History of science and technology in China

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century or more. In contrast, Europe's barriers of the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the various defensible peninsulas (Denmark, Scandinavia, Italy, Greece, etc.) and islands (Britain, Ireland, Sicily, etc.) led to smaller countries in constant competition with each other. If a ruler chose to ignore a scientific advancement (especially a military or economic one), his more-advanced neighbors would soon usurp his throne. This explanation, however, ignores the fact that

6770: 6758: 1267: 3669: 2597: 3206: 6747: 1621: 2002: 3641: 1762: 1409: 3318:, for example, argued that the Chinese political system was hostile to scientific progress. As for Needham, he wrote that cultural factors prevented traditional Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science." It was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature: 3229:, "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible." Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China: 2358:(1081–1129)—supported the primacy of contemporaneous archaeological finds of ancient inscriptions over historical works written after the fact, which they contested to be unreliable in regard to the former evidence. Hong Mai (1123–1202) used ancient Han dynasty era vessels to debunk what he found to be fallacious descriptions of Han vessels in the 4335:"" Islamic and Chinese Astronomy under the Mongols: a Little-Known Case of Transmission ", in : Yvonne Dold-Samplonius, Joseph W. Dauben, Menso Folkerts & Benno van Dalen, éds., From China to Paris. 2000 Years Transmission of Mathematical Ideas. Series: Boethius 46, Stuttgart (Steiner), 2002, pp. 327–356" 3347:

There are also questions about the philosophy behind traditional Chinese medicine, which, derived partly from Taoist philosophy, reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. Because its theory predates

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of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. One modern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were "regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics,

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as evidence that the area was once the location of an ancient seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles east over an enormous span of time. Shen also wrote that since petrified bamboos were found underground in a dry northern climate zone where they had never been known to grow, climates naturally

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In 2016, China became the country with the highest science output, as measured in publications. While the US had been the biggest producer of scientific studies until then, China published 426,000 studies in 2016 while the US published 409,000. However, the numbers are somewhat relative, as it also

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postulates that the lack of geographic barriers within much of China—essentially a wide plain with two large navigable rivers and a relatively smooth coastline—led to a single government without competition. At the whim of a ruler who disliked new inventions, technology could be stifled for half a

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is one well-known example of this line of thought. It argues that the Chinese population was large enough, workers cheap enough, and agrarian productivity high enough to not require mechanization: thousands of Chinese workers were perfectly able to quickly perform any needed task. Other events such

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is the Moon's obstruction of sunlight reaching Earth, the Moon is spherical like a ball and not flat like a disc, and moonlight is merely sunlight reflected from the Moon's surface. Shen also explained that the observance of a full moon occurred when the Sun's light was slanting at a certain degree

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It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had

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made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the

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between 220 and 200 BC. Typical Chinese architecture changed little from the succeeding Han dynasty until the 19th century. The Qin dynasty also developed the crossbow, which later became the mainstream weapon in Europe. Several remains of crossbows have been found among the soldiers of the

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900. Chinese illustrations were more realistic than in Byzantine manuscripts, and detailed accounts from 1044 recommending its use on city walls and ramparts show the brass container as fitted with a horizontal pump, and a nozzle of small diameter. The records of a battle on the

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saw the introduction in earnest of modern science to China. Large numbers of Chinese students studied abroad in Japan and in Europe and the US. Many returned to help teach and to found numerous schools and universities. Among them were numerous outstanding figures, including

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before spreading to China), the Chinese were able to record observations, documenting the first recorded solar eclipse in 2137 BC, and making the first recording of any planetary grouping in 500 BC. These claims, however, are highly disputed and rely on much supposition. The

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These early forms of drugs were made using primitive methods, usually just simple dried herbs, or unprocessed minerals. They were developed into combinations known as "elixirs of immortality". These early magical practices, supported by the imperial courts of

