Electric power transmission

667: 519: 3975: 679: 848: 395: 192: 156: 505: 1084: 267: 733: 1687: 1464: 3789:, with margins for safety and fault tolerance. Peak load times vary by region largely due to the industry mix. In hot and cold climates home air conditioning and heating loads affect the overall load. They are typically highest in the late afternoon in the hottest part of the year and in mid-mornings and mid-evenings in the coldest part of the year. Power requirements vary by season and time of day. Distribution system designs always take the base load and the peak load into consideration. 1695: 4611: 93: 6974: 939: 7553: 1587:. Their voltage ranges overlap. Voltages of 69 kV, 115 kV, and 138 kV are often used for subtransmission in North America. As power systems evolved, voltages formerly used for transmission were used for subtransmission, and subtransmission voltages became distribution voltages. Like transmission, subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of power, and like distribution, subtransmission covers an area instead of just point-to-point. 1487: 1027: 4844: 4510: 4426: 3870: 3716: 3571: 2475: 1623: 1500: 1374: 1110: 541: 52: 4053:, issued in 1996. In the United States and parts of Canada, electric transmission companies operate independently of generation companies, but in the Southern United States vertical integration is intact. In regions of separation, transmission owners and generation owners continue to interact with each other as market participants with voting rights within their RTO. RTOs in the United States are regulated by the 3699:) allows lines to operate at higher temperatures, with less sag, and doubled transmission capacity. Lowering line sag at high temperatures can prevent wildfires from starting when power lines touch dry vegetation. Although advanced lines can cost 2-4x more than steel, total reconductoring costs are less than half of a new line, given savings in time, land acquisition, permitting, and construction. 3834:, and other locally distributed storage and generation systems can interact with the grid to improve system operation. Internationally, a slow move from a centralized to decentralized power system has taken place. The main draw of locally distributed generation systems is that they reduce transmission losses by leading to consumption of electricity closer to where it was produced. 2859: 805:. It was powered by a steam engine-driven 500 V Siemens generator. Voltage was stepped down to 100 volts using the Stanley transformer to power incandescent lamps at 23 businesses over 4,000 feet (1,200 m). This practical demonstration of a transformer and alternating current lighting system led Westinghouse to begin installing AC systems later that year. 786:, for public lighting. It was powered by two Siemens & Halske alternators rated 30 hp (22 kW), 2 kV at 120 Hz and used 19 km of cables and 200 parallel-connected 2 kV to 20 V step-down transformers provided with a closed magnetic circuit, one for each lamp. A few months later it was followed by the first British AC system, serving 1224:, which varies by conductor type, the current, and the transmission distance. For example, a 100 mi (160 km) span at 765 kV carrying 1000 MW of power can have losses of 0.5% to 1.1%. A 345 kV line carrying the same load across the same distance has losses of 4.2%. For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the 711:(usually an oil) that is either static or circulated via pumps. If an electric fault damages the pipe and leaks dielectric, liquid nitrogen is used to freeze portions of the pipe to enable draining and repair. This extends the repair period and increases costs. The temperature of the pipe and surroundings are monitored throughout the repair period. 1295:(by increasing its cross-sectional area), larger conductors are heavier and more expensive. And since conductance is proportional to cross-sectional area, resistive power loss is only reduced proportionally with increasing cross-sectional area, providing a much smaller benefit than the squared reduction provided by multiplying the voltage. 3040: 2692: 1309:. Resistance increases with temperature. Spiraling, which refers to the way stranded conductors spiral about the center, also contributes to increases in conductor resistance. The skin effect causes the effective resistance to increase at higher AC frequencies. Corona and resistive losses can be estimated using a mathematical model. 2536: 3420: 3668:

Reconductoring has the potential to double the amount of electricity that can travel across a transmission line. A 2024 report found the United States behind countries like Belgium and the Netherlands in adoption of this technique to accommodate electrification and renewable energy. In April 2022, the

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rates and low commodity costs, Kelvin's law indicates that thicker wires are optimal. Otherwise, thinner conductors are indicated. Since power lines are designed for long-term use, Kelvin's law is used in conjunction with long-term estimates of the price of copper and aluminum as well as interest rates.

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in humans and less than sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals", in particular, childhood leukemia, associated with average exposure to residential power-frequency magnetic field above 0.3 μT (3 mG) to 0.4 μT (4 mG). These levels exceed average residential

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A major barrier to wider adoption of merchant transmission is the difficulty in identifying who benefits from the facility so that the beneficiaries pay the toll. Also, it is difficult for a merchant transmission line to compete when the alternative transmission lines are subsidized by utilities with

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For overhead cables the fiber is integrated into the core of a phase wire. The integrated Dynamic Cable Rating (DCR)/Real Time Thermal Rating (RTTR) solution makes it possible to run the network to its maximum. It allows the operator to predict the behavior of the transmission system to reflect major

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between source end voltage and destination ends increases, but too large a phase angle allows the systems at either end to fall out of step. Since the power flow in a DC link is controlled independently of the phases of the AC networks that it connects, this phase angle limit does not exist, and a DC

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Hydro and wind sources cannot be moved closer to big cities, and solar costs are lowest in remote areas where local power needs are nominal. Connection costs can determine whether any particular renewable alternative is economically realistic. Costs can be prohibitive for transmission lines, but high

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conducted a study to evaluate potential health effects of electric fields. The study measured the electric field strength at the edge of an existing right-of-way on a 765 kV transmission line. The field strength was 1.6 kV/m, and became the interim maximum strength standard for new transmission

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the generators are geographically distributed and the process to bring them online and offline must be carefully controlled. The load control signals can either be sent on separate lines or on the power lines themselves. Voltage and frequency can be used as signaling mechanisms to balance the loads.

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Unbalanced inductance among the three conductors is problematic because it may force the middle line to carry a disproportionate amount of the total power transmitted. Similarly, an unbalanced load may occur if one line is consistently closest to the ground and operates at a lower impedance. Because

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Transmission voltages increased throughout the 20th century. By 1914, fifty-five transmission systems operating at more than 70 kV were in service. The highest voltage then used was 150 kV. Interconnecting multiple generating plants over a wide area reduced costs. The most efficient plants

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In voltage signaling, voltage is varied to increase generation. The power added by any system increases as the line voltage decreases. This arrangement is stable in principle. Voltage-based regulation is complex to use in mesh networks, since the individual components and setpoints would need to be

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High-voltage direct current (HVDC) is used to transmit large amounts of power over long distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. When electrical energy is transmitted over very long distances, the power lost in AC transmission becomes appreciable and it is less expensive to use

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of the surrounding conductors of other phases. The conductors' mutual inductance is partially dependent on the physical orientation of the lines with respect to each other. Three-phase lines are conventionally strung with phases separated vertically. The mutual inductance seen by a conductor of the

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in the US. These companies developed AC systems, but the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems required a much longer technical merger. Alternating current's economies of scale with large generating plants and long-distance transmission slowly added the ability to link

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to the high main transmission voltage, because that equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only larger substations connect with this high voltage. Voltage is stepped down before the current is sent to smaller substations. Subtransmission circuits are usually arranged in loops so that a

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US transmission and distribution losses were estimated at 6.6% in 1997, 6.5% in 2007 and 5% from 2013 to 2019. In general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy between power produced (as reported by power plants) and power sold; the difference constitutes transmission and distribution losses,

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Long-distance transmission (hundreds of kilometers) is cheap and efficient, with costs of US$ 0.005–0.02 per kWh, compared to annual averaged large producer costs of US$ 0.01–0.025 per kWh, retail rates upwards of US$ 0.10 per kWh, and multiples of retail for instantaneous suppliers at unpredicted

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Commercial electric power was initially transmitted at the same voltage used by lighting and mechanical loads. This restricted the distance between generating plant and loads. In 1882, DC voltage could not easily be increased for long-distance transmission. Different classes of loads (for example,

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The Earth's natural geomagnetic field strength varies over the surface of the planet between 0.035 mT and 0.07 mT (35 μT – 70 μT or 350 mG – 700 mG) while the international standard for continuous exposure is set at 40 mT (400,000 mG or 400 G) for the general public.

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The rate of transmission expansion needs to double to support ongoing electrification and reach emission reduction targets. As of 2022, more than 10,000 power plant and energy storage projects were awaiting permission to connect to the US grid — 95% were zero-carbon resources. New power lines can

485:, alternative routes for power to flow should such shutdowns occur. Transmission companies determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line (ordinarily less than its physical or thermal limit) to ensure that spare capacity is available in the event of a failure in another part of the network. 4268:

has made the concept of superconducting power lines commercially feasible, at least for high-load applications. It has been estimated that waste would be halved using this method, since the necessary refrigeration equipment would consume about half the power saved by the elimination of resistive

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This angle varies depending on system loading. It is undesirable for the angle to approach 90 degrees, as the power flowing decreases while resistive losses remain. The product of line length and maximum load is approximately proportional to the square of the system voltage. Series capacitors or

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The characteristic impedance is pure real, which means resistive for that impedance, and it is often called surge impedance. When a lossless line is terminated by surge impedance, the voltage does not drop. Though the phase angles of voltage and current are rotated, the magnitudes of voltage and

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The optimum size of a conductor for a given voltage and current can be estimated by Kelvin's law for conductor size, which states that size is optimal when the annual cost of energy wasted in resistance is equal to the annual capital charges of providing the conductor. At times of lower interest

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In November 2009, LaserMotive won the NASA 2009 Power Beaming Challenge by powering a cable climber 1 km vertically using a ground-based laser transmitter. The system produced up to 1 kW of power at the receiver end. In August 2010, NASA contracted with private companies to pursue the

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The amount of power that can be sent over a transmission line varies with the length of the line. The heating of short line conductors due to line losses sets a thermal limit. If too much current is drawn, conductors may sag too close to the ground, or conductors and equipment may overheat. For

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alloy, formed of several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead transmission, but aluminum is lighter, reduces yields only marginally and costs much less. Overhead conductors are supplied by several companies. Conductor material and shapes are

422:(typically longer than 30 miles (50 km)), and in the interchange of power between grids that are not mutually synchronized. HVDC links stabilize power distribution networks where sudden new loads, or blackouts, in one part of a network might otherwise result in synchronization problems and 1038:

While the price of generating capacity is high, energy demand is variable, making it often cheaper to import needed power than to generate it locally. Because loads often rise and fall together across large areas, power often comes from distant sources. Because of the economic benefits of load

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would require adjustment of the relative phase of the two regional electrical grids. This is an everyday occurrence in AC systems, but one that can become disrupted when AC system components fail and place unexpected loads on the grid. With an HVDC line instead, such an interconnection would:

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all the loads. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low voltage incandescent lighting, high-voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In what became a universal system, these technological differences were temporarily bridged via the

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The long line model is used when a higher degree of accuracy is needed or when the line under consideration is more than 250 km (160 mi) long. Series resistance and shunt conductance are considered to be distributed parameters, such that each differential length of the line has a

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Overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, requiring that lines maintain minimum clearances. Adverse weather conditions, such as high winds and low temperatures, interrupt transmission. Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) can permit conductors to encroach operating

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Some utilities have embraced reconductoring to handle the increase in electricity production. Reconductoring is the replacement-in-place of existing transmission lines with higher-capacity lines. Adding transmission lines is difficult due to cost, permit intervals, and local opposition.

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The medium line approximation is used for lines running between 80 and 250 km (50 and 155 mi). The series impedance and the shunt (current leak) conductance are considered, placing half of the shunt conductance at each end of the line. This circuit is often referred to as a

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To ensure safe and predictable operation, system components are controlled with generators, switches, circuit breakers and loads. The voltage, power, frequency, load factor, and reliability capabilities of the transmission system are designed to provide cost effective performance.

704:. Underground cables take up no right-of-way, have lower visibility, and are less affected by weather. However, cables must be insulated. Cable and excavation costs are much higher than overhead construction. Faults in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair. 1001:(HVDC) systems require relatively costly conversion equipment that may be economically justified for particular projects such as submarine cables and longer distance high capacity point-to-point transmission. HVDC is necessary for sending energy between unsynchronized grids. 453:

closely matches demand. If demand exceeds supply, the imbalance can cause generation plant(s) and transmission equipment to automatically disconnect or shut down to prevent damage. In the worst case, this may lead to a cascading series of shutdowns and a major regional

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of this phenomenon, conductors must be periodically transposed along the line so that each phase sees equal time in each relative position to balance out the mutual inductance seen by all three phases. To accomplish this, line position is swapped at specially designed

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flow, which transmits no power to the load. These reactive currents, however, cause extra heating losses. The ratio of real power transmitted to the load to apparent power (the product of a circuit's voltage and current, without reference to phase angle) is the

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Some studies failed to find any link between living near power lines and developing any sickness or diseases, such as cancer. A 1997 study reported no increased risk of cancer or illness from living near a transmission line. Other studies, however, reported

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high demand moments. New York often buys over 1000 MW of low-cost hydropower from Canada. Local sources (even if more expensive and infrequently used) can protect the power supply from weather and other disasters that can disconnect distant suppliers.

