340:– were indeed identical to French grape lice. Meanwhile, Planchon and Lichtenstein had found vines with afflicted leaves; lice that were transferred from those leaves to the roots of healthy vines attached themselves to the vines' roots as other French grape lice did. Also in 1870, Riley discovered that American grape lice wintered on American grape vines' roots, which the insects damaged, albeit less than in the case of French vines. Riley repeated Planchon and Lichtenstein's experiment using American grape vines and American grape lice, with similar results. Thus the identity of the French and American grape lice was proven. Nevertheless, for another three years, a powerful majority in France argued that
377:
237:
356:, and by 1871, French farmers began to import them and to graft French vines onto the American rootstock. (Leo Laliman had suggested importing American vines as early as 1869, but French farmers were reluctant to abandon their traditional varieties. Gaston Bazille then proposed grafting traditional French vines onto American rootstock.) However, importation of American vines did not entirely solve the problem: some American grape varieties struggled in France's chalky soils and succumbed to
1961:
448:
22:
269:, in 1863. The wine makers there did not notice the aphids, just as the French colonists in America had not, but they noted the mysterious blight that was damaging their vines. The only description of the disease that was given by these wine growers was that it "reminded them distressingly of 'consumption'"(tuberculosis). The blight quickly spread throughout France, but it was several years before the cause of the disease was determined.
300:
336:. However, there was a problem with these suggestions: French grape lice were known to infest only a vine's roots, whereas American grape lice were known to infest only its leaves. The British-born American entomologist Charles Valentine Riley had been following news of the outbreak in France. He sent Signoret specimens of American grape lice, which Signoret concluded – in 1870, while he was besieged in Paris during the
332:, which afflicted oak leaves. In 1869, English entomologist John Obadiah Westwood suggested that an insect that had afflicted grape leaves in England circa 1863 was the same insect afflicting grape vines' roots in France. Also in 1869, Lichtenstein suggested that the French insect was an American "vine louse" that had been identified in 1855 by the American entomologist Asa Fitch, which he had named
135:
126:. While many of the French wine growers disliked this idea, many found themselves with no other option. The method proved to be an effective remedy. The "Reconstitution" (as it was termed) of the many vineyards that had been lost was a slow process, but eventually the wine industry in France was able to return to relative normality.
434:
The grafting method was tested, and proved a success. The process was colloquially termed "reconstitution" by French wine growers. The cure for the disease caused a great division in the wine industry: some, who became known as the "chemists", rejected the grafting solution and persisted with the use
277:
Over 40% of French grape vines and vineyards were devastated over a 15-year period from the late 1850s to the mid-1870s. The French economy was badly hit by the blight: many businesses were lost, and wages in the wine industry were cut to less than half. There was also a noticeable trend of migration
443:
The French government had offered over 320,000 Francs as a reward to whoever could discover a cure for the blight. Having reportedly been the first to suggest the possibility of using the resistant
American rootstock, Leo Laliman tried to claim the money, but the French government refused to award
430:
had developed in Texas (Mrs Munson, Muench, and Neva Munson) were grafts with the hardy Neosho hybrids Jaeger had developed in
Missouri. Jaeger exported 17 boxcars of his resistant rootstock to France. In 1893, for his contribution to the grape and wine industries of France, Jaeger was awarded the
372:
Many growers resorted to their own methods in attempt to resolve the issue. Chemicals and pesticides were used to no avail. In desperation, some growers positioned toads under each vine, and others allowed their poultry to roam free in the hope they would eat the insects. None of these methods was
319:
for help. The society appointed a committee including botanist Jules Émile
Planchon, local grower Felix Sahut, and the society's president, Gaston Bazille. Sahut soon noticed that the roots of dying vines were infested with "lice" which were sucking sap from the plants. The committee named the new
444:
it, with the rationale that he had not cured the blight, but rather stopped it from occurring. However, there may have been other reasons for the government denying
Laliman the prize: he was mistrusted by several notable parties, and he was thought by many to have originally introduced the pest.
149:
by French colonists in
Florida, in the 16th century. These plantations were a failure, and later experiments with related species of vine also failed, although the reason for these failures appears to have been a mystery to the French colonists. It is known today that it was a species of North
866:( … I had the thought of pulling out the roots of the vines that were already affected in order to examine them attentively … By scanning the epidermis of the vine's roots with my lens, I thus discovered some little yellow points that I showed immediately to Mr. Planchon … ).
