present in complex mixtures or at low concentrations, additional pre-treatment or post-treatment may be required.
364:
Composed of an acrylic polymer and carboxylic acid functional groups. Used to selectively remove cations associated with alkalinity.
1554:
1402:
1549:
1407:
1345:
1305:
501:. An important area of the application is extraction and purification of biologically produced substances such as proteins (
1446:
129:
Ion exchangers can have binding preferences for certain ions or classes of ions, depending on the physical properties and
1986:
1170:"Desalination and hydrogen, chlorine, and sodium hydroxide production via electrophoretic ion exchange and precipitation"
1835:
1028:
1705:
396:
Act as acid absorbers; capable of sorbing strong acids with a high capacity and are readily regenerated with caustic.
899:
Ion exchange systems can be complex to design, operate, and maintain, requiring specialized knowledge and expertise.
1795:
1765:
1735:
1509:
861:
Ion exchange systems offer consistent and predictable performance, providing reliable water treatment over time.
960:
1327:
1976:
1785:
1609:
1569:
867:
Ion exchange systems can be easily scaled up or down to meet different treatment capacities and requirements.
808:
53:. More precisely, the term encompasses a large variety of processes where ions are exchanged between two
1710:
486:
667:
The ion-exchange process is also used to separate other sets of very similar chemical elements, such as
1981:
1850:
1617:
1249:
1622:
1439:
1290:
C. E. Harland, Ion exchange: Theory and
Practice, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 1994.
944:
773:
762:
691:
382:
Greatest affinity for the weak acids and commonly present during a water demineralization process.
1810:
1750:
1677:
1519:
637:
1667:
1662:
1627:
1048:) ion exchange mixed matrix membranes for the removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions".
703:
479:
264:
1337:
Ion exchange in environmental processes: fundamentals, applications and sustainable technology
1243:
975:
1876:
1687:
1412:
1398:
Illustrated and well defined chemistry lab practical on ion exchange from
Dartmouth College
1184:
1093:
921:
680:
46:
Ion exchange usually describes a process of purification of aqueous solutions using solid
8:
1790:
1775:
1730:
1529:
1432:
792:
695:
613:
493:
method that is widely used for chemical analysis and separation of ions. For example, in
279:
1188:
1097:
1916:
1881:
1825:
1745:
1720:
1489:
1469:
1363:
1117:
1065:
980:
970:
769:
for positively charged ions. Soils can be considered as natural weak cation exchangers.
445:
175:
130:
61:
50:
474:). Another application for ion exchange in domestic water treatment is the removal of
1955:
1740:
1637:
1484:
1351:
1341:
1301:
1200:
1121:
1109:
1069:
1024:
737:
684:
459:
426:
1105:
920:
during regeneration of ion-exchange media limits the usefulness of ion exchange for
1871:
1830:
1815:
1715:
1695:
1323:
Ion exchange (D. Muraviev, V. Gorshkov, A. Warshawsky), M. Dekker, New York, 2000.
1192:
1137:"University of Rochester – Investigation of Steam Turbine Extraction Line Failures"
1101:
1057:
1016:
940:
837:
Ion exchange resins can be designed to selectively remove specific ions from water.
722:
591:
A very important case of ion-exchange is the plutonium-uranium extraction process (
580:
220:
1020:
462:, and water heaters. This is accomplished by exchanging divalent cations (such as
1906:
1780:
1494:
1419:
1295:
1253:
1061:
990:
932:
781:
745:
741:
733:
641:
471:
449:
441:
238:
92:
73:
1931:
1911:
1901:
1896:
1886:
1866:
1805:
1700:
1632:
1574:
1559:
1504:
948:
843:
Ion exchange processes can achieve high removal efficiencies for targeted ions.
798:
777:
649:
633:
584:
490:
325:
1355:
405:
Used to exchange heavy metals from alkaline earth and alkali metal solutions.
1970:
1589:
1514:
936:
597:
1168:
Shkolnikov, Viktor; Bahga, Supreet S.; Santiago, Juan G. (August 28, 2012).