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The cost of high voltage transmission is comparatively low, compared to all other costs constituting consumer electricity bills. In the UK, transmission costs are about 0.2 p per kWh compared to a delivered domestic price of around 10 p per kWh.

4170:. This policy established a magnetic field standard of 200 mG at the edge of the right-of-way using the winter-normal conductor rating. As a comparison with everyday items, a hair dryer or electric blanket produces a 100 mG – 500 mG magnetic field. 915:

could be used to supply varying loads during the day. Reliability was improved and capital costs were reduced, because stand-by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a wider area. Remote and low-cost sources of energy, such as

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The lossless line approximation is the least accurate; it is typically used on short lines where the inductance is much greater than the resistance. For this approximation, the voltage and current are identical at the sending and receiving ends.

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to customers. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub-transmission (33 to 138 kV) and distribution (3.3 to 25 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed to end-user voltage (100 to 4160 volts).

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decreases the voltage of incoming electricity, allowing it to connect from long-distance high-voltage transmission, to local lower voltage distribution. It also reroutes power to other transmission lines that serve local markets. This is the

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Multiple sources and loads can be connected to the transmission system and they must be controlled to provide orderly transfer of power. In centralized power generation, only local control of generation is necessary. This involves

3651:(DTS) systems that measure temperatures all along the cable. Without them maximum current was typically set as a compromise between understanding of operation conditions and risk minimization. This monitoring solution uses passive 2183: 4149:

Mainstream scientific evidence suggests that low-power, low-frequency, electromagnetic radiation associated with household currents and high transmission power lines does not constitute a short- or long-term health hazard.

3071: 1023:. In the 19th century, two-phase transmission was used but required either four wires or three wires with unequal currents. Higher order phase systems require more than three wires, but deliver little or no benefit. 4166:

lines in New York State. The opinion also limited the voltage of new transmission lines built in New York to 345 kV. On September 11, 1990, after a similar study of magnetic field strengths, the NYSPSC issued their

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at each end of the line must communicate to monitor the flow of power so that faulted conductors or equipment can be quickly de-energized and the balance of the system restored. Protection of the transmission line from

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states that energy losses are proportional to the square of the current. Thus, reducing the current by a factor of two lowers the energy lost to conductor resistance by a factor of four for any given size of conductor.

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alternator and featured several Gaulard transformers with primary windings connected in series, which fed incandescent lamps. The system proved the feasibility of AC electric power transmission over long distances.

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The four main models are the short line approximation, the medium line approximation, the long line approximation (with distributed parameters), and the lossless line. In such models, a capital letter such as

1360:, FACTS) throughout the system help to compensate for the reactive power flow, reduce the losses in power transmission and stabilize system voltages. These measures are collectively called 'reactive support'. 3553:(and possibly in other cooperating cities along the transmission route). Such a system could be less prone to failure if parts of it were suddenly shut down. One example of a long DC transmission line is the 445:

has a significantly higher installation cost and greater operational limitations, but lowers maintenance costs. Underground transmission is more common in urban areas or environmentally sensitive locations.

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As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for DC transmission was 7,000 kilometres (4,300 miles). For AC it was 4,000 kilometres (2,500 miles), though US transmission lines are substantially shorter.

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The transmission system usually does not have a large buffering capability to match loads with generation. Thus generation has to be kept matched to the load, to prevent overloading generation equipment.

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Rarely, and for short distances, pilot-wires are strung along the transmission line path. Leased circuits from common carriers are not preferred since availability is not under control of the operator.

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A reconductoring project in southeastern Texas upgraded 240 miles of transmission lines at a cost of $ 900,000 per mile, versus a 3,600-mile greenfield project that averaged $ 1.9 million per mile.

3035:{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {S} }\\I_{\mathrm {S} }\\\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}1&Z\\0&1\\\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {R} }\\I_{\mathrm {R} }\\\end{bmatrix}}} 2687:{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {S} }\\I_{\mathrm {S} }\\\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}A&B\\C&D\\\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}V_{\mathrm {R} }\\I_{\mathrm {R} }\\\end{bmatrix}}} 1064:

have the potential to provide firm power. Renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaics, wind, wave, and tidal, are, due to their intermittency, not considered to be firm. The remaining or

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Single-wire earth return (SWER) or single-wire ground return is a single-wire transmission line for supplying single-phase electrical power to remote areas at low cost. It is principally used for

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are ignored. The final result is that A = D = 1 per unit, B = Z Ohms, and C = 0. The associated transition matrix for this approximation is therefore:

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losses are so large that they can offset the lower resistive losses in the line conductors. Measures to reduce corona losses include larger conductor diameter, hollow cores or conductor bundles.

3076: 278:. Four circuits are shown. Two additional circuits are obscured by trees on the far right. The entire 6809 MW nameplate generation capacity of the dam is accommodated by these six circuits. 2451:(i.e. conversion of high voltage to low voltage near the consumption point), a larger fraction of the generator's power is transmitted to the consumption point and a lesser fraction is lost to 5039: 1258:

losses by a factor of 100, provided the same sized conductors are used in both cases. Even if the conductor size (cross-sectional area) is decreased ten-fold to match the lower current, the

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Long-distance transmission is typically done with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. At higher voltages, where more than 2,000 kV exists between conductor and ground,

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Promoting Wholesale Competition Through Open Access Non-discriminatory Transmission Services by Public Utilities; Recovery of Stranded Costs by Public Utilities and Transmitting Utilities

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direct current instead. For a long transmission line, these lower losses (and reduced construction cost of a DC line) can offset the cost of the required converter stations at each end.

5487: 4264:(HTS) promise to revolutionize power distribution by providing lossless transmission. The development of superconductors with transition temperatures higher than the boiling point of 3527:

link is always able to transfer its full rated power. A DC link therefore stabilizes the AC grid at either end, since power flow and phase angle can then be controlled independently.

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phase-shifting transformers are used on long lines to improve stability. HVDC lines are restricted only by thermal and voltage drop limits, since the phase angle is not material.

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telecommunications are insufficiently reliable, while in some remote areas no common carrier is available. Communication systems associated with a transmission project may use:

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For transmission systems with low power factor, losses are higher than for systems with high power factor. Utilities add capacitor banks, reactors and other components (such as

1174:, power is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3 kV and 30 kV, depending on the size of the unit. The voltage is then stepped up by the power station 6212: 2755: 2175: 1683:

High-voltage power transmission allows for lesser resistive losses over long distances. This efficiency delivers a larger proportion of the generated power to the loads.

481:. Electric transmission networks are interconnected into regional, national, and even continent-wide networks to reduce the risk of such a failure by providing multiple 6667: 2697:

The line is assumed to be a reciprocal, symmetrical network, meaning that the receiving and sending labels can be switched with no consequence. The transmission matrix

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in the secondary branch, compared to the primary branch), then the circuit is again equivalent to a voltage divider, but the wires now have apparent resistance of only

4123:'s Order 1000, issued in 2010, attempted to reduce barriers to third party investment and creation of merchant transmission lines where a public policy need is found. 3640:

becomes the limiting factor. Approximately, the power flowing over an AC line is proportional to the cosine of the phase angle of the voltage and current at the ends.

3415:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}A&=D=\cosh(\gamma x){\text{ per unit}}\\B&=Z_{c}\sinh(\gamma x)\Omega \\C&={\frac {1}{Z_{c}}}\sinh(\gamma x)S\end{aligned}}} 2543:

The terminal characteristics of the transmission line are the voltage and current at the sending (S) and receiving (R) ends. The transmission line can be modeled as a

3252: 2449: 1286: 1256: 3820:, if the frequency decreases, the power is increased. (The drop in line frequency is an indication that the increased load is causing the generators to slow down.) 1798: 1751: 1580:, in urban areas buried cable may be used. The lower-voltage subtransmission lines use less right-of-way and simpler structures; undergrounding is less difficult. 2782: 2061:{\displaystyle P_{R}=V_{2}\times I=V{\frac {R}{R+R_{C}}}\times {\frac {V}{R+R_{C}}}={\frac {R}{R+R_{C}}}\times {\frac {V^{2}}{R+R_{C}}}={\frac {R}{R+R_{C}}}P_{V}} 3463: 3443: 2133: 2113: 2093: 1771: 1724: 4158:

between various diseases and living or working near power lines. No adverse health effects have been substantiated for people not living close to power lines.

4077: 6414: 4974: 6440: 5014: 4921: 900: 2415:{\displaystyle P_{R}=V_{2}\times I_{2}={\frac {a^{2}R\times V^{2}}{(a^{2}R+R_{C})^{2}}}={\frac {a^{2}R}{a^{2}R+R_{C}}}P_{V}={\frac {R}{R+R_{C}/a^{2}}}P_{V}} 891:

The first transmission of single-phase alternating current using high voltage came in Oregon in 1890 when power was delivered from a hydroelectric plant at

6484: 5061: 678: 6281: 6104: 790:. It also featured Siemens alternators and 2.4 kV to 100 V step-down transformers – one per user – with shunt-connected primaries. 5188: 6321: 5523: 3203:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}A&=D=1+{\frac {GZ}{2}}{\text{ per unit}}\\B&=Z\Omega \\C&=G{\Big (}1+{\frac {GZ}{4}}{\Big )}S\end{aligned}}} 1181:

In the United States, power transmission is, variously, 230 kV to 500 kV, with less than 230 kV or more than 500 kV as exceptions.

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corresponding differential series impedance and shunt admittance. The following result can be applied at any point along the transmission line, where

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Underground lines are limited by their thermal capacity, which permits less overload or re-rating lines. Long underground AC cables have significant

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New York City streets in 1890. Besides telegraph lines, multiple electric lines were required for each class of device requiring different voltages.

6525: 5834: 3856:(also called load shedding) are intentionally engineered electrical power outages, used to distribute insufficient power to various loads in turn. 1043:

may span countries and even continents. Interconnections between producers and consumers enables power to flow even if some links are inoperative.

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Electrical energy must typically be generated at the same rate at which it is consumed. A sophisticated control system is required to ensure that

6599: 6529: 718:, which reduces their ability to provide useful power beyond 50 miles (80 kilometres). DC cables are not limited in length by their capacitance. 5549: 4490:, but also finds use for larger isolated loads such as water pumps. Single-wire earth return is also used for HVDC over submarine power cables. 4239:

are operated by the railways. Prime examples are countries such as Austria, Germany and Switzerland that utilize AC technology based on 16

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power-frequency magnetic fields in homes, which are about 0.07 μT (0.7 mG) in Europe and 0.11 μT (1.1 mG) in North America.

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Today, transmission-level voltages are usually 110 kV and above. Lower voltages, such as 66 kV and 33 kV, are usually considered

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Superconducting cables are particularly suited to high load density areas such as the business district of large cities, where purchase of an

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Applications for a new transmission line typically include an analysis of electric and magnetic field levels at the edge of rights-of-way.

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Optical fibers can be included in the stranded conductors of a transmission line, in the overhead shield wires. These cables are known as

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that allowed the legacy systems to connect to the AC grid. These stopgaps were slowly replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.

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attempted to devise systems for large scale wireless power transmission in the late 1800s and early 1900s, without commercial success.

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Grid operators require reliable communications to manage the grid and associated generation and distribution facilities. Fault-sensing

3688: 621:. For large conductors (more than a few centimetres in diameter), much of the current flow is concentrated near the surface due to the 525: 6684: 6396: 6205: 4714:

planned: 1.20 MV (Ultra-High Voltage) on Wardha-Aurangabad line (India) – under construction. Initially will operate at 400 kV.

4162: 3065:) that is taken on when leak conductance is placed on both sides of the circuit diagram. The analysis of the medium line produces: 6378: 5618: 741:

lighting, fixed motors, and traction/railway systems) required different voltages, and so used different generators and circuits.

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Historically, transmission and distribution lines were often owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries

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has two primary interchange voltages: 500 kV AC at 60 Hz, and ±500 kV (1,000 kV net) DC from North to South (

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The first long distance AC line was 34 kilometres (21 miles) long, built for the 1884 International Exhibition of Electricity in

17: 5576: 5660: 5626: 4953: 4246: Hz. Norway and Sweden also use this frequency but use conversion from the 50 Hz public supply; Sweden has a 16 727: 372: 31: 6660: 3672:

streamlined environmental reviews for such projects, and in May 2022 announced competitive grants for them funded by the 2021

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runs through the wire resistance and the powered device. As a consequence, the useful power (at the point of consumption) is:

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The level of capital expenditure in the electric power T&D equipment market was estimated to be $ 128.9 bn in 2011.