1472:. Needham notes that the invention of the crossbow "far outstripped the progress in defensive armor", which made the wearing of armor useless to the princes and dukes of the states. At this time, there were also many nascent schools of thought in China—the 3030:), excavated from the Takashima shipwreck, October 2011. Excavated bombs contain a 3–6 cm (1.2–2.4 in) opening at the top where the fuse was placed. Once the fuse was lit, the bomb was thrown either by hand or catapult. According to the 3450:, and many others. As a result, there was a tremendous growth of modern science in China. As the Communist Party took over China's mainland in 1949, some of these Chinese scientists and institutions moved to Taiwan. The central science academy, 3376:, the Opium Wars and the resulting hate of European influence prevented China from undergoing an Industrial Revolution; copying Europe's progress on a large scale would be impossible for a lengthy period of time. Political instability under 4062:

Kelly, p. 22. "Around 1240 the Arabs acquired knowledge of saltpeter (“Chinese snow”) from the East, perhaps through India. They knew of gunpowder soon afterward. They also learned about fireworks (“Chinese flowers”) and rockets (“Chinese

1383:, at the same time bringing Chinese knowledge of technology back to Europe. In the 19th and 20th centuries the introduction of Western technology was a major factor in the modernization of China. Much of the early Western work in the 2705:

proved that the Moon was spherical, using a metaphor of observing different angles of a silver ball with white powder thrown onto one side. Although the Chinese accepted the idea of spherical-shaped heavenly bodies, the concept of a

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military manuscript of 1044 listed the first known written formulas for gunpowder, meant for light-weight bombs lobbed from catapults or thrown down from defenders behind city walls. By the 13th century, the iron-cased bomb shell,

2672:. Shen believed that rays of sunlight refracted before reaching the surface of the Earth, hence the appearance of the observed Sun from Earth did not match its exact location. Coinciding with the astronomical work of his colleague 2920:

In addition to the method similar to the Bessemer process mentioned above, there were other notable advancements in Chinese metallurgy during the Middle Ages. During the 11th century, the growth of the iron industry caused vast

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These four discoveries had an enormous impact on the development of Chinese civilization and a far-ranging global impact. Gunpowder, for example, spread to the Arabs in the 13th century and thence to Europe. According to

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allowed China to become the third country to send humans into space, and ambition to put a man on mars by 2030. In the 2000s and 2010s, China became a top scientific and industrial power in more advanced fields such as

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Despite this, Chinese thinkers of the Middle Ages proposed some hypotheses which are in accordance with modern principles of science. Yang Hui provided theoretical proof for the proposition that the complements of the

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and their desire to revive the use of ancient vessels in state rituals and ceremonies. This and the belief that ancient vessels were products of 'sages' and not common people was criticized by Shen Kuo, who took an

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rule (opposition and frequent oscillation between modernists and conservatives), the Republican wars (1911–1933), the Sino-Japanese War (1933–1945), the Communist/Nationalist War (1945–1949) as well as the later

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had produced 5 billion coins (roughly 50 per Chinese citizen), and the first banknotes were produced in 1023. These coins were so durable that they would still be in use 700 years later, in the 18th century.

1841:, although the earliest surviving examples of printed cloth patterns date to before 220. Pin-pointing the development of the compass can be difficult: the magnetic attraction of a needle is attested by the 3095:

Experimentation with various materials and ingredients in China during the middle period led to the discovery of many ointments, creams, and other mixtures with practical uses. In a 9th-century Arab work

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by banging drums, clashing gongs, striking bells, and holding plaques with special announcements appearing from open-and-close shutter windows. While it had been Zhang Heng who applied the first

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scroll, these bombs made a large noise and emitted bright fire upon explosion. Prior to the shipwreck's discovery, observers believed the bombs depicted in the scroll were a later addition.

1669:(25–220 AD), this seismograph was an urn-like instrument, which would drop one of eight balls to indicate when and in which direction an earthquake had occurred. On June 13, 2005, Chinese 303: 3340:, has argued that China did indeed experience a scientific revolution in the 17th century; however, it must be understood in the context of its time and culture, rather than through a 2646:

The men of old changed the name of their methods from problem to problem, so that as no specific explanation was given, there is no way of telling their theoretical origin or basis.