717:
1936:
1820:
1642:
1599:
1335:
1204:
1113:
985:
758:
729:
661:
653:
561:
494:
230:
209:
19:
791:
manufacturing, ion exchange is used to create the guiding layer of higher
1926:
1921:
1845:
1800:
1760:
1657:
1564:
676:
657:
502:
425:
A typical example of application is preparation of high-purity water for
293:
244:
109:
54:
776:, ion-exchange capacity determines the swelling capacity of swelling or
388:
Lower chemical stability than Type 1 but better regeneration efficiency.
1891:
1755:
1455:
1196:
917:
812:
617:
545:
456:
437:
268:
248:
27:
1725:
1672:
1524:
788:
699:
668:
629:
621:
569:
557:
549:
541:
537:
525:
467:
455:
Ion exchange is a method widely used in household filters to produce
193:
168:
153:
142:
855:
Ion exchange can be applied to various water treatment applications.
709:
358:) functional group. Used in softening or demineralization processes.
1652:
1544:
1479:
645:
573:
565:
529:
272:
234:
213:
157:
121:
1287:
Ion
Exchangers (K. Dorfner, ed.), Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1991.
489:
is another area to be mentioned. Ion-exchange chromatography is a
1579:
672:
609:
533:
521:
498:
475:
463:
434:
430:
256:
252:
179:
164:
69:
47:
32:
721:
Large cation/anion ion exchangers used in water purification of
470:
Mg) with highly soluble monovalent cations (e.g., Na or H) (see
1594:
1584:
625:
553:
149:
138:
96:
1499:
1424:
1009:
Dardel, François; Arden, Thomas V. (2008). "Ion
Exchangers".
928:
909:
903:
802:
784:, which can be used to "capture" pollutants and charged ions.
592:
517:
290:
with desirable ions by washing with an excess of these ions.
217:
125:
Ion exchanger. This device is packed with ion-exchange resin.
104:
84:
1245:
Betz
Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning – 8th Edition
1082:
16:
Exchange of ions between an electrolyte solution and a solid
766:
81:
77:
965:
510:
506:
65:
497:
it is widely used to separate charged molecules such as
1647:
1293:
1167:
1043:
516:
Ion-exchange processes are used to separate and purify
1241:
908:
Most ion-exchange systems use columns of ion-exchange
354:
Composed of a polystyrene matrix with a sulphonate (SO
148:
Singly charged monatomic (i.e., monovalent) ions like
163:
Doubly charged monatomic (i.e., divalent) ions like
1328:
Ion
Exchange Materials: Properties and Applications
595:), which is used to separate the plutonium (mainly
1378:Ion Exchange Technology I : Theory and Materials.
1278:
1968:
1403:Some applets illustrating ion exchange processes
1314:
736:. Calcium and carbonate ions then react to form
1142:. Arlington, VA. pp. 25–26. Archived from
315:SP (sulphopropyl group, strong cation exchange)
1012:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
312:CM (Carboxymethyl group, weak cation exchange)
1440:
1235:
927:Water softeners are usually regenerated with
823:
652:. Historically some fission products such as
1539:
1385:Ion exchange : theory and practice (2nd ed.)
544:. This process is also used to separate the
1008:
1447:
1433:
1368:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1135:Mischissin, Stephen G. (7 February 2012).
1134:
904:Waste water produced by resin regeneration
429:, electronic and nuclear industries; i.e.
103:, which exchange negatively charged ions (
1281:Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning
345:
1333:
716:
708:
690:Ion-exchange resins in the form of thin
368:
292:
120:
26:
18:
1183:(32). Phys. Chem. Chem Phys: 11534–45.
1969:
1272:
1050:Separation and Purification Technology
1002:
336:
1428:
912:that are operated on a cyclic basis.
811:, produced by exchanging K for Na in
751:
1408:A simple explanation of deionization
1177:Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
660:were likewise separated for use as
576:– but that is an alloy of the two.
440:ion exchangers are widely used for
413:Used for organic compound removal.
400:
13:
1836:Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation
1376:Dr., I., & Luqman, M. (2012).
1283:(7th ed.). Betz Laboratories.
664:employed in industry or medicine.
306:
14:
1998:
1706:Agricultural wastewater treatment
1391:
1387:. The Royal Society of Chemistry.
319:
1950:
1949:
1294:Friedrich G. Helfferich (1962).