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The short line approximation is normally used for lines shorter than 80 km (50 mi). There, only a series impedance

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14 miles (23 km) down river. The first three-phase alternating current using high voltage took place in 1891 during the

625:. The center of the conductor carries little current but contributes weight and cost. Thus, multiple parallel cables (called 434: 6285: 7577: 7556: 6973: 4144: 4054: 4038:(REE) and the wholesale electricity market operator is Operador del Mercado Ibérico de Energía – Polo Español, S.A. (OMEL) 1228:. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces the current by a corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the 474: 305:. This is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as 7395: 4868: 4582:

design of laser power beaming systems to power low earth orbit satellites and to launch rockets using laser power beams.

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in California. Additional projects are in development or have been proposed throughout the United States, including the

4027:, but one that is not inherently linked to generation. Many countries regulate transmission separately from generation. 4001:, prohibit energy transmission companies from selling surplus communication bandwidth or acting as a telecommunications 7503: 6818: 5007: 4948: 4031: 3495:

are used. Submarine HVDC systems are often used to interconnect the electricity grids of islands, for example, between

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voltages, but are occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for

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International Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems, 1984 Session, 29 August – 6 September

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works with industry to identify vulnerabilities and to help industry enhance the security of control system networks.

7123: 6787: 6753: 6736: 6042: 5881: 5711: 5385: 5316: 5127: 5010: 4796:, (Australia) – (length of submarine cable: 290 kilometres or 180 miles, total length: 370.1 kilometres or 230 miles) 4655: 4557: 4473: 4034:. In that country, transmission operations and electricity markets are separate. The transmission system operator is 3917: 3763: 3618: 2867:

current remain constant along the line. For load > SIL, the voltage drops from sending end and the line

2522: 1670: 1547: 1421: 1157: 978:

Transmission efficiency is improved at higher voltage and lower current. The reduced current reduces heating losses.

588: 253: 235: 213: 137: 79: 4978: 4539: 4455: 3899: 3745: 3600: 2504: 1652: 1529: 1403: 1139: 672:

A five-hundred kilovolt (500 kV) three-phase transmission tower in Washington State, the line is bundled 3-ways

570: 206: 6418: 5000: 4888: 4633: 115: 71: 6706: 6507: 6444: 7582: 7286: 7211: 7082: 5906: 5501: 4905: 4899: 4858: 4341: 4261: 3648: 2075:

convert high-voltage, low-current electricity into low-voltage, high-current electricity with a voltage ratio of

1357: 856: 802: 6492: 5861: 4931: 4535: 4451: 3974: 3895: 3741: 3596: 2500: 1648: 1525: 1399: 1135: 566: 466: 442: 411: 5181: 7587: 7458: 7390: 7380: 7256: 7156: 6811: 6543: 6310: 4718: 3673: 837: 5817:"FACT SHEET: Biden-⁠Harris Administration Launches Federal-State Initiative to Bolster America's Power Grid" 5527: 1814: 908: 629:) are used for higher capacity. Bundle conductors are used at high voltages to reduce energy loss caused by 7311: 7271: 6848: 5796: 5080:"Investigation of the September 2013 Electric Outage of a Portion of Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line" 4753: 4684: 4035: 972: 876: 601:

High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly always an

3655:

as temperature sensors, either inside a high-voltage cable or externally mounted on the cable insulation.

3647:

Understanding the temperature distribution along the cable route became possible with the introduction of

518: 7538: 7533: 7251: 7216: 7192: 6893: 4916: 4807: 4692: 4174: 3478: 1599: 1584: 1472: 998: 415: 407: 306: 5838: 3842:

Under excess load conditions, the system can be designed to fail incrementally rather than all at once.

1328:

can be significant. Currents that flow solely in reaction to these properties, (which together with the

1019:. Single-phase AC is used only for distribution to end users since it is not usable for large polyphase 847: 7592: 7453: 7171: 7141: 6918: 6607: 6135:, The Health Report / ABC Science - Broadcast on 7 June 1997 (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) 3798: 3466: 1576:

where substations can switch to a backup supply. While subtransmission circuits are usually carried on

1057: 1040: 1031: 1013: 833: 829: 470: 462: 403: 379: 344: 271: 4205: 3816:

In frequency signaling, the generating units match the frequency of the power transmission system. In

3522:

HVDC links can be used to control grid problems. The power transmitted by an AC line increases as the

7508: 6997: 6958: 6640: 6248: 5560: 4629: 4204:

Tree growth regulators and herbicides may be used in transmission line right of ways, which may have

2707: 1443:

phase in the middle of the other two phases is different from the inductance seen on the top/bottom.

1212:(APS) line) are local standards, both of which were implemented before 500 kV became practical. 863:

In the late 1880s and early 1890s smaller electric companies merged into larger corporations such as

618: 111: 6066: 840:. Widespread use of such motors were delayed many years by development problems and the scarcity of 7483: 7291: 7231: 6888: 6011: 4937: 4883: 4637: 4520: 4436: 4415: 4360: 3968: 3952: 3880: 3726: 3581: 3523: 2485: 1633: 1510: 1384: 1120: 641: 551: 482: 414:. DC technology is used for greater efficiency over longer distances, typically hundreds of miles. 200: 119: 7422: 7412: 7402: 6252: 5653:"How much electricity is lost in electricity transmission and distribution in the United States?" 4943: 4524: 4499: 4440: 4274: 4155: 4039: 3884: 3730: 3677: 3585: 2489: 2138: 1637: 1514: 1388: 1185: 1124: 930:, when large electrical generating plants were built by governments to power munitions factories. 923: 555: 478: 360: 356: 6125: 5967: 5767: 5486:

Paris, L.; Zini, G.; Valtorta, M.; Manzoni, G.; Invernizzi, A.; De Franco, N.; Vian, A. (1984).

5451: 859:, part of their Tesla Poly-phase System. Such polyphase innovations revolutionized transmission. 7343: 7206: 6989: 6878: 6466: 5377: 4873: 4742: 4236: 4232: 4222: 4073: 4069: 3843: 3805: 3637: 2828: 1353: 1292: 1209: 793:

Working to improve what he considered an impractical Gaulard-Gibbs design, electrical engineer

745: 364: 217: 5937: 5062:"After the Attacks: The Workers; Con Edison Crews Improvise as They Rewire a Truncated System" 967:. The transmission network is usually administered on a regional basis by an entity such as a 7478: 7246: 7241: 7221: 6756:, an excellent overview of development during the first 50 years of commercial electric power 5630: 5001:"A Primer on Electric Utilities, Deregulation, and Restructuring of U.S. Electricity Markets" 4586: 4487: 4042:. Spain's transmission system is interconnected with those of France, Portugal, and Morocco. 3632:

intermediate-length lines on the order of 100 kilometres (62 miles), the limit is set by the

3488: 3237: 1595: 1561: 1329: 1009: 943: 922:

The 20th century's rapid industrialization made electrical transmission lines and grids

419: 368: 298: 5369: 2871:

VARs. For load < SIL, the voltage increases from the sending end, and the line

2428: 1261: 1231: 1087:

A high-power electrical transmission tower, 230 kV, double-circuit, also double-bundled

926:. Interconnection of local generation plants and small distribution networks was spurred by 7072: 6834: 6354: 6311:"Transmission Vegetation Management NERC Standard FAC-003-2 Technical Reference Page 14/50" 4731: 4104: 3669: 3255: 1776: 1729: 1703: 1333: 979: 868: 794: 310: 6692: 528:. The conductor consists of seven strands of steel surrounded by four layers of aluminium. 351:

in North America, directly connects generators delivering AC power with the same relative

8: 7443: 7276: 7176: 7151: 7104: 6913: 6903: 6868: 6101:"The Electric Power Transmission & Distribution (T&D) Equipment Market 2011–2021" 5594: 5590: 4270: 4228: 4089: 4085: 3983: 3831: 3817: 3786: 3554: 3519:. Submarine connections up to 600 kilometres (370 mi) in length have been deployed. 3507:

and the Australian mainland, between the North and South Islands of New Zealand, between

2761: 1577: 1448: 1193: 1069: 1056:. Such facilities are nuclear, coal or hydroelectric, while other energy sources such as 1016: 798: 797:

developed the first practical series AC transformer in 1885. Working with the support of

775: 752: 610: 494: 438: 394: 329: 38: 6358: 6339: 5652: 4088:, an underwater transmission line proposed by ITC Holdings Corp., connecting Ontario to 1565:

single line failure does not stop service to many customers for more than a short time.

169:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

7317: 6928: 6370: 5887: 5801: 5741: 5235: 5163: 4911: 4738: 4065: 4018: 3500: 3492: 3465:(the line length) in all parameters of the transmission matrix. This model applies the 3448: 3428: 2118: 2098: 2078: 1756: 1709: 782:

The first commercial AC distribution system entered service in 1885 in via dei Cerchi,

701: 645: 383: 6149: 2547:

and a 2 by 2 transmission matrix is used to model its behavior, as follows:

1345:. As reactive current increases, reactive power increases and power factor decreases. 7468: 7348: 6953: 6783: 6765: 6749: 6732: 6519: 6038: 5891: 5877: 5707: 5686: 5381: 5370: 5333: 5312: 5123: 5043: 4192:) (1,000 mG). In a residential setting, one study reported "limited evidence of 4061: 2072: 1612: 1560:

Subtransmission runs at relatively lower voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all

1305:

Factors that affect resistance and thus loss include temperature, spiraling, and the

787: 423: 286: 6562: 6374: 5745: 5239: 5167: 4776:, (Norway/United Kingdom) – (length of submarine cable: 720 kilometres or 447 miles) 4597:. Major engineering and economic challenges face any solar power satellite project. 3967:

Transmission lines can be used to carry data: this is called power-line carrier, or

1083: 744:

Thus, generators were sited near their loads, a practice that later became known as

7417: 7358: 7062: 7057: 7034: 6943: 6883: 6741: 6645: 6362: 5869: 5733: 5256: 5227: 5155: 5113: 4024: 3931: 3853: 1583:

No fixed cutoff separates subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission and

1299: 1072:, which are typically smaller, faster-responding, and higher cost sources, such as 1061: 916: 896: 892: 881: 872: 852: 841: 821: 817: 760: 708: 657: 630: 626: 504: 450: 340:. The voltage is stepped up for transmission, then reduced for local distribution. 325: 290: 275: 266: 6274: 5330:

Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World

1052:

and is generally served by large facilities with constant operating costs, termed

7448: 7407: 7385: 7266: 7236: 7201: 7161: 6963: 6132: 5218:

Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Beginning of Electric Energy Transmission: Part Two".

5146:

Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Beginning of Electric Energy Transmission: Part One".

4863: 4265: 4005:. Where the regulatory structure permits, the utility can sell capacity in extra 3827: 3218: 2842:

refers to the total quantity summed over the line and a lowercase letter such as

1808: 1020: 960: 885: 813: 732: 707:

In some metropolitan areas, cables are enclosed by metal pipe and insulated with

314: 5873: 1220:

Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to

7473: 7463: 7261: 6873: 6621: 6059:"FERC: Industries – Order No. 1000 – Transmission Planning and Cost Allocation" 5291: 4810:

length: 250 kilometres or 155 miles, total length: 262 kilometres or 163 miles)

4786:(Norway/Netherlands) – (length of submarine cable: 580 kilometres or 360 miles) 4773: 4695:

planted malware potentially capable of disrupting the Russian electrical grid.

4575: 4181: 4002: 3971:(PLC). PLC signals can be easily received with a radio in the long wave range. 3940: 3696: 3652: 3546:

Use HVDC for the 3,000 miles (4,800 km) of cross-country transmission; and

1435: 1337: 1225: 1196:) and Northeast to Southwest (Utah to Southern California). The 287.5 kV ( 1189: 1073: 756: 695: 386:

in ways that led to separate companies handling transmission and distribution.

333: 2535: 1686: 7571: 7493: 7281: 7166: 7146: 7077: 7067: 7024: 6908: 6863: 6797: 5990:"How ITC Holdings plans to connect PJM demand with Ontario's rich renewables" 5862:"Strengths and weaknesses of traditional arrangements for electricity supply" 5737: 5231: 5159: 4849: 4760: 4673: 3957: 3936: 3530:

As an example, to adjust the flow of AC power on a hypothetical line between

3512: 3496: 3491:

where AC cannot be used because of cable capacitance. In these cases special

2452: 1463: 1349: 1221: 1171: 1005: 5724:

Guarnieri, M. (2013). "The Alternating Evolution of DC Power Transmission".

5619:"Where can I find data on electricity transmission and distribution losses?" 5296:

Evolving Technology and Market Structure: Studies in Schumpeterian Economics

4806:(Germany/Sweden) – (length of submarine cable: 238 kilometres or 148 miles, 4585:

Wireless power transmission has been studied for transmission of power from

7513: 7488: 7353: 7322: 7136: 6938: 4926: 4799: 4571: 4189: 4185: 3847: 3823: 3692: 3691:). Replacing the steel with a lighter, stronger composite material such as 3633: 1480: 1476: 1342: 825: 771: 653: 614: 455: 430: 5348: 5346: 1694: 398:

A diagram of an electric power system. The transmission system is in blue.