864:" … j'eus la pensée de faire arracher des racines sur les vignes déjà atteintes pour les examiner attentivement … En promenant ma loupe sur l'épiderme de ces racines de vigne, je découvris ainsi quelques petits points jaunes que je montrai immédiatement à M. Planchon … "
840:
J. Paul Legros (14 June 1993) "L'invasion du vignoble par le
Phylloxéra" (The invasion of the vineyards by Phylloxera), Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier, Conférence no. 2102, Bulletin no. 24, pp. 205–222; see especially pp. 218–221. Available on-line at:
174:
There have been several theories proposed for why the phylloxera was ignored as the possible cause of the disease that resulted in the failure of so many vineyards, most of which involve the feeding behaviour of the insect, and the way it attacks the roots. The
435:
of pesticides and chemicals. Those who became grafters were known as "Americanists", or "wood merchants". Following the demonstrated success of grafting in the 1870s and 1880s the immense task of "reconstituting" the majority of France's vineyards began.
71:
aphid was introduced to Europe remains debated: American vines had been taken to Europe many times before, for reasons including experimentation and trials in grafting, without consideration of the possibility of the introduction of pestilence. While the
834:
1134:(It is for that that, from the start of the Phylloxera invasion, I have expressed the opinion that this insect, so eminently parasitic, could not be the first cause of the death of the vines, but only the consequence of their sickly condition.)
1132:"C'est pour cela que, dès le début de l'invasion du Phylloxera, j'ai émis l'opinion que cet insecte, si éminemment parasite, ne pouvait être la cause première de la mort des vignes, mais seulement la conséquence de leur état maladif."
154:
causes a disease that is quickly fatal to the
European varieties of vine. The aphids initially went unnoticed by the colonists, despite their great numbers, and the pressure to successfully start a vineyard in America at the time.
426:, was pivotal in the rescue of the French vineyards, as well. Jaeger working with the Missouri state entomologist George Hussman, had already raised vines with resistance to the pest. Indeed, several of the rootstalk varietals
207:
For a few centuries, Europeans had experimented with
American vines and plants in their soil. Many varieties were imported from America without regulation, disregarding the possibility of pest transfer and related problems.
1016:
in: "The grape-leaf gall-louse – Phylloxera vitifoliae, Fitch." in: Charles V. Riley, Third Annual Report on the
Noxious, Beneficial and Other Insects of the State of Missouri, … in: Chas. W. Murtfeldt, ed.,
286:
and sugar wines caused the domestic industry several problems that threatened to persist even after the blight itself. The damage to the French economy is estimated to have been slightly over 10 billion
54:
that originated in North
America and was carried across the Atlantic in the late 1850s. The actual genus of the aphid is still debated, although it is largely considered to have been a species of
464:, or the disease it brings with it, and it still poses a substantial threat to any vineyard not planted with grafted rootstock. There is only one European grape vine known to be resistant to the
224:
to Europe around 1860. Others say that the aphid did not enter France until around 1863. The advent of steamships may have been a factor: as they were faster than sailing ships, the
162:
variety, simply would not grow in American soil, and they resorted to growing native American plants, and established plantations of these native vines. Exceptions did exist;
845:
352:
was merely a consequence of the "true" disease, which remained to be found. Regardless, Riley had discovered American grape varieties that were especially resistant to
1171:"Grape disease: On the cause of deterioration in some of our native grape-vines, and one of the probable reasons why European vines have so generally failed with us"
1180: ; in: Charles V. Riley, Fourth annual report on the noxious, beneficial, and other insects of the state of Missouri … , pp. 55–71; in: John F. Wielandy, ed.,
1084:
220:
in the 1860s, maintained that the transfer of American vines and plants into Europe greatly increased between roughly 1858 and 1862, and accidentally introduced
483:; however there is speculation that the actual source of this resistance may arise from the volcanic ash in which the vines grow, and not from the vine itself.
138:
The grape phylloxera responsible for the failure of the French colonist's plantations in Florida, and probably the later destroyer of the French wine industry.
324:. Planchon consulted French entomologists Victor Antoine Signoret and Jules Lichtenstein (Planchon's brother-in-law). Signoret suggested renaming the insect
1124:
988:
Page 74 of: George Gale, "Chapter 4: Saving the vine from Phylloxera: A never-ending battle," pp. 70–91 ; in: Merton Sandler and Roger Pindler, ed.s,
360:. By trial and error, American vines were found that could tolerate chalky soils. Meanwhile, entomologists worked to unravel the strange life cycle of
389:
108:
782:
64:. While France is considered to have been worst affected, the blight also did a great deal of damage to vineyards in other European countries.