1086:Science of the Total Environment
801:, removal of alkali ions from a
765:is the ion-exchange capacity of
679:. Thus, ion-exchange is used in
352:Strong acid cation (SAC) resins:
1766:Industrial wastewater treatment
1736:Decentralized wastewater system
1242:Betz Laboratories Inc. (1980).
1106:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.009
416:
375:Strong base anion (SBA) resins:
282:, and the ion exchanger can be
1454:
1300:. Courier Dover Publications.
1260:
1226:
1161:
1128:
1076:
1037:
961:Alkali anion-exchange membrane
871:
362:Weak acid cation (WAC) resins:
1:
1786:Rotating biological contactor
1021:10.1002/14356007.a14_393.pub2
996:
828:
809:Chemically strengthened glass
772:In pollution remediation and
457:soft water for the benefit of
408:
394:Weak base anion (WBA) resins:
31:Ion-exchange column used for
1330:, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006.
1062:10.1016/j.seppur.2020.117250
271:, ion exchange is a form of
91:, which exchange positively
87:. Ion exchangers are either
7:
954:
487:ion-exchange chromatography
60:Typical ion exchangers are
10:
2003:
1987:Industrial water treatment
1851:Wastewater treatment plant
1618:Adsorbable organic halides
1334:SenGupta, Arup K. (2017).
1279:Betz Laboratories (1976).
884:Regeneration requirements:
824:Advantages and limitations
485:Industrial and analytical
64:(functionalized porous or
1945:
1859:
1686:
1623:Biochemical oxygen demand
1608:
1462:
1413:Ion exchange, BioMineWiki
1315:Kemmer, Frank N. (1979).
1232:Kemmer, pp. 12–17, 12–25.
460:laundry detergents, soaps
1317:The NALCO Water Handbook
945:equivalent concentration
774:geotechnical engineering
763:cation-exchange capacity
704:vanadium redox batteries
648:) and (plutonium-based)
579:There are two series of
301:
23:Ion-exchange resin beads
1811:Sewage sludge treatment
1751:Fecal sludge management
1711:API oil–water separator
1678:Wastewater surveillance
1383:Harland, C. E. (1994).
1015:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
859:Consistent performance:
612:(in that case known as
520:, including separating
1668:Total suspended solids
1663:Total dissolved solids
1628:Chemical oxygen demand
976:Ion-exchange membranes
725:
714:
480:natural organic matter
346:Cation exchange resins
298:
126:
36:
24:
1535:Industrial wastewater
1380:Springer Netherlands.
720:
712:
683:and the treatment of
369:Anion exchange resins
297:Ion exchange process.
296:
247:that can be ionized:
124:
30:
22:
1977:Analytical chemistry
1877:Groundwater recharge
1149:on 23 September 2015
922:wastewater treatment
878:Removal limitations:
681:nuclear reprocessing
241:) functional groups.
1791:Secondary treatment
1776:Membrane bioreactor
1731:Constructed wetland
1530:Infiltration/Inflow
1273:Further information
1214:on December 8, 2021
1189:2012PCCP...1411534S
1098:2019ScTEn.690..167I
793:index of refraction
696:chloralkali process
614:reprocessed uranium
337:Ion exchange resins
107:). There are also
62:ion-exchange resins
1956:Category: Sewerage
1917:Septic drain field
1882:Infiltration basin
1826:Stabilization pond
1746:Facultative lagoon
1610:Quality indicators
1490:Blackwater (waste)
1470:Acid mine drainage
1418:2020-08-11 at the
1266:Kemmer, pp. 12–18.
1197:10.1039/c2cp42121f
981:Ion-exchange resin
971:Ion chromatography
835:Selective removal:
815:surfaces using KNO
752:Other applications
726:
715:
446:water purification
422:other industries.
386:Type 3 SBA resins:
380:Type 1 SBA resins:
299:
280:reversible process
278:Ion exchange is a
131:chemical structure
127:
51:ion-exchange resin
37:
25:
1982:General chemistry
1964:
1963:
1741:Extended aeration
1688:Treatment options
1638:Oxygen saturation
1485:Blackwater (coal)
1463:Sources and types
1347:978-1-119-42125-2
1326:A. A. Zagorodni,
1307:978-0-486-68784-1
890:Limited capacity:
738:calcium carbonate
694:are also used in
685:radioactive waste
581:rare-earth metals
491:chromatographical
427:power engineering
237:containing −COO (
89:cation exchangers
1994:
1953:
1952:
1872:Evaporation pond
1860:Disposal options
1831:Trickling filter
1816:Sewage treatment
1716:Carbon filtering
1696:Activated sludge
1449:
1442:
1435:
1426:
1425:
1373:
1367:
1359:
1320:
1311:
1284:
1267:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1252:. Archived from
1248:. Betz. p.