7338: 7306: 7099: 7087: 7007: 6933: 6923: 6853: 5820: 4878: 4793: 3990:). Sometimes a standalone cable is used, all-dielectric self-supporting ( 3687:

Traditional power lines use a steel core surrounded by aluminum strands (

3516: 3054: 2820: 1468: 1325: 1306: 1205: 1201: 1175: 993: 964: 938: 927: 783: 764: 715: 622: 337: 294: 6415:"Superconducting cables will be used to supply electricity to consumers" 6340:"Energy losses of superconducting power transmission cables in the grid" 4829:(Australia) – (length of underground cable: 170 kilometres or 106 miles) 7301: 7296: 7109: 7092: 6948: 6803: 5372:

Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks, and Organizations

5343: 4818: 4803: 4749: 4722: 4193: 4112: 4108: 4006: 3508: 2812: 1439: 1321: 1197: 1093: 1053: 952: 948: 907:. A 15 kV transmission line, approximately 175 km long, connected 864: 6366: 5934:"Rethink the Natural Monopoly Justification of Electricity Regulation" 1486: 1178:

to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC) for transmission.

1096:

transmission network costs could be recovered with modest usage fees.

656:

and loss of supply. Oscillatory motion of the physical line is termed

437:

that occurs over long distances. Power is usually transmitted through

7017: 7012: 6898: 6858: 4826: 4822: 4783: 4764: 4590: 3998: 3947: 2544: 1804: 1048: 919:

power or mine-mouth coal, could be exploited to further lower costs.

904: 320:

Efficient long-distance transmission of electric power requires high

6661:"Development of UHV Transmission and Insulation Technology in China" 4509: 4425: 3978:

High-voltage pylons carrying additional optical fibre cable in Kenya

3869: 3715: 3570: 2474: 1622: 1499: 1373: 1109: 801:, in 1886 he demonstrated a transformer-based AC lighting system in 540: 7131: 5274: 4789: 4594: 4281: 4100: 4096: 3504: 809: 602: 510:

A four-circuit, two-voltage power transmission line; Bundled 2-ways

321: 4045:

The establishment of RTOs in the United States was spurred by the

1773:, when the wires are long enough to have a significant resistance 1026: 355:

to many consumers. North America has four major interconnections:

7052: 7042: 6090:/ National Grid in the UK (note this excludes distribution costs) 4843: 4119:

a monopolized and regulated rate base. In the United States, the

4107:. Two DC links originally implemented as market interconnectors, 4081: 3531: 1572:, where loss of one circuit should result in no interruption, or 767:

provided with 1:1 turn ratio and open magnetic circuit, in 1881.

5768:"There Is a Stupidly Easy Way To Expand the Grid - Heatmap News" 5355:

Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930

5119:

Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930

4060:

Merchant transmission projects in the United States include the

3213:

Counterintuitive behaviors of medium-length transmission lines:

309:. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of 301:. The interconnected lines that facilitate this movement form a 7047: 6746:

Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society 1880–1930

6275:"Electric and Magnetic Fields Associated with the Use of Power" 5797:"The U.S. Urgently Needs a Bigger Grid. Here's a Fast Solution" 5481: 5479: 5122:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 119–122. 4779: 3535: 2858: 6762:

Connecting the Country – New Zealand's National Grid 1886–2007

6544:"Operation of longest superconducting cable worldwide started" 5452:"Distribution Substations - Michigan Technological University" 3813:

reconfigured every time a new generator is added to the mesh.

1291:

While power loss can also be reduced by increasing the wire's

1076:

or combustion turbine plants typically fueled by natural gas.

37:"Power lines" redirects here. For power lines in general, see 6600:"UPDATE 2-US concerned power grid vulnerable to cyber-attack" 5495: 4759:

Longest span of power line: 5,376 m (17,638 ft) at

3425:

To find the voltage and current at the end of the long line,

2803:

differ depending on how the desired model handles the line's

1753:) to a single point of consumption, modelled by a resistance 1702:

In a simplified model, the grid delivers electricity from an

5476: 5401:

Argersinger, R.E. (1915). "Electric Transmission of Power".

1288:

losses are still reduced ten-fold using the higher voltage.

7002: 6794:

Electric power transmission patents; Tesla polyphase system

5488:"Present Limits of Very Long Distance Transmission Systems" 5432:

Bureau of Census data reprinted in Hughes, pp. 282–283

5368:

Garud, Raghu; Kumaraswamy, Arun; Langlois, Richard (2009).

5275:"William Stanley – Engineering and Technology History Wiki" 4893: 4120: 4046: 959:

These networks use components such as power lines, cables,

5361: 5038:

Hans Dieter Betz, Ulrich Schumann, Pierre Laroche (2009).

6394: 4683:

In June 2019, Russia conceded that it was "possible" its

4095:

Australia has one unregulated or market interconnector –

4023:

Electricity transmission is generally considered to be a

1606: 763:

built what they called the secondary generator, an early

660:

depending on the frequency and amplitude of oscillation.

5485: 5419:

Kiessling F, Nefzger P, Nolasco JF, Kaintzyk U. (2003).

5367: 4253: Hz traction grid but only for part of the system. 402:

Most North American transmission lines are high-voltage

6508:"High-Temperature Superconductor Technology Stepped Up" 5704:

Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 11th Edition

5251: 5249: 3994:) cable, attached to the transmission line cross arms. 2862:

Voltage on sending and receiving ends for lossless line

1807:

with no intervening transformer, the circuit acts as a

1438:

that surrounds the lines of each phase and affects the

6397:"Superconducting power line to shore up New York grid" 5526:. New York Independent System Operator. Archived from 4184:

high level exposure to magnetic fields above 100

3549:

Convert the HVDC to locally synchronized AC in Boston,

2993: 2957: 2910: 2645: 2609: 2562: 6748:, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1983 6581:"Hackers reportedly have embedded code in power grid" 4922:

List of high-voltage underground and submarine cables

4277:

began commercial production of such systems in 2007.

4235:

run on low frequency AC power, separate single phase

3451: 3431: 3267: 3240: 3074: 2904: 2764: 2710: 2556: 2431: 2186: 2141: 2121: 2101: 2081: 1868: 1817: 1779: 1759: 1732: 1712: 1598:

transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for

1434:

Current flowing through transmission lines induces a

1264: 1234: 1046:

The slowly varying portion of demand is known as the

990:

Higher voltage is achieved in AC circuits by using a

6598:

Holland, Steve; Mikkelsen, Randall (April 8, 2009).

5613: 5611: 5246: 5040:

Lightning: Principles, Instruments and Applications.

4839: 3224:

receiving-end current can exceed sending-end current

6622:"US and Russia clash over power grid 'hack attacks" 6282:

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

5907:"Power transmission business is a natural monopoly" 5904: 5423:. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, p. 5 3785:The transmission system provides for base load and 1012:. Energy is usually transmitted within a grid with 6764:. Wellington: Steele Roberts. pp. 376 pages. 6235: 6233: 3846:occur when power supplied drops below the demand. 3457: 3437: 3414: 3246: 3202: 3034: 2776: 2749: 2686: 2443: 2414: 2169: 2127: 2107: 2087: 2060: 1851: 1792: 1765: 1745: 1718: 1451:at regular intervals along the line using various 1280: 1250: 828:. Westinghouse licensed Tesla's design. Practical 6337: 5608: 3188: 3160: 684:Three abreast electrical pylons in Webster, Texas 7569: 6597: 6506:Patel, 03/01/2012 | Sonal (March 1, 2012). 6146:"WHO | Electromagnetic fields and public health" 5285: 5213: 5211: 5209: 5112: 4717:worldwide: 1.15 MV (Ultra-High Voltage) on 2711: 6230: 5141: 5139: 4115:, were converted to regulated interconnectors. 6347:IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity 5931: 4493: 3472: 6819: 6796:". (Transmission of power; polyphase system; 6759: 6088:What is the cost per kWh of bulk transmission 5761: 5759: 5757: 5755: 5717: 5206: 4745:(China) (height: 345 m or 1,132 ft) 4678:United States Department of Homeland Security 4672:stated that the power grid is susceptible to 4618:The examples and perspective in this article 4180:Biological effects have been established for 3939:and other faults is usually so critical that 3659:changes to its initial operating conditions. 3503:, between Great Britain and Ireland, between 774:. It was powered by a 2 kV, 130 Hz 473:, and major blackouts in other US regions in 324:. This reduces the losses produced by strong 100:The examples and perspective in this article 6524:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5588: 5352: 5136: 4977:. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Archived from 4687:is under cyber-attack by the United States. 4593:or laser transmitters would beam power to a 4177:typically do not comment on health impacts. 2465:Performance and modelling of AC transmission 644:. Voltages above 765 kV are considered 373:One grid connects most of continental Europe 6641:"How Not To Prevent a Cyberwar With Russia" 6485:"IBM100 - High-Temperature Superconductors" 6032: 5859: 5837:. EnPowered. March 28, 2016. Archived from 5794: 5681:Donald G. Fink and H. Wayne Beaty. (2007), 5400: 4756:) (length: 1,700 kilometres or 1,056 miles) 4538:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4454:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4409: 4211: 4168:Interim Policy Statement on Magnetic Fields 4030:Spain was the first country to establish a 3898:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3744:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3599:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2503:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1651:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1528:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1402:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1138:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 569:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 80:Learn how and when to remove these messages 6826: 6812: 6528:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 6395:New Scientist and Reuters (May 22, 2007). 6241:"Electromagnetic fields and public health" 5765: 5752: 5683:Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 5187:. National Council on Electricity Policy. 3689:Aluminium-conductor steel-reinforced cable 3684:take 10 years to plan, permit, and build. 3217:voltage rise at no load or small current ( 1467:A 115 kV subtransmission line in the 609:Conductor sizes range from 12 mm (#6 6638: 6211:. Transpower New Zealand Ltd. p. 2. 5790: 5788: 5723: 5217: 5145: 4656:Learn how and when to remove this message 4558:Learn how and when to remove this message 4474:Learn how and when to remove this message 4256: 3918:Learn how and when to remove this message 3764:Learn how and when to remove this message 3619:Learn how and when to remove this message 2523:Learn how and when to remove this message 1671:Learn how and when to remove this message 1590: 1548:Learn how and when to remove this message 1422:Learn how and when to remove this message 1158:Learn how and when to remove this message 748:using large numbers of small generators. 606:regularly improved to increase capacity. 589:Learn how and when to remove this message 254:Learn how and when to remove this message 236:Learn how and when to remove this message 138:Learn how and when to remove this message 6833: 5657:Frequently Asked Questions – Electricity 5623:Frequently Asked Questions – Electricity 5108: 5106: 5059: 4691:reported that American hackers from the 4163:New York State Public Service Commission 3973: 2857: 2846:refers to the per-unit-length quantity. 2534: 1693: 1685: 1485: 1462: 1082: 1025: 937: 846: 731: 393: 336:(DC). The voltage level is changed with 265: 199:This article includes a list of general 6729:The Electric Power Engineering Handbook 6338:Jacob Oestergaard; et al. (2001). 6206:"Electric and Magnetic Field Strengths" 5960:"FERC: Landmark Orders – Order No. 888" 5905:Raghuvir Srinivasan (August 15, 2004). 5868:. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 16. 5835:"The Bumpy Road to Energy Deregulation" 5766:Pontecorvo, Emily (February 20, 2024). 5645: 4670:Federal government of the United States 3799:synchronization of the generation units 2539:"Black box" model for transmission line 14: 7570: 6560: 5785: 5661:U.S. Energy Information Administration 5627:U.S. Energy Information Administration 5577:California Public Utilities Commission 5060:Banerjee, Neela (September 16, 2001). 4954:Wheeling (electric power transmission) 3850:occur when the grid fails completely. 3557:located in the Western United States. 1852:{\displaystyle I={\frac {V}{R+R_{C}}}} 1607:Advantage of high-voltage transmission 728:History of electric power transmission 32:Electric transmission (disambiguation) 6807: 6711:Transmission & Distribution World 6673:from the original on October 9, 2022. 6505: 6384:from the original on October 9, 2022. 6327:from the original on October 9, 2022. 6267: 6037:. Pennwell Books. pp. 226, 247. 5309:Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age 5103: 4993: 4730:Largest double-circuit transmission, 4216: 4126: 4072:, Neptune RTS Transmission Line from 3837: 1690:Electrical grid without a transformer 700:Electric power can be transmitted by 6792:Westinghouse Electric Corporation, " 6291:from the original on October 9, 2022 6218:from the original on October 9, 2022 5726:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 5464:from the original on October 9, 2022 5220:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 5194:from the original on October 9, 2022 5182:"Electricity Transmission: A primer" 5174: 5148:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 5020:from the original on October 9, 2022 4604: 4589:to the earth. A high power array of 4536:adding citations to reliable sources 4503: 4452:adding citations to reliable sources 4419: 4145:Electromagnetic radiation and health 4055:Federal Energy Regulatory Commission 3896:adding citations to reliable sources 3863: 3742:adding citations to reliable sources 3709: 3597:adding citations to reliable sources 3564: 2501:adding citations to reliable sources 2468: 1649:adding citations to reliable sources 1616: 1526:adding citations to reliable sources 1493: 1400:adding citations to reliable sources 1367: 1136:adding citations to reliable sources 1103: 1004:A transmission grid is a network of 933: 901:international electricity exhibition 637: 567:adding citations to reliable sources 534: 461:The US Northeast faced blackouts in 185: 149: 86: 45: 6441:"Superconductivity's First Century" 6148:. December 24, 2007. Archived from 5936:. Reason Foundation. Archived from 5629:. November 19, 2009. Archived from 4967: 4869:List of energy storage power plants 4711:Highest transmission voltage (AC): 4092:in the PJM Interconnection region. 4012: 820:current, independently invented by 617:area), with varying resistance and 24: 7504:Renewable energy commercialization 6721: 6563:"Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'" 5932:Lynne Kiesling (August 18, 2003). 5008:United States Department of Energy 4949:Radio frequency power transmission 4894:Electromagnetic Transients Program 4138: 4032:regional transmission organization 3636:in the line. For longer AC lines, 3353: 3138: 3018: 3002: 2935: 2919: 2670: 2654: 2587: 2571: 1698:Electrical grid with a transformer 1458: 1313:assuming no utility theft occurs. 969:regional transmission organization 855:generators on display at the 1893 418:(HVDC) technology is also used in 205:it lacks sufficient corresponding 27:Bulk movement of electrical energy 25: 7604: 6639:Greenberg, Andy (June 18, 2019). 6491:. August 10, 2017. Archived from 5702:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty, 5589:Curt Harting (October 24, 2010). 5376:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5332:. Random House Trade Paperbacks. 5011:Federal Energy Management Program 3859: 3780: 3662: 2115:and the current is multiplied by 2095:(i.e., the voltage is divided by 1490:115 kV H-frame transmission tower 851:Westinghouse alternating current 808:In 1888 the first designs for an 613:) to 750 mm (1,590,000 433:to reduce the energy loss due to 61:This article has multiple issues. 7552: 7551: 6972: 6561:Shiels, Maggie (April 9, 2009). 5050:. Retrieved on 13 May 2009. 4889:Double-circuit transmission line 4842: 4609: 4508: 4424: 4262:High-temperature superconductors 3868: 3714: 3569: 3543:Convert AC in Seattle into HVDC; 2849: 2473: 1621: 1498: 1372: 1363: 1358:flexible AC transmission systems 1108: 677: 665: 539: 517: 503: 328:. Transmission lines use either 190: 154: 91: 50: 6778:Pansini, Anthony J, E.E., P.E. 6699: 6677: 6653: 6632: 6614: 6591: 6573: 6554: 6536: 6499: 6477: 6459: 6433: 6407: 6388: 6331: 6303: 6198: 6186:. TRC. March 2010. pp. 1–4 6176: 6164: 6138: 6119: 6093: 6081: 6051: 6026: 6010:. July 18, 2008. Archived from 6000: 5982: 5952: 5925: 5898: 5866:Handbook on Electricity Markets 5853: 5827: 5809: 5696: 5675: 5582: 5570: 5550:"Transmission Facts, p. 4" 5542: 5516: 5502:Global Energy Network Institute 5444: 5435: 5426: 5413: 5394: 5322: 5301: 5267: 4906:Geomagnetically induced current 4900:Flexible AC transmission system 4859:Dynamic demand (electric power) 3649:distributed temperature sensing 2750:{\displaystyle \det(T)=AD-BC=1} 803:Great Barrington, Massachusetts 648:and require different designs. 412:railway electrification systems 270:Five-hundred kilovolt (500 kV) 69:or discuss these issues on the 6008:"NEMMCO Power System Planning" 5795:Brad Plumer (April 14, 2024). 5685:(15th ed.). McGraw-Hill. 5357:. JHU Press. pp. 120–121. 5311:. Princeton University Press. 5094: 5072: 5053: 5032: 3402: 3393: 3350: 3341: 3303: 3294: 3061:circuit because of the shape ( 3045: 2827:), and shunt (parallel, leak) 2720: 2714: 2287: 2257: 689: 443:Underground power transmission 429:Electricity is transmitted at 13: 1: 7499:Renewable Energy Certificates 7459:Cost of electricity by source 7381:Arc-fault circuit interrupter 7257:High-voltage shore connection 6780:undergrounding electric lines 6035:Global Transmission Expansion 5860:Schmalensee, Richard (2021). 5591:"AC Transmission Line Losses" 5353:Parke Hughes, Thomas (1993). 5257:"Great Barrington Experiment" 4960: 3674:Bipartisan Infrastructure Law 3515:, and between New Jersey and 2878: 1099: 1068:power demand, is supplied by 838:Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown 7514:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread 7312:Transmission system operator 7272:Mains electricity by country 6849:Automatic generation control 6782:. US: Hayden Book Co, 1978. 5307:Carlson, W. Bernard (2013). 5082:. documents.dps.ny.gov. 2014 5042:Springer, pp. 202–203. 4815:Longest underground cables: 4754:Democratic Republic of Congo 3997:Some jurisdictions, such as 3806:distributed power generation 3228: 2177:. The useful power is then: 1041:wide area transmission grids 973:transmission system operator 7: 7578:Electric power transmission 7539:List of electricity sectors 7534:Electric energy consumption 7252:High-voltage direct current 7227:Electric power transmission 7217:Electric power distribution 6894:Energy return on investment 6685:"准东-皖南±1100千伏特高压直流输电工程竣工投运" 6251:. June 2007. Archived from 5874:10.4337/9781788979955.00008 5579:Corona and induced currents 4917:Grid-tied electrical system 4835: 4693:United States Cyber Command 4632:, discuss the issue on the 4600: 4494:Wireless power transmission 4040:OMEL Holding | Omel Holding 3560: 3479:High-voltage direct current 3473:High-voltage direct current 2458: 2170:{\displaystyle R_{C}/a^{2}} 1811:, because the same current 999:High-voltage direct current 755:(AC) became possible after 658:conductor gallop or flutter 652:clearances, resulting in a 488: 416:High-voltage direct current 307:electric power distribution 283:Electric power transmission 114:, discuss the issue on the 10: 7609: 7454:Carbon offsets and credits 7172:Three-phase electric power 4770:Longest submarine cables: 4708:(准东-皖南)±1100 kV HVDC. 4698: 4497: 4413: 4390: 4376: 4359: 4323: 4269:losses. Companies such as 4220: 4175:Public utility commissions 4142: 4016: 3705: 3476: 2462: 1610: 1320:In any AC line, conductor 1058:concentrated solar thermal 1008:, transmission lines, and 834:Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky 725: 721: 693: 492: 345:wide area synchronous grid 272:Three-phase electric power 36: 29: 7547: 7522: 7509:Renewable Energy Payments 7432: 7369: 7331: 7185: 7122: 7033: 6998:Fossil fuel power station 6988: 6981: 6970: 6841: 6731:. US: CRC Press. (2001). 