1559:. The practice of acupuncture can be traced back as far as the 1st millennium BC and some scientists believe that there is evidence that practices similar to acupuncture were used in 2500:. Chinese corps, expert in siege warfare, formed an integral part of the Mongol armies campaigning in the West. In 1259–1260 military alliance of the Franks knights of the ruler of 3234:

scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.

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China began a formal computing development program in 1956 when it launched the Twelve-Year Science Plan and formed the Beijing Institute of Computing Technology under the

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Johann Adam Schall published Yuan Jing Shuo, Explanation of the Telescope, in 1626, in Latin and Chinese. Schall's book referred to the telescopic observations of Galileo.

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is the earliest known printed document. Movable type was also used in China for a time, but was abandoned because of the number of characters needed; it would not be until

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Inaccurate section title, piles of unsourced (& wrong) statements, nonRSes including sth on Geocities, entire passages written in peacockspeech, &c. See talk page.

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Wagner, Donald B. "The Administration of the Iron Industry in Eleventh-Century China," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (Volume 44 2001): 175–197.

3469: 1433: 5781: 2173:, economic reforms, and achievements in arts and literature. Trade flourished both within China and overseas, and the encouragement of technology allowed the mints at 5845:

Sivin, Nathan. 2005. "A Multi-dimensional Approach to Research on Ancient Science". East Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine, no. 23. Temporary Publisher: 10–25.

3541:. Other civilian technologies such as superconductivity and high-yield hybrid rice led to new developments due to the application of science to industry and foreign 1974:, along with different compositions of gunpowder, including 'magic gunpowder', 'poisonous gunpowder', and 'blinding and burning gunpowder' (refer to his article). 296: 2817:(新儀象法要; lit. 'Essentials of a New Method for Mechanizing the Rotation of an Armillary Sphere and a Celestial Globe') documented the intricate mechanics of his 3707: 2574: 236: 4848:

Hartwell, Robert (1966). "Markets, Technology, and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh-Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry".

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Liu, Heping. ""The Water Mill" and Northern Song Imperial Patronage of Art, Commerce, and Science," The Art Bulletin (Volume 84, Number 4, 2002): 566–595.

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depends how authorship on international collaborations is counted (e.g. if one paper is counted per person or whether authorship is split among authors).

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in 657 that documented 833 medicinal substances taken from stones, minerals, metals, plants, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops. In his

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scientists and engineers made significant scientific innovations, findings and technological advances across various scientific disciplines including the

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 4, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts

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habitually referred to him as "the Confucius of Europe", and he personally identified himself with the Chinese sage. The doctrine and even the name of "

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Mark Elvin, "The high-level equilibrium trap: the causes of the decline of invention in the traditional Chinese textile industries" in W. E. Willmott,

2853:(683–727) in 725 CE who first applied an escapement mechanism to a water-powered celestial globe and striking clock. The early Song dynasty horologist 3604: 4124: 3100:, there are numerous products listed that were native to China, including waterproof and dust-repelling cream or varnish for clothes and weapons, a 2949:'s (d. 38) invention of the 1st century CE, the first known drawn and printed illustration of it in operation is found in a book written in 1313 by 3314:

and why Chinese technology fell behind that of Europe. Many hypotheses have been proposed ranging from the cultural to the political and economic.

2161:(960–1279) brought a new stability for China after a century of civil war, and started a new area of modernisation by encouraging examinations and 6807: 3129: 6452: 3901: 3918: 2346:(1007–1072) compiled an analytical catalogue of ancient rubbings on stone and bronze, which Patricia B. Ebrey says pioneered ideas in early 6899: 6328: 6295: 2774:. For example, Su made systematic descriptions of animal species and the environmental regions they could be found, such as the freshwater 3967: 6502: 6497: 6467: 6457: 6447: 1480:(墨翟 Mozi, 470 BCE–c. 391 BCE) introduced concepts useful to one of those rulers, such as defensive fortification. One of these concepts, 2338:

approach to archaeology, incorporating his archaeological findings into studies on metallurgy, optics, astronomy, geometry, and ancient