1239:
1233:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1213:
1207:. Archived from
1174:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1148:
1141:
1132:
1126:
1125:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1006:
941:sodium hydroxide
841:High efficiency:
723:boiler feedwater
642:nuclear reactors
640:that come from
638:fission products
607:
604:
603:
401:Chelating resins
221:functional group
204:
203:
202:
190:
189:
188:
101:anion exchangers
2002:
2001:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1967:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1941:
1907:Reclaimed water
1855:
1781:Reverse osmosis
1682:
1604:
1570:Reverse osmosis
1495:Boiler blowdown
1458:
1453:
1420:Wayback Machine
1394:
1361:
1360:
1348:
1340:. Hoboken, NJ.
1308:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1227:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1172:
1166:
1162:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1139:
1133:
1129:
1081:
1077:
1047:
1042:
1038:
1031:
1007:
1003:
999:
991:Reverse osmosis
957:
933:sodium chloride
931:containing 10%
906:
874:
847:Regenerability:
831:
826:
818:
782:montmorillonite
754:
746:reverse osmosis
742:electrodialysis
734:electrophoresis
650:nuclear weapons
634:minor actinides
616:) contained in
602:
600:
599:
598:
596:
472:water softening
450:decontamination
442:water softening
419:
411:
403:
371:
357:
348:
339:
322:
309:
307:Cation exchange
304:
239:carboxylic acid
226:
216:containing the
201:
198:
197:
196:
194:
187:
184:
183:
182:
180:
74:montmorillonite
17:
12:
11:
5:
2000:
1990:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1946:
1943:
1942:
1940:
1939:
1934:
1932:Surface runoff
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1912:Sanitary sewer
1909:
1904:
1902:Marine outfall
1899:
1897:Marine dumping
1894:
1889:
1887:Injection well
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1867:Combined sewer
1863:
1861:
1857:
1856:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1806:Settling basin
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1701:Aerated lagoon
1698:
1692:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1633:Coliform index
1630:
1625:
1620:
1614:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1603:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1575:Sanitary sewer
1572:
1567:
1562:
1560:Produced water
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1505:Combined sewer
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1459:
1452:
1451:
1444:
1437:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1393:
1392:External links
1390:
1389:
1388:
1381:
1374:
1346:
1331:
1324:
1321:
1319:. McGraw-Hill.
1312:
1306:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1268:
1259:
1256:on 2012-06-20.
1234:
1225:
1160:
1127:
1075:
1045:
1036:
1030:978-3527306732
1029:
1000:
998:
995:
994:
993:
988:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
956:
953:
949:sodium sulfate
905:
902:
901:
900:
894:
887:
881:
873:
870:
869:
868:
862:
856:
850:
844:
838:
830:
827:
825:
822:
821:
820:
816:
806:
799:Dealkalization
796:
785:
778:expansive clay
770:
753:
750:
601:
585:Frank Spedding
528:and the other
418:
415:
410:
407:
402:
399:
398:
397:
391:
390:
389:
383:
370:
367:
366:
365:
359:
355:
347:
344:
338:
335:
334:
333:
328:
326:DEAE-Sepharose
321:
320:Anion exchange
318:
317:
316:
313:
308:
305:
303:
300:
261:
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1796:Sedimentation
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1590:Sewage sludge
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1475:Ballast water
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662:radionuclides
659:
655:
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647:
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285:
281:
276:
274:
270:
266:
258:
254:
250:
246:
243:
240:
236:
232:
231:Organic acids
229:
222:
219:
215:
211:
210:Organic bases
208:
205:
191:
177:
173:
170:
166:
162:
159:
155:
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1937:Vacuum sewer
1821:Sewer mining
1771:Ion exchange
1770:
1721:Chlorination
1643:Heavy metals
1600:Urban runoff
1540:Ion exchange
1520:Fecal sludge
1384:
1377:
1336:
1316:
1297:Ion Exchange
1296:
1280:
1262:
1254:the original
1244:
1237:
1228:
1216:. Retrieved
1209:the original
1180:
1176:
1163:
1151:. Retrieved
1144:the original
1130:
1089:
1085:
1078:
1053:
1049:
1039:
1010:
1004:
986:Desalination
926:
914:
907:
896:
889:
883:
877:
865:Scalability:
864:
858:
853:Versatility:
852:
846:
840:
834:
759:soil science
730:desalination
727:
689:
677:control rods
666:
654:Strontium-90
590:
578:
562:praseodymium
532:, including
515:
495:biochemistry
484:
454:
424:
420:
417:Applications
412:
404:
393:
385:
379:
374:
361:
351:
340:
287:
283:
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262:
245:Biomolecules
128:
115:
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55:electrolytes
45:
40:Ion exchange
39:
38:
35:purification
1927:Storm drain
1922:Sewage farm
1846:Vermifilter
1801:Septic tank
1761:Imhoff tank
1658:Temperature
1565:Return flow
1555:Papermaking
1153:23 February
1092:: 167–180.