6249:World Health Organization 6184:"EMF Report for the CHPE" 5100:NYSPSC case no. 13-E-0529 4975:"Grand Coulee Powerplant" 4938:Power-line communications 4704:Highest capacity system: 1215: 619:current-carrying capacity 389: 163:This article needs to be 7292:Single-wire earth return 7232:Electrical busbar system 6889:Energy demand management 6467:"HTS Transmission Cable" 5738:10.1109/MIE.2013.2272238 5441:Hughes, pp. 293–295 5232:10.1109/MIE.2013.2256297 5160:10.1109/MIE.2012.2236484 4884:Conductor marking lights 4719:Ekibastuz-Kokshetau line 4416:Single-wire earth return 4410:Single-wire earth return 4377:Manhattan: Project Hydra 4227:In some countries where 4212:Specialized transmission 4156:statistical correlations 3969:power-line communication 3953:Power-line communication 3445:should be replaced with 1562:distribution substations 1479:, all mounted on a wood 1471:, along with 20 kV 1092:capacity, long distance 832:motors were designed by 702:underground power cables 410:AC is sometimes used in 285:is the bulk movement of 7423:Residual-current device 7413:Power system protection 7403:Generator interlock kit 6727:Grigsby, L. L., et al. 6245:Fact sheet No. 322 6131:April 17, 2011, at the 5911:The Hindu Business Line 5714:, pages 15–57 and 15–58 5557:American Electric Power 5403:General Electric Review 4944:Power system simulation 4500:Wireless power transfer 4288:HTS transmission lines 4275:American Superconductor 4237:traction power networks 4233:electric multiple units 4036:Red Eléctrica de España 3678:Inflation Reduction Act 3467:Telegrapher's equations 3247:{\displaystyle \gamma } 1803:If the resistances are 1354:static VAR compensators 1186:Western Interconnection 944:transmission substation 924:critical infrastructure 857:World's Fair in Chicago 842:polyphase power systems 220:more precise citations. 18:High-voltage power line 7583:Electrical engineering 7207:Distributed generation 6879:Electric power quality 6760:Reilly, Helen (2008). 6695:on September 30, 2019. 6471:www.superpower-inc.com 6173:(issued June 19, 1978) 6126:Power Lines and Cancer 4874:Traction power network 4743:Yangtze River Crossing 4587:solar power satellites 4284:for cables is costly. 4257:Superconducting cables 4223:Traction power network 4074:Sayreville, New Jersey 4070:New Haven, Connecticut 3979: 3487:HVDC is used for long 3459: 3439: 3416: 3248: 3204: 3036: 2863: 2778: 2751: 2688: 2540: 2445: 2444:{\displaystyle a>1} 2416: 2171: 2129: 2109: 2089: 2062: 1853: 1794: 1767: 1747: 1720: 1699: 1691: 1591:Transmission grid exit 1491: 1483: 1282: 1281:{\displaystyle I^{2}R} 1252: 1251:{\displaystyle I^{2}R} 1210:Arizona Public Service 1088: 1035: 956: 860: 844:needed to power them. 746:distributed generation 737: 420:submarine power cables 399: 382:the regulation of the 279: 274:Transmission Lines at 7479:Fossil fuel phase-out 7247:Electricity retailing 7242:Electrical substation 7222:Electric power system 5706:, McGraw Hill, 1978, 5328:Jonnes, Jill (2004). 4706:12 GW Zhundong–Wannan 4488:rural electrification 4342:Holbrook, Long Island 4090:load serving entities 4009:to a common carrier. 3977: 3460: 3440: 3417: 3249: 3205: 3037: 2887:is considered, while 2861: 2779: 2752: 2689: 2538: 2446: 2417: 2172: 2130: 2110: 2090: 2063: 1854: 1795: 1793:{\displaystyle R_{C}} 1768: 1748: 1746:{\displaystyle P_{V}} 1726:, delivering a power 1721: 1697: 1689: 1489: 1466: 1453:transposition schemes 1283: 1253: 1086: 1029: 941: 909:Lauffen on the Neckar 877:Westinghouse Electric 850: 812:appeared. These were 735: 397: 299:electrical substation 269: 7588:Monopoly (economics) 6835:Electricity delivery 6610:on January 13, 2016. 6152:on December 24, 2007 6033:Fiona Woolf (2003). 5970:on December 19, 2016 5940:on February 13, 2008 5633:on December 12, 2012 5421:Overhead power lines 5261:edisontechcenter.org 4748:Longest power line: 4732:Kita-Iwaki Powerline 4638:create a new article 4630:improve this article 4620:may not represent a 4532:improve this section 4448:improve this section 4229:electric locomotives 4078:New Bridge, New York 3892:improve this section 3832:virtual power plants 3787:peak load capability 3738:improve this section 3670:Biden Administration 3593:improve this section 3449: 3429: 3265: 3256:propagation constant 3238: 3072: 2902: 2762: 2708: 2701:has the properties: 2554: 2497:improve this section 2429: 2184: 2139: 2119: 2099: 2079: 1866: 1815: 1777: 1757: 1730: 1710: 1704:ideal voltage source 1645:improve this section 1522:improve this section 1481:subtransmission pole 1449:transposition towers 1396:improve this section 1262: 1232: 1132:improve this section 1070:peaking power plants 795:William Stanley, Jr. 776:Siemens & Halske 563:improve this section 439:overhead power lines 311:electricity delivery 303:transmission network 120:create a new article 112:improve this article 102:may not represent a 30:For other uses, see 7444:Availability factor 7396:Sulfur hexafluoride 7277:Overhead power line 7177:Virtual power plant 7152:Induction generator 7105:Sustainable biofuel 6914:Home energy storage 6904:Grid energy storage 6869:Droop speed control 6707:"India Steps It Up" 6359:2001ITAS...11.2375O 6069:on October 30, 2018 5996:. December 8, 2014. 5595:Stanford University 5530:on December 2, 2018 4310:Carrollton, Georgia 4289: 4271:Consolidated Edison 4086:Lake Erie Connector 3984:optical ground wire 3818:droop speed control 3555:Pacific DC Intertie 3493:high-voltage cables 2777:{\displaystyle A=D} 1208:) and 345 kV ( 1194:Southern California 799:George Westinghouse 753:alternating current 611:American wire gauge 495:Overhead power line 330:alternating current 39:Overhead power line 7318:Transmission tower 6929:Nameplate capacity 6447:on August 12, 2012 5802:The New York Times 5066:The New York Times 5013:(FEMP). May 2002. 4912:Graphene-clad wire 4689:The New York Times 4287: 4217:Grids for railways 4127:Transmission costs 4066:Shoreham, New York 4019:Electricity market 3980: 3838:Failure protection 3501:continental Europe 3455: 3435: 3412: 3410: 3244: 3200: 3198: 3032: 3026: 2982: 2943: 2864: 2774: 2747: 2684: 2678: 2634: 2595: 2541: 2441: 2412: 2167: 2125: 2105: 2085: 2058: 1849: 1790: 1763: 1743: 1716: 1700: 1692: 1492: 1484: 1278: 1248: 1089: 1036: 957: 861: 738: 646:extra high voltage 424:cascading failures 400: 384:electricity market 280: 7593:Electrical safety 7565: 7564: 7469:Environmental tax 7349:Cascading failure 7118: 7117: 6954:Utility frequency 6771:978-1-877448-40-9 6742:Hughes, Thomas P. 6495:on April 3, 2012. 6367:10.1109/77.920339 6171:Opinion No. 78-13 5693:section 18.5 5691:978-0-07-144146-9 5663:. January 9, 2019 5524:"NYISO Zone Maps" 5338:978-0-375-75884-3 5281:. August 8, 2017. 5048:978-1-4020-9078-3 4981:on April 29, 2014 4666: 4665: 4658: 4640:, as appropriate. 4568: 4567: 4560: 4484: 4483: 4476: 4407: 4406: 4062:Cross Sound Cable 3932:protective relays 3928: 3927: 3920: 3854:Rolling blackouts 3774: 3773: 3766: 3629: 3628: 3621: 3458:{\displaystyle l} 3438:{\displaystyle x} 3385: 3309: 3184: 3119: 3114: 2533: 2532: 2525: 2400: 2347: 2297: 2128:{\displaystyle a} 2108:{\displaystyle a} 2088:{\displaystyle a} 2073:ideal transformer 2046: 2018: 1983: 1955: 1927: 1847: 1766:{\displaystyle R} 1719:{\displaystyle V} 1681: 1680: 1673: 1613:Ideal transformer 1558: 1557: 1550: 1432: 1431: 1424: 1168: 1167: 1160: 1032:synchronous grids 980:Joule's first law 951:Hale Substation, 934:Bulk transmission 882:rotary converters 788:Grosvenor Gallery 627:bundle conductors 599: 598: 591: 287:electrical energy 264: 263: 256: 246: 245: 238: 184: 183: 148: 147: 140: 122:, as appropriate. 84: 16:(Redirected from 7600: 7555: 7554: 7464:Energy subsidies 7418:Protective relay 7359:Rolling blackout 6986: 6985: 6976: 6944:Power-flow study 6884:Electrical fault 6828: 6821: 6814: 6805: 6804: 6775: 6715: 6714: 6703: 6697: 6696: 6691:. Archived from 6689:xj.xinhuanet.com 6681: 6675: 6674: 6672: 6665: 6657: 6651: 6650: 6636: 6630: 6629: 6628:. June 18, 2019. 6618: 6612: 6611: 6606:. Archived from 6595: 6589: 6588: 6587:. April 9, 2009. 6577: 6571: 6570: 6558: 6552: 6551: 6540: 6534: 6533: 6523: 6515: 6503: 6497: 6496: 6481: 6475: 6474: 6463: 6457: 6456: 6454: 6452: 6443:. Archived from 6437: 6431: 6430: 6428: 6426: 6421:on July 14, 2014 6417:. Archived from 6411: 6405: 6404: 6392: 6386: 6385: 6383: 6344: 6335: 6329: 6328: 6326: 6315: 6307: 6301: 6300: 6298: 6296: 6290: 6279: 6271: 6265: 6264: 6262: 6260: 6237: 6228: 6227: 6225: 6223: 6217: 6210: 6202: 6196: 6195: 6193: 6191: 6180: 6174: 6168: 6162: 6161: 6159: 6157: 6142: 6136: 6123: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6112: 6107:on June 18, 2011 6103:. Archived from 6097: 6091: 6085: 6079: 6078: 6076: 6074: 6065:. Archived from 6055: 6049: 6048: 6030: 6024: 6023: 6021: 6019: 6014:on July 18, 2008 6004: 5998: 5997: 5986: 5980: 5979: 5977: 5975: 5966:. Archived from 5956: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5945: 5929: 5923: 5922: 5920: 5918: 5902: 5896: 5895: 5857: 5851: 5850: 5848: 5846: 5841:on April 7, 2017 5831: 5825: 5824: 5813: 5807: 5806: 5792: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5778: 5763: 5750: 5749: 5721: 5715: 5700: 5694: 5679: 5673: 5672: 5670: 5668: 5649: 5643: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5615: 5606: 5605: 5603: 5601: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5567: 5566:on June 4, 2011. 5565: 5559:. Archived from 5554: 5546: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5520: 5514: 5512: 5510: 5508: 5492: 5483: 5474: 5473: 5471: 5469: 5463: 5456: 5448: 5442: 5439: 5433: 5430: 5424: 5417: 5411: 5410: 5398: 5392: 5391: 5375: 5365: 5359: 5358: 5350: 5341: 5326: 5320: 5305: 5299: 5289: 5283: 5282: 5271: 5265: 5264: 5253: 5244: 5243: 5215: 5204: 5203: 5201: 5199: 5193: 5186: 5178: 5172: 5171: 5143: 5134: 5133: 5114:Thomas P. Hughes 5110: 5101: 5098: 5092: 5091: 5089: 5087: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5057: 5051: 5036: 5030: 5029: 5027: 5025: 5019: 5005: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4988: 4986: 4971: 4934:(disambiguation) 4852: 4847: 4846: 4661: 4654: 4650: 4647: 4641: 4613: 4612: 4605: 4563: 4556: 4552: 4549: 4543: 4512: 4504: 4479: 4472: 4468: 4465: 4459: 4428: 4420: 4324:Albany, New York 4290: 4286: 4025:natural monopoly 4013:Market structure 3923: 3916: 3912: 3909: 3903: 3872: 3864: 3769: 3762: 3758: 3755: 3749: 3718: 3710: 3638:system stability 3624: 3617: 3613: 3610: 3604: 3573: 3565: 3489:submarine cables 3464: 3462: 3461: 3456: 3444: 3442: 3441: 3436: 3421: 3419: 3418: 3413: 3411: 3386: 3384: 3383: 3371: 3334: 3333: 3310: 3307: 3253: 3251: 3250: 3245: 3209: 3207: 3206: 3201: 3199: 3192: 3191: 3185: 3180: 3172: 3164: 3163: 3120: 3117: 3115: 3110: 3102: 3041: 3039: 3038: 3033: 3031: 3030: 3023: 3022: 3021: 3007: 3006: 3005: 2987: 2986: 2948: 2947: 2940: 2939: 2938: 2924: 2923: 2922: 2783: 2781: 2780: 2775: 2756: 2754: 2753: 2748: 2693: 2691: 2690: 2685: 2683: 2682: 2675: 2674: 2673: 2659: 2658: 2657: 2639: 2638: 2600: 2599: 2592: 2591: 2590: 2576: 2575: 2574: 2528: 2521: 2517: 2514: 2508: 2477: 2469: 2450: 2448: 2447: 2442: 2421: 2419: 2418: 2413: 2411: 2410: 2401: 2399: 2398: 2397: 2388: 2383: 2382: 2363: 2358: 2357: 2348: 2346: 2345: 2344: 2329: 2328: 2318: 2314: 2313: 2303: 2298: 2296: 2295: 2294: 2285: 2284: 2269: 2268: 2255: 2254: 2253: 2238: 2237: 2227: 2222: 2221: 2209: 2208: 2196: 2195: 2176: 2174: 2173: 2168: 2166: 2165: 2156: 2151: 2150: 2134: 2132: 2131: 2126: 2114: 2112: 2111: 2106: 2094: 2092: 2091: 2086: 2067: 2065: 2064: 2059: 2057: 2056: 2047: 2045: 2044: 2043: 2024: 2019: 2017: 2016: 2015: 1999: 1998: 1989: 1984: 1982: 1981: 1980: 1961: 1956: 1954: 1953: 1952: 1933: 1928: 1926: 1925: 1924: 1905: 1891: 1890: 1878: 1877: 1858: 1856: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1846: 1845: 1844: 1825: 1799: 1797: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1788: 1772: 1770: 1769: 1764: 1752: 1750: 1749: 1744: 1742: 1741: 1725: 1723: 1722: 1717: 1676: 1669: 1665: 1662: 1656: 1625: 1617: 1553: 1546: 1542: 1539: 1533: 1502: 1494: 1427: 1420: 1416: 1413: 1407: 1376: 1368: 1300:corona discharge 1287: 1285: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1273: 1257: 1255: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1243: 1226:resistive losses 1163: 1156: 1152: 1149: 1143: 1112: 1104: 1062:geothermal power 1021:induction motors 961:circuit breakers 893:Willamette Falls 886:motor-generators 873:General Electric 822:Galileo Ferraris 814:induction motors 761:John Dixon Gibbs 751:Transmission of 709:dielectric fluid 681: 669: 631:corona discharge 594: 587: 583: 580: 574: 543: 535: 521: 507: 451:power generation 293:site, such as a 276:Grand Coulee Dam 259: 252: 241: 234: 230: 227: 221: 216:this article by 207:inline citations 194: 193: 186: 179: 176: 170: 158: 157: 150: 143: 136: 132: 129: 123: 95: 94: 87: 76: 54: 53: 46: 21: 7608: 7607: 7603: 7602: 7601: 7599: 7598: 7597: 7568: 7567: 7566: 7561: 7543: 7527: 7525: 7518: 7449:Capacity factor 7437: 7435: 7428: 7408:Numerical relay 7386:Circuit breaker 7374: 7372: 7365: 7327: 7267:Load management 7237:Electrical grid 7202:Demand response 7195: 7190: 7181: 7162:Microgeneration 7114: 7029: 6977: 6968: 6964:Vehicle-to-grid 6837: 6832: 6772: 6724: 6722:Further reading 6719: 6718: 6713:. January 2013. 