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More recent historians have questioned political and cultural explanations and have put greater focus on economic causes. Mark Elvin's

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in the 13th century. Numerous contacts between Europe and the Mongols occurred in the 13th century, particularly through the unstable

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were invented in China almost 2,000 years ago. The Chinese civilization was the earliest civilization to experiment successfully with

5972: 5947: 3504:, China continued to develop domestic computing and electronic institutions, including the Beijing Institute of Electronics in 1963. 1633: 241: 3288:. However, the economic insights of ancient Chinese political thought had otherwise little impact outside China in later centuries. 3014: 1909:

Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in

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In addition to his studies in meteorology, astronomy, and archaeology mentioned above, Shen Kuo also made hypotheses in regards to

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in his astronomical clock because there were complaints that water would freeze too easily in the clepsydra tanks during winter.

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West, Stephen H. "Cilia, Scale and Bristle: The Consumption of Fish and Shellfish in The Eastern Capital of The Northern Song,"

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which are about the diameter of any given parallelogram are equal to one another. Sun Sikong (1015–1076) proposed the idea that

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic

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in 975 offer an insight into the dangers of the weapon, as a change of wind direction blew the fire back onto the Song forces.

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in 1687. It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the

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started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and Father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius into

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created political institutions that allowed a great deal of freedom of discourse and thought, which facilitated the growth of

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lines. Although the country regressed scientifically as a result of government policies which led to famine during the

1860:, conclusively recorded the chemical reactions caused when saltpetre, pine resin and charcoal were heated together, in 377: 3108:, a waterproof cream for the silk garments of underwater divers, and a cream specifically used for polishing mirrors. 3104:, varnish, or cream that protected leather items, a completely fire-proof cement for glass and porcelain, recipes for 6834: 6366: 6204: 6163: 5868: 5830: 5813: 5737: 5717: 5689: 5671: 5592: 5521: 5484: 5455: 5244: 5222: 5206: 5127: 5031: 4940: 4904: 4822: 4762: 4580: 4559: 4538: 4478: 4454: 4303: 4287: 4239: 4170: 4153: 4145: 3723: 3426: 1451: 1054: 3497:. Over the next several years, Chinese researchers expanded on these efforts with extrapolation from Soviet models. 6321: 6249: 6234: 6214: 6115: 4718:

W. Scott Morton and Charlton M. Lewis, China: Its History and Culture. (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 2005), pp. 70.

2642:(602–670) who were content with using methods without working out their theoretical origins or principle, stating: 2393: 2220: 1716: 1476:(諸子百家), scattered among many polities. The schools served as communities which advised the rulers of these states. 199: 6664: 6229: 6224: 6042: 5992: 5956: 3885: 3523: 808: 268: 262: 23: 1364:(AD 618–906) in particular was a time of great innovation. A good deal of exchange occurred between Western and 6793: 6702: 6608: 6396: 6280: 6105: 3692: 2312: 2182: 1800: 1246: 1198: 182: 6949: 5940: 1792: 1509: 1220: 1146: 1081: 211: 4954:

Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering

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Patricia B. Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999,

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After the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949, China reorganized its science establishment along

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in the smelting process. To remedy the problem of deforestation, the Song Chinese discovered how to produce

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into Chinese mathematics. Before this innovation, blank spaces were used instead of zeros in the system of

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Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing

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Shelagh Vainker in Anne Farrer (ed), "Caves of the Thousand Buddhas", 1990, British Museum publications,

3697: 3490: 3368: 2253:(Illustrated Pharmacopoeia, original source material from 1058 to 1061 AD) with a team of scholars. This 1680:(c. 200–265 AD) was another impressive figure from ancient China. Ma Jun improved the design of the silk 1365: 1208: 965: 346: 62: 6954: 6517: 6219: 6209: 6085: 6052: 6047: 5997: 4385: 3717: 3702: 3511:, the 119. The 119 was a core technology in facilitating China's first successful nuclear weapon test ( 3310:

One question that has been the subject of debate among historians has been why China did not develop a

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Sivin, Nathan (March 1985). "Why the scientific revolution did not take place in China — or did it?".

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