897:Complexity:
872:Limitations
658:Caesium-137
636:), and the
546:lanthanides
503:amino acids
284:regenerated
263:Along with
249:amino acids
174:Polyatomic
1971:Categories
1892:Irrigation
1756:Filtration
1456:Wastewater
1356:1001290476
1056:: 117250.
997:References
918:wastewater
829:Advantages
813:soda glass
787:In planar
700:fuel cells
618:spent fuel
608:) and the
548:, such as
409:Adsorbents
269:adsorption
265:absorption
212:, usually
178:ions like
141:) and OH (
116:mixed beds
112:exchangers
110:amphoteric
68:polymer),
1726:Clarifier
1673:Turbidity
1525:Greywater
1364:cite book
1122:195870880
1070:224880249
789:waveguide
692:membranes
669:zirconium
630:neptunium
622:americium
570:ytterbium
558:neodymium
550:lanthanum
542:americium
538:neptunium
530:actinides
526:plutonium
468:magnesium
438:insoluble
435:inorganic
431:polymeric
235:molecules
214:molecules
176:inorganic
143:hydroxide
48:polymeric
1653:Salinity
1545:Leachate
1480:Bathroom
1416:Archived
1205:22806549
1114:31288108
955:See also
893:streams.
805:surface.
780:such as
646:MOX-fuel
574:didymium
566:europium
499:proteins
448:, water
273:sorption
257:proteins
253:peptides
233:, often
70:zeolites
1580:Septage
1218:July 9,
1185:Bibcode
1094:Bibcode
673:hafnium
610:uranium
534:thorium
522:uranium
476:nitrate
466:Ca and
464:calcium
452:, etc.
97:cations
93:charged
33:protein
1954:
1595:Toilet
1585:Sewage
1550:Manure
1354:
1344:
1304:
1203:
1120:
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1027:
819:melts.
702:, and
626:curium
568:, and
554:cerium
540:, and
518:metals
505:) and
288:loaded
259:, etc.
156:, and
139:proton
105:anions
99:), or
95:ions (
80:, and
1500:Brine
1212:(PDF)
1173:(PDF)
1147:(PDF)
1140:(PDF)
1118:S2CID
1066:S2CID
929:brine
910:resin
803:glass
632:(the
620:from
593:PUREX
524:from
302:Types
218:amine
85:humus
1841:UASB
1370:link
1352:OCLC
1342:ISBN
1302:ISBN
1220:2013
1201:PMID
1155:2015
1110:PMID
1025:ISBN
939:and
767:soil
744:and
671:and
478:and
267:and
192:and
167:and
82:soil
78:clay
1193:doi
1102:doi
1090:690
1058:doi
1054:250
1017:doi
966:Ion
947:as
757:In
656:or
511:RNA
507:DNA
433:or
331:QFF
286:or
223:−NR
137:H (
66:gel
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1648:pH
1366:}}
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227:H.
195:PO
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165:Ca
158:Cl
152:,
150:Na
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154:K
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