6705: 6704: 6700: 6683: 6682: 6678: 6670: 6663: 6659: 6658: 6654: 6637: 6633: 6620: 6619: 6615: 6596: 6592: 6579: 6578: 6574: 6559: 6555: 6542: 6541: 6537: 6517: 6516: 6504: 6500: 6483: 6482: 6478: 6465: 6464: 6460: 6450: 6448: 6439: 6438: 6434: 6424: 6422: 6413: 6412: 6408: 6393: 6389: 6381: 6342: 6336: 6332: 6324: 6313: 6309: 6308: 6304: 6294: 6292: 6288: 6277: 6273: 6272: 6268: 6258: 6256: 6255:on July 1, 2007 6239: 6238: 6231: 6221: 6219: 6215: 6208: 6204: 6203: 6199: 6189: 6187: 6182: 6181: 6177: 6169: 6165: 6155: 6153: 6144: 6143: 6139: 6133:Wayback Machine 6124: 6120: 6110: 6108: 6099: 6098: 6094: 6086: 6082: 6072: 6070: 6057: 6056: 6052: 6045: 6031: 6027: 6017: 6015: 6006: 6005: 6001: 5988: 5987: 5983: 5973: 5971: 5958: 5957: 5953: 5943: 5941: 5930: 5926: 5916: 5914: 5903: 5899: 5884: 5858: 5854: 5844: 5842: 5833: 5832: 5828: 5823:. May 28, 2024. 5815: 5814: 5810: 5793: 5786: 5776: 5774: 5764: 5753: 5722: 5718: 5701: 5697: 5680: 5676: 5666: 5664: 5651: 5650: 5646: 5636: 5634: 5617: 5616: 5609: 5599: 5597: 5587: 5583: 5575: 5571: 5563: 5552: 5548: 5547: 5543: 5533: 5531: 5522: 5521: 5517: 5506: 5504: 5490: 5484: 5477: 5467: 5465: 5461: 5454: 5450: 5449: 5445: 5440: 5436: 5431: 5427: 5418: 5414: 5399: 5395: 5388: 5366: 5362: 5351: 5344: 5327: 5323: 5306: 5302: 5294:, Mark Perlman 5290: 5286: 5273: 5272: 5268: 5255: 5254: 5247: 5216: 5207: 5197: 5195: 5191: 5184: 5180: 5179: 5175: 5144: 5137: 5130: 5111: 5104: 5099: 5095: 5085: 5083: 5078: 5077: 5073: 5058: 5054: 5037: 5033: 5023: 5021: 5017: 5003: 4999: 4998: 4994: 4984: 4982: 4973: 4972: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4864:Demand response 4848: 4841: 4838: 4701: 4685:electrical grid 4662: 4651: 4645: 4642: 4627: 4614: 4610: 4603: 4564: 4553: 4547: 4544: 4529: 4513: 4502: 4496: 4480: 4469: 4463: 4460: 4445: 4429: 4418: 4412: 4266:liquid nitrogen 4259: 4252: 4245: 4225: 4219: 4214: 4194:carcinogenicity 4147: 4141: 4139:Health concerns 4129: 4021: 4015: 3924: 3913: 3907: 3904: 3889: 3873: 3862: 3840: 3828:vehicle-to-grid 3783: 3770: 3759: 3753: 3750: 3735: 3719: 3708: 3665: 3625: 3614: 3608: 3605: 3590: 3574: 3563: 3481: 3475: 3450: 3447: 3446: 3430: 3427: 3426: 3409: 3408: 3379: 3375: 3370: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3329: 3325: 3318: 3312: 3311: 3306: 3275: 3268: 3266: 3263: 3262: 3239: 3236: 3235: 3231: 3219:Ferranti effect 3197: 3196: 3187: 3186: 3173: 3171: 3159: 3158: 3148: 3142: 3141: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3116: 3103: 3101: 3082: 3075: 3073: 3070: 3069: 3048: 3025: 3024: 3017: 3016: 3012: 3009: 3008: 3001: 3000: 2996: 2989: 2988: 2981: 2980: 2975: 2969: 2968: 2963: 2953: 2952: 2942: 2941: 2934: 2933: 2929: 2926: 2925: 2918: 2917: 2913: 2906: 2905: 2903: 2900: 2899: 2881: 2852: 2787:The parameters 2763: 2760: 2759: 2709: 2706: 2705: 2677: 2676: 2669: 2668: 2664: 2661: 2660: 2653: 2652: 2648: 2641: 2640: 2633: 2632: 2627: 2621: 2620: 2615: 2605: 2604: 2594: 2593: 2586: 2585: 2581: 2578: 2577: 2570: 2569: 2565: 2558: 2557: 2555: 2552: 2551: 2529: 2518: 2512: 2509: 2494: 2478: 2467: 2461: 2430: 2427: 2426: 2406: 2402: 2393: 2389: 2384: 2378: 2374: 2367: 2362: 2353: 2349: 2340: 2336: 2324: 2320: 2319: 2309: 2305: 2304: 2302: 2290: 2286: 2280: 2276: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2249: 2245: 2233: 2229: 2228: 2226: 2217: 2213: 2204: 2200: 2191: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2181: 2161: 2157: 2152: 2146: 2142: 2140: 2137: 2136: 2120: 2117: 2116: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2080: 2077: 2076: 2052: 2048: 2039: 2035: 2028: 2023: 2011: 2007: 2000: 1994: 1990: 1988: 1976: 1972: 1965: 1960: 1948: 1944: 1937: 1932: 1920: 1916: 1909: 1904: 1886: 1882: 1873: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1863: 1840: 1836: 1829: 1824: 1816: 1813: 1812: 1809:voltage divider 1784: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1774: 1758: 1755: 1754: 1737: 1733: 1731: 1728: 1727: 1711: 1708: 1707: 1677: 1666: 1660: 1657: 1642: 1626: 1615: 1609: 1593: 1570:normally closed 1554: 1543: 1537: 1534: 1519: 1503: 1461: 1459:Subtransmission 1428: 1417: 1411: 1408: 1393: 1377: 1366: 1269: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1259: 1239: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1229: 1218: 1164: 1153: 1147: 1144: 1129: 1113: 1102: 963:, switches and 936: 911:and Frankfurt. 895:to the city of 730: 724: 698: 692: 685: 682: 673: 670: 638:subtransmission 595: 584: 578: 575: 560: 544: 533: 532: 531: 530: 529: 522: 513: 512: 511: 508: 497: 491: 392: 349:interconnection 315:electrical grid 313:, known as the 260: 249: 248: 247: 242: 231: 225: 222: 212:Please help to 211: 195: 191: 180: 174: 171: 168: 159: 155: 144: 133: 127: 124: 109: 96: 92: 55: 51: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7606: 7596: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7563: 7562: 7560: 7559: 7548: 7545: 7544: 7542: 7541: 7536: 7530: 7528: 7524:Statistics and 7523: 7520: 7519: 7517: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7474:Feed-in tariff 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7440: 7438: 7433: 7430: 7429: 7427: 7426: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7405: 7400: 7399: 7398: 7393: 7383: 7377: 7375: 7370: 7367: 7366: 7364: 7363: 7362: 7361: 7351: 7346: 7341: 7335: 7333: 7329: 7328: 7326: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7262:Interconnector 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7212:Dynamic demand 7209: 7204: 7198: 7196: 7186: 7183: 7182: 7180: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7142:Combined cycle 7139: 7134: 7128: 7126: 7120: 7119: 7116: 7115: 7113: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7096: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7039: 7037: 7031: 7030: 7028: 7027: 7022: 7021: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 6994: 6992: 6983: 6979: 6978: 6971: 6969: 6967: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6919:Load-following 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6874:Electric power 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6851: 6845: 6843: 6839: 6838: 6831: 6830: 6823: 6816: 6808: 6802: 6801: 6790: 6776: 6770: 6757: 6739: 6723: 6720: 6717: 6716: 6698: 6676: 6652: 6631: 6613: 6590: 6572: 6553: 6535: 6512:POWER Magazine 6498: 6489:www-03.ibm.com 6476: 6458: 6432: 6406: 6387: 6330: 6302: 6266: 6229: 6197: 6175: 6163: 6137: 6118: 6092: 6080: 6050: 6043: 6025: 5999: 5981: 5951: 5924: 5897: 5882: 5852: 5826: 5808: 5784: 5751: 5716: 5695: 5674: 5644: 5607: 5581: 5569: 5541: 5515: 5475: 5443: 5434: 5425: 5412: 5393: 5386: 5360: 5342: 5321: 5300: 5292:Arnold Heertje 5284: 5266: 5245: 5205: 5173: 5135: 5128: 5102: 5093: 5071: 5052: 5031: 4992: 4965: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4935: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4903: 4897: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4855: 4854: 4853: 4837: 4834: 4833: 4832: 4831: 4830: 4813: 4812: 4811: 4797: 4787: 4777: 4774:North Sea Link 4768: 4757: 4746: 4735: 4728: 4727: 4726: 4715: 4709: 4700: 4697: 4664: 4663: 4624:of the subject 4622:worldwide view 4617: 4615: 4608: 4602: 4599: 4576:Hidetsugu Yagi 4566: 4565: 4516: 4514: 4507: 4498:Main article: 4495: 4492: 4482: 4481: 4432: 4430: 4423: 4414:Main article: 4411: 4408: 4405: 4404: 4401: 4398: 4395: 4392: 4391:Essen, Germany 4388: 4387: 4386:Proposed 2014 4384: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4374: 4373: 4372:Proposed 2013 4370: 4367: 4365: 4363: 4357: 4356: 4353: 4350: 4347: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4334: 4331: 4328: 4325: 4321: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4307: 4306: 4303: 4300: 4297: 4294: 4258: 4255: 4250: 4243: 4221:Main article: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4206:health effects 4143:Main article: 4140: 4137: 4128: 4125: 4049:'s Order 888, 4017:Main article: 4014: 4011: 4003:common carrier 3961: 3960: 3958:Optical fibers 3955: 3950: 3941:common carrier 3937:short circuits 3926: 3925: 3876: 3874: 3867: 3861: 3860:Communications 3858: 3839: 3836: 3782: 3781:Load balancing 3779: 3772: 3771: 3722: 3720: 3713: 3707: 3704: 3697:ACCC conductor 3664: 3663:Reconductoring 3661: 3653:optical fibers 3627: 3626: 3577: 3575: 3568: 3562: 3559: 3551: 3550: 3547: 3544: 3477:Main article: 3474: 3471: 3454: 3434: 3423: 3422: 3407: 3404: 3401: 3398: 3395: 3392: 3389: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3362: 3359: 3358: 3355: 3352: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3340: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3313: 3308: per unit 3305: 3302: 3299: 3296: 3293: 3290: 3287: 3284: 3281: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3271: 3270: 3243: 3230: 3227: 3226: 3225: 3222: 3211: 3210: 3195: 3190: 3183: 3179: 3176: 3170: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3154: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3144: 3143: 3140: 3137: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3123: 3118: per unit 3113: 3109: 3106: 3100: 3097: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3085: 3083: 3081: 3078: 3077: 3047: 3044: 3043: 3042: 3029: 3020: 3015: 3011: 3010: 3004: 2999: 2995: 2994: 2992: 2985: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2970: 2967: 2964: 2962: 2959: 2958: 2956: 2951: 2946: 2937: 2932: 2928: 2927: 2921: 2916: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2880: 2877: 2851: 2848: 2785: 2784: 2773: 2770: 2767: 2757: 2746: 2743: 2740: 2737: 2734: 2731: 2728: 2725: 2722: 2719: 2716: 2713: 2695: 2694: 2681: 2672: 2667: 2663: 2662: 2656: 2651: 2647: 2646: 2644: 2637: 2631: 2628: 2626: 2623: 2622: 2619: 2616: 2614: 2611: 2610: 2608: 2603: 2598: 2589: 2584: 2580: 2579: 2573: 2568: 2564: 2563: 2561: 2531: 2530: 2481: 2479: 2472: 2463:Main article: 2460: 2457: 2440: 2437: 2434: 2423: 2422: 2409: 2405: 2396: 2392: 2387: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2370: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2352: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2332: 2327: 2323: 2317: 2312: 2308: 2301: 2293: 2289: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2272: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2241: 2236: 2232: 2225: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2190: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2149: 2145: 2124: 2104: 2084: 2069: 2068: 2055: 2051: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2031: 2027: 2022: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2003: 1997: 1993: 1987: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1968: 1964: 1959: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1940: 1936: 1931: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1912: 1908: 1903: 1900: 1897: 1894: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1876: 1872: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1820: 1787: 1783: 1762: 1740: 1736: 1715: 1679: 1678: 1629: 1627: 1620: 1608: 1605: 1592: 1589: 1578:overhead lines 1556: 1555: 1506: 1504: 1497: 1460: 1457: 1436:magnetic field 1430: 1429: 1380: 1378: 1371: 1365: 1362: 1350:phase-shifters 1338:reactive power 1277: 1272: 1268: 1247: 1242: 1238: 1217: 1214: 1190:Columbia River 1172:power stations 1166: 1165: 1116: 1114: 1107: 1101: 1098: 1074:combined cycle 1006:power stations 935: 932: 871:in Europe and 757:Lucien Gaulard 726:Main article: 723: 720: 696:Undergrounding 694:Main article: 691: 688: 687: 686: 683: 676: 674: 671: 664: 597: 596: 547: 545: 538: 523: 516: 515: 514: 509: 502: 501: 500: 499: 498: 493:Main article: 490: 487: 391: 388: 347:, known as an 334:direct current 262: 261: 244: 243: 198: 196: 189: 182: 181: 162: 160: 153: 146: 145: 106:of the subject 104:worldwide view 99: 97: 90: 85: 59: 58: 56: 49: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7605: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7575: 7573: 7558: 7550: 7549: 7546: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7531: 7529: 7521: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7494:Pigouvian tax 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7441: 7439: 7431: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7391:Earth-leakage 7389: 7388: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7378: 7376: 7368: 7360: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7336: 7334: 7332:Failure modes 7330: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7282:Power station 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7189: 7184: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7167:Rankine cycle 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7147:Cooling tower 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7129: 7127: 7125: 7121: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7070: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7040: 7038: 7036: 7032: 7026: 7023: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 7000: 6999: 6996: 6995: 6993: 6991: 6990:Non-renewable 6987: 6984: 6980: 6975: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6909:Grid strength 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6864:Demand factor 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6846: 6844: 6840: 6836: 6829: 6824: 6822: 6817: 6815: 6810: 6809: 6806: 6799: 6798:Tesla patents 6795: 6791: 6789: 6788:0-8104-0827-9 6785: 6781: 6777: 6773: 6767: 6763: 6758: 6755: 6754:0-8018-2873-2 6751: 6747: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6737:0-8493-8578-4 6734: 6730: 6726: 6725: 6712: 6708: 6702: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6680: 6669: 6662: 6656: 6648: 6647: 6642: 6635: 6627: 6623: 6617: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6594: 6586: 6582: 6576: 6568: 6564: 6557: 6549: 6545: 6539: 6531: 6527: 6521: 6513: 6509: 6502: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6480: 6472: 6468: 6462: 6446: 6442: 6436: 6420: 6416: 6410: 6402: 6401:New Scientist 6398: 6391: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6341: 6334: 6323: 6319: 6312: 6306: 6287: 6284:. June 2002. 