1152:
411:
was consulted and provided native Texan rootstocks for grafting. Because of Munson's role, the French government in 1888 sent a delegation to
1173:
1009:
195:
quickly withdraws its feeding tube and searches for another source of food. Thus, anyone digging up a diseased and dying vine will not find
1887:
898:
533:
1389:
751:
179:
of the grape phylloxera has both a venom canal from which it injects its deadly venom and a feeding tube through which it takes in vine
1825:
1253:
970:
718:
1565:
842:
1441:
1099:"Phylloxera vastatrix, Hemiptère-Homoptère de la famille des Aphidiens, cause prétendue de la maladie actuelle de la vigne,"
593:
2010:
1491:
1101:(Phylloxera vastatrix, Hemiptera-Homoptera of the family Aphidiens, so-called cause of the present disease of vines),
2025:
1545:
1471:
1406:
1371:
1345:
1324:
1303:
1237:
697:
627:
569:
142:
The aphid that was the central source of the damage in France was first noted following the growing of the European
2030:
80:. It is argued by some that the introduction of such pests as phylloxera was only a problem after the invention of
1092:"Les pucerons que l'on trouve maintenant sur les vignes malades, ne sont donc que des parasites venus après coup."
1054:
Riley, Third Annual Report on the Noxious, Beneficial and Other Insects of the State of Missouri, … (1871), p. 86.
1985:
1072:(Barral, Jean-Augustin) (20 September 1868) "VI. Nouvelle maladie de la vigne" (VI. New disease of the vine),
1918:
1550:
766:
W. Conner Sorensen, Edward H. Smith, Janet Smith, and Yves Carton (Fall 2008) "Charles V. Riley, France, and
1081:
76:
was thought to have arrived around 1858, it was first recorded in France in 1863, in the former province of
1928:
779:
1995:
1570:
1270:
859:
376:
931:
1697:
1098:
1121:
487:
1892:
1790:
1702:
1620:
1434:
56:
1149:
2015:
2000:
1800:
33:
The phylloxera, a true gourmet, finds out the best vineyards and attaches itself to the best wines.
236:
134:
2020:
1902:
1755:
1496:
1476:
1170:
1006:
100:
887:
530:
344:
was not the cause of vine disease; instead, vines that were already sickly became infested with
1923:
1777:
1630:
1094:(The aphids that one finds now on the diseased vines are thus only parasites come afterwards.)
150:
American grape phylloxera that caused these early vineyards to fail; the venom injected by the
1035:"De l'identité spécifique du phylloxera des feuilles et du phylloxera des racines de la vigne"
84:, which allowed a faster journey across the ocean, and consequently allowed pests such as the
1859:
1805:
1625:
954:(Planchon), la maladie nouvelle de la vigne et les remèdes proposés" (Various information on
748:
1034:
2005:
1990:
1964:
1427:
1250:
967:
408:
384:
After Charles Valentine Riley, Missouri's state entomologist, confirmed Planchon's theory,
209:
92:
1379:
8:
1877:
1854:
1037:(The identity of the phylloxera of the leaves and the phylloxera of the roots of vines),
710:
337:
166:
plantations were well-established in California before the aphids found their way there.
1835:
1688:
1585:
1815:
1402:
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1341:
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1299:
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27:
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1156:
1128:
1088:
1013:
974:
902:
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786:
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537:
158:
It became common knowledge among the settlers that their European vines, of the
1840:
1732:
1658:
1526:
419:
412:
143:
597:
1979:
1635:
1595:
1411:
California Dept. of Agriculture, California State Commission of Horticulture
1393:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 547–548.
1384:
690:
Viticulture: An Introduction to Commercial Grape Growing for Wine Production.
407:, with the aphid-resistant American vines, then the problem might be solved.
415:, to confer on him the French Legion of Honor Chevalier du MĂ©rite Agricole.
307:
Research into the cause of the disease began in 1868, when grape growers in
1810:
1722:
1712:
1640:
1560:
1486:
1466:
1338:
Adventures in Wine: True Stories of Vineyards and Vintages Around the World
1615:
1450:
1112:
Guérin-Méneville, Félix Édouard (1873) " … note de M. Guérin-Méneville,"
427:
385:
316:
104:
1364:
When Champagne Became French: Wine and the Making of a National Identity
1948:
1830:
1678:
1580:
739:(Pierre-Adolphe Menudier) (2 August 1879) "The Phylloxera in France,"
447:
1750:
1590:
1508:
491:
480:
469:
266:
213:
176:
122:
to the resistant American rootstock that were not susceptible to the
81:
77:
21:
1933:
1707:
1555:
1513:
1501:
1317:
Radicalism in Mediterranean France: Its Rise and Decline, 1848–1914
1114:
Comptes rendus des travaux de la Société des Agriculteurs de France
404:
119:
50:
in France and laid waste to the wine industry. It was caused by an
47:
399:, two French wine growers, both suggested the possibility that if
299:
191:
structure of a vine, the sap pressure falls and, as a result, the
1765:
1760:
1717:
1668:
1575:
1378:
488:
vines which have been neither grafted nor destroyed by phylloxera
473:
279:
1206:
1204:
540:(On a disease of grapevines presently prevailing in Provence),
531:"Sur une maladie de la vigne actuellement régnante en Provence"
476:
312:
288:
283:
258:
118:, two French wine growers, proposed that the European vines be
43:
1419:
1683:
1519:
1481:
1201:
184:
51:
1150:"The grape-leaf gall-louse (Phylloxera vitifoliae, Fitch.),"
431:
French Legion of Honor - Chevalier of the LĂ©gion d'honneur.
1943:
1785:
1740:
262:
188:
958:(Planchon), the new vine disease and proposed remedies),
180:
1251:
http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fmu08
817:
in France: a controversial subject: the archives speak (
805:
en France: Un sujet de polémique: les archives parlent (
253:
The first known documented instance of an attack by the
1399:
Moveable Feasts: The History, Science, And Lore of Food
1187:(Jefferson City, Missouri: Regan & Edwards, 1872).
451:"Death to Phylloxera!" (a French caricature from 1880)
228:
were better able to survive the shorter ocean voyage.
1033:
J. E. Planchon and J. Lichtenstein (11 August 1870)
888:"Nouvelles observations sur le puceron de la vigne (
856:
Les Vignes Américaines: Leur greffage et leur taille
560:
Ellen M. Harkness, Richard P. Vine, Sally J. Linton
46:of the mid-19th century that destroyed many of the
1230:Chateaux of the Medoc: The Great Wines of Bordeaux
1024:… (Jefferson City, Missouri: Horace Wilcox, 1871).
620:Australian Agriculture: Its History and Challenges
1977:
1185:State Board of Agriculture, … for the Year 1871
843:Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier
858:(Paris: A. Delahaye and E. Lecrosnier, 1887),
827:Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France
380:A vine root injector used to combat phylloxera
1435:
1103:Annales de la Société Entomologique de France
935:Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette
562:Winemaking: From Grape Growing to Marketplace
1888:Effects of climate change on wine production
992:(Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press, 2002).
674:Phylloxera: How Wine Was Saved for the World
529:G. Bazille, J.-E. Planchon and Sahut (1868)
460:There is still no remedy, as such, for the
1442:
1428:
966:(7) : 184–192 (1869); see especially
833:(3) : 305–316. Available on-line at:
671:
660:The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition
638:
636:
588:
586:
584:
582:
580:
578:
446:
375:
364:, a project that was completed in 1874.
298:
235:
133:
20:
1377:Fisher, William Edward Garrett (1911).
665:
497:
303:A phylloxera conference in Paris (1874)
1978:
1376:
1160:The American Entomologist and Botanist
685:
683:
672:Campbell, Christy (6 September 2004).
556:
554:
103:'s confirmation of Planchon's theory,
1423:
905:(New observations on the vine aphid (
801:Carton, Yves (2006) "La découvert du
633:
575:
403:vines could be combined, by means of
282:and America. The production of cheap
248:
886:Planchon, J. E. (14 September 1868)
778:(3): 134–149. Available on-line at:
721:from the original on 15 October 2007
315:, asked the agricultural society in
202:
199:clinging to the roots of the plant.
1249:Texas State Historical Association
680:
551:
13:
1492:International Grape Genome Program
930:Westwood, J. O. (30 January 1869)
494:and Quinta do Noval, in Portugal.
14:
2042:
1472:Annual growth cycle of grapevines
16:Mid-19th century blight by aphids
1960:
1959:
1210:(Sorensen et al., 2008), p. 141.
1198:(Sorensen et al., 2008), p. 139.
1166:(12) : 353–359; see p. 356.
1069:(Sorensen et al., 2008), p. 138.