6283: 6276: 6270: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6236: 6234: 6214: 6207: 6201: 6185: 6179: 6172: 6167: 6151: 6147: 6141: 6134: 6130: 6127: 6122: 6106: 6102: 6096: 6089: 6084: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6054: 6046: 6044:0-87814-862-0 6040: 6036: 6029: 6013: 6009: 6003: 5995: 5991: 5985: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5955: 5939: 5935: 5928: 5912: 5908: 5901: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5883:9781788979955 5879: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5856: 5840: 5836: 5830: 5822: 5818: 5812: 5804: 5803: 5798: 5791: 5789: 5773: 5769: 5762: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5720: 5713: 5712:0-07-020974-X 5709: 5705: 5699: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5678: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5648: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5614: 5612: 5596: 5592: 5585: 5578: 5573: 5562: 5558: 5551: 5545: 5529: 5525: 5519: 5503: 5499: 5497: 5489: 5482: 5480: 5460: 5453: 5447: 5438: 5429: 5422: 5416: 5408: 5404: 5397: 5389: 5387:9781405141949 5383: 5379: 5374: 5373: 5364: 5356: 5349: 5347: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5325: 5318: 5317:1-4008-4655-2 5314: 5310: 5304: 5297: 5293: 5288: 5280: 5276: 5270: 5262: 5258: 5252: 5250: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5198:September 17, 5190: 5183: 5177: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5142: 5140: 5131: 5129:0-8018-4614-5 5125: 5121: 5120: 5115: 5109: 5107: 5097: 5081: 5075: 5067: 5063: 5056: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5035: 5016: 5012: 5009: 5002: 4996: 4980: 4976: 4970: 4966: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4939: 4936: 4933: 4932:National Grid 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4907: 4904: 4901: 4898: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4856: 4851: 4850:Energy portal 4845: 4840: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4817: 4816: 4814: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4798: 4795: 4791: 4788: 4785: 4781: 4778: 4775: 4772: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4762: 4761:Ameralik Span 4758: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4733: 4729: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4703: 4702: 4696: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4681: 4679: 4675: 4674:cyber-warfare 4671: 4660: 4657: 4649: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4625: 4623: 4616: 4607: 4606: 4598: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4583: 4579: 4577: 4573: 4562: 4559: 4551: 4548:November 2022 4541: 4537: 4533: 4527: 4526: 4522: 4517:This section 4515: 4511: 4506: 4505: 4501: 4491: 4489: 4478: 4475: 4467: 4464:November 2022 4457: 4453: 4449: 4443: 4442: 4438: 4433:This section 4431: 4427: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4402: 4399: 4396: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4351: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4339: 4335: 4332: 4329: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4308: 4304: 4302:Capacity (GW) 4301: 4298: 4295: 4292: 4291: 4285: 4283: 4278: 4276: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4254: 4249: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4224: 4209: 4207: 4202: 4198: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4178: 4176: 4171: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4157: 4151: 4146: 4136: 4133: 4124: 4122: 4116: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4093: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4058: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4043: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4026: 4020: 4010: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3995: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3976: 3972: 3970: 3965: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3945: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3933: 3922: 3919: 3911: 3908:November 2022 3901: 3897: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3882: 3877:This section 3875: 3871: 3866: 3865: 3857: 3855: 3851: 3849: 3845: 3835: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3824:Wind turbines 3821: 3819: 3814: 3810: 3807: 3802: 3800: 3794: 3790: 3788: 3778: 3768: 3765: 3757: 3754:November 2022 3747: 3743: 3739: 3733: 3732: 3728: 3723:This section 3721: 3717: 3712: 3711: 3703: 3700: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3685: 3681: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3660: 3656: 3654: 3650: 3645: 3641: 3639: 3635: 3623: 3620: 3612: 3609:November 2022 3602: 3598: 3594: 3588: 3587: 3583: 3578:This section 3576: 3572: 3567: 3566: 3558: 3556: 3548: 3545: 3542: 3541: 3540: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3525: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3513:New York City 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3497:Great Britain 3494: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3470: 3468: 3452: 3432: 3405: 3399: 3396: 3390: 3387: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3367: 3365: 3360: 3347: 3344: 3338: 3335: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3320: 3315: 3300: 3297: 3291: 3288: 3285: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3272: 3261: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3241: 3223: 3220: 3216: 3215: 3214: 3193: 3181: 3177: 3174: 3168: 3165: 3155: 3152: 3150: 3145: 3135: 3132: 3130: 3125: 3111: 3107: 3104: 3098: 3095: 3092: 3089: 3086: 3084: 3079: 3068: 3067: 3066: 3064: 3060: 3059: 3057: 3027: 3013: 2997: 2990: 2983: 2977: 2972: 2965: 2960: 2954: 2949: 2944: 2930: 2914: 2907: 2898: 2897: 2896: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2876: 2874: 2870: 2860: 2856: 2850:Lossless line 2847: 2845: 2841: 2835: 2833: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2771: 2768: 2765: 2758: 2744: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2717: 2704: 2703: 2702: 2700: 2679: 2665: 2649: 2642: 2635: 2629: 2624: 2617: 2612: 2606: 2601: 2596: 2582: 2566: 2559: 2550: 2549: 2548: 2546: 2537: 2527: 2524: 2516: 2513:November 2022 2506: 2502: 2498: 2492: 2491: 2487: 2482:This section 2480: 2476: 2471: 2470: 2466: 2456: 2454: 2453:Joule heating 2438: 2435: 2432: 2407: 2403: 2394: 2390: 2385: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2368: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2330: 2325: 2321: 2315: 2310: 2306: 2299: 2291: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2270: 2265: 2261: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2239: 2234: 2230: 2223: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2192: 2188: 2180: 2179: 2178: 2162: 2158: 2153: 2147: 2143: 2122: 2102: 2082: 2074: 2053: 2049: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2001: 1995: 1991: 1985: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1966: 1962: 1957: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1938: 1934: 1929: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1910: 1906: 1901: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1874: 1870: 1862: 1861: 1860: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1830: 1826: 1821: 1818: 1810: 1806: 1801: 1785: 1781: 1760: 1738: 1734: 1713: 1706:with voltage 1705: 1696: 1688: 1684: 1675: 1672: 1664: 1661:November 2022 1654: 1650: 1646: 1640: 1639: 1635: 1630:This section 1628: 1624: 1619: 1618: 1614: 1604: 1601: 1597: 1588: 1586: 1581: 1579: 1575: 1574:normally open 1571: 1568:Loops can be 1566: 1563: 1552: 1549: 1541: 1538:November 2022 1531: 1527: 1523: 1517: 1516: 1512: 1507:This section 1505: 1501: 1496: 1495: 1488: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1465: 1456: 1454: 1450: 1444: 1441: 1437: 1426: 1423: 1415: 1412:November 2022 1405: 1401: 1397: 1391: 1390: 1386: 1381:This section 1379: 1375: 1370: 1369: 1364:Transposition 1361: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1346: 1344: 1339: 1336:) constitute 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1308: 1303: 1301: 1296: 1294: 1289: 1275: 1270: 1266: 1245: 1240: 1236: 1227: 1223: 1222:Joule heating 1213: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1162: 1159: 1151: 1148:November 2022 1141: 1137: 1133: 1127: 1126: 1122: 1117:This section 1115: 1111: 1106: 1105: 1097: 1095: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1050: 1044: 1042: 1033: 1028: 1024: 1022: 1018: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1002: 1000: 996: 995: 988: 984: 981: 976: 974: 970: 966: 962: 954: 950: 945: 940: 931: 929: 925: 920: 918: 917:hydroelectric 912: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 889: 887: 883: 878: 874: 870: 866: 858: 854: 849: 845: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 806: 804: 800: 796: 791: 789: 785: 780: 777: 773: 768: 766: 762: 758: 754: 749: 747: 742: 734: 729: 719: 717: 712: 710: 705: 703: 697: 680: 675: 668: 663: 662: 661: 659: 655: 649: 647: 643: 639: 634: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 615:circular mils 612: 607: 604: 593: 590: 582: 579:November 2022 572: 568: 564: 558: 557: 553: 548:This section 546: 542: 537: 536: 527: 520: 506: 496: 486: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 459: 457: 452: 447: 444: 440: 436: 432: 431:high voltages 427: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 406:AC, although 405: 396: 387: 385: 381: 376: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 341: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 318: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 277: 273: 268: 258: 255: 240: 237: 229: 219: 215: 209: 208: 202: 197: 188: 187: 178: 166: 161: 152: 151: 142: 139: 131: 121: 117: 113: 107: 105: 98: 89: 88: 83: 81: 74: 73: 68: 67: 62: 57: 48: 47: 44: 40: 33: 19: 7489:Net metering 7436:and policies 7354:Power outage 7323:Utility pole 7287:Pumped hydro 7226: 7193:distribution 7188:Transmission 7187: 7137:Cogeneration 6939:Power factor 6793: 6779: 6761: 6745: 6728: 6710: 6701: 6693:the original 6688: 6679: 6655: 6644: 6634: 6625: 6616: 6608:the original 6603: 6593: 6584: 6575: 6566: 6556: 6547: 6538: 6511: 6501: 6493:the original 6488: 6479: 6470: 6461: 6449:. 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Retrieved 4979:the original 4969: 4927:Load profile 4800:Baltic Cable 4688: 4682: 4667: 4652: 4643: 4619: 4584: 4580: 4572:Nikola Tesla 4569: 4554: 4545: 4530:Please help 4518: 4485: 4470: 4461: 4446:Please help 4434: 4299:Voltage (kV) 4279: 4260: 4247: 4240: 4226: 4203: 4199: 4179: 4172: 4167: 4160: 4152: 4148: 4134: 4130: 4117: 4094: 4059: 4050: 4044: 4029: 4022: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3981: 3966: 3962: 3929: 3914: 3905: 3890:Please help 3878: 3852: 3841: 3822: 3815: 3811: 3803: 3795: 3791: 3784: 3775: 3760: 3751: 3736:Please help 3724: 3701: 3693:carbon fiber 3686: 3682: 3666: 3657: 3646: 3642: 3634:voltage drop 3630: 3615: 3606: 3591:Please help 3579: 3552: 3529: 3521: 3486: 3482: 3424: 3232: 3212: 3062: 3055: 3052: 3049: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2882: 2872: 2868: 2865: 2853: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2831: 2824: 2816: 2808: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2786: 2698: 2696: 2542: 2519: 2510: 2495:Please help 2483: 2424: 2070: 1802: 1701: 1682: 1667: 1658: 1643:Please help 1631: 1600:distribution 1594: 1585:distribution 1582: 1573: 1569: 1567: 1559: 1544: 1535: 1520:Please help 1508: 1477:street light 1475:lines and a 1473:distribution 1445: 1433: 1418: 1409: 1394:Please help 1382: 1347: 1343:power factor 1319: 1315: 1311: 1304: 1297: 1290: 1219: 1183: 1180: 1169: 1154: 1145: 1130:Please help 1118: 1090: 1078: 1065: 1047: 1045: 1037: 1003: 991: 989: 985: 977: 965:transformers 958: 921: 913: 890: 862: 826:Nikola Tesla 807: 792: 781: 772:Turin, Italy 769: 750: 743: 739: 713: 706: 699: 650: 642:distribution 635: 608: 600: 585: 576: 561:Please help 549: 460: 448: 428: 408:single phase 401: 377: 352: 348: 342: 338:transformers 319: 302: 282: 281: 250: 232: 223: 204: 172: 164: 134: 125: 101: 77: 70: 64: 63:Please help 60: 43: 7484:Load factor 7339:Black start 7307:Transformer 7008:Natural gas 6959:Variability 6934:Peak demand 6924:Merit order 6854:Backfeeding 6353:(1): 2375. 6295:January 29, 6259:January 23, 6222:November 9, 6190:November 9, 6073:October 30, 5974:December 7, 5944:January 31, 5917:January 31, 5913:. 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