780:Entomological Society of America
257:in France was in the village of
99:as the cause of the blight, and
1449:
1330:
1309:
1294:Allan J. Tobin, Jennie Dusheck
1288:
1263:
1243:
1222:
1213:
1192:
1139:
1057:
1048:
1027:
1000:
979:
944:
924:
880:
877:(Bazille et al., 1868), p. 336.
871:
792:
760:
733:
703:
1271:"Vineyard and Grape Varieties"
1039:Journal d'Agriculture Pratique
990:Wine: A Scientific Exploration
950:"Renseignements divers sur le
649:
612:
594:"The Great French Wine Blight"
523:
509:
455:
1:
1919:Glossary of viticulture terms
1551:Diurnal temperature variation
1298:. Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2004.
1182:Seventh Annual Report of the
1148:Riley, C. V. (December 1870)
231:
169:
129:
1929:Glossary of winemaking terms
294:
187:from the venom corrodes the
7:
1019:Sixth Annual Report of the
367:
328:, due to its similarity to
10:
2047:
1698:Integrated pest management
1340:. Travelers' Tales, 2002.
1022:State Board of Agriculture
622:. CSIRO Publishing, 2007.
490:, including some owned by
348:. Thus, in their opinion,
265:of the former province of
240:Diagram of the roots of a
2011:Natural history of Europe
1957:
1911:
1893:Environmental stewardship
1868:
1774:
1731:
1649:
1606:
1536:
1457:
1401:. Greenwood Press, 2006.
1228:Ken Kincaid, Peter Knaup
1155:30 September 2017 at the
995:(Sorensen, 2008), p. 137.
472:vine, which grows on the
272:
57:Daktulosphaira vitifoliae
2026:1863 disasters in France
1821:Great French Wine Blight
1256:22 February 2015 at the
1219:(Gale, 2002), pp. 82–83.
1127:12 February 2022 at the
1097:Signoret, Victor (1869)
1087:12 February 2022 at the
1074:Journal de l'Agriculture
1066:(Gale, 2002), pp. 71–73.
785:16 December 2010 at the
438:
40:Great French Wine Blight
2031:1863 in the environment
1903:Sustainable agriculture
1684:Frost damage prevention
1566:Regional climate levels
1390:Encyclopædia Britannica
715:Encyclopædia Britannica
536:21 October 2015 at the
486:There still exist some
418:Another viticulturist,
101:Charles Valentine Riley
1986:19th century in France
1924:Glossary of wine terms
646:. Pan Macmillan, 1987.
452:
381:
304:
245:
183:and nutrients. As the
139:
91:Eventually, following
35:
960:Insectologie Agricole
813:)" (The discovery of
772:American Entomologist
754:26 April 2016 at the
644:The Great Wine Blight
450:
379:
302:
261:in the department of
244:damaged by the aphid.
239:
137:
88:to survive the trip.
24:
1319:. SUNY Press, 1974.
1232:. I.B.Tauris, 2000.
1012:24 June 2016 at the
973:7 March 2016 at the
956:Phylloxera vastatrix
952:Phylloxera vastatrix
932:"New vine diseases,"
907:Phylloxera vastratix
901:7 March 2016 at the
890:Phylloxera vastratix
848:4 March 2016 at the
498:Notes and references
409:Thomas Volney Munson
334:Pemphigus vitifoliae
326:Phylloxera vastatrix
210:Jules-Emile Planchon
95:'s discovery of the
93:Jules-Émile Planchon
60:, commonly known as
1878:Adaptive management
1366:. JHU Press, 2003.
1045:(2) : 181–182.
741:Scientific American
520:, 6 September 1890.
338:Franco-Prussian War
322:Rhizaphis vastatrix
216:who identified the
1996:Grape pest insects
1796:Botrytis bunch rot
1616:Grapevine planting
1546:Climate categories
1380:"Phylloxera"
1176:8 May 2016 at the
1169:See pp. 63–64 in:
747:(5) : 72–73;
564:. Springer, 2002.
453:
382:
330:Phylloxera quercus
305:
278:to places such as
249:Initial appearance
246:
140:
36:
1971:
1970:
1816:Grapevine yellows
1415:. Published 1901.
1296:Asking about Life
203:Journey to Europe
2038:
1963:
1962:
1847:Uncinula necator
1836:Pierce's disease
1444:
1437:
1430:
1421:
1420:
1397:Gregory McNamee
1394:
1382:
1349:
1334:
1328:
1313:
1307:
1292:
1286:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1267:
1261:
1247:
1241:
1226:
1220:
1217:
1211:
1208:
1199:
1196:
1190:
1143:
1137:
1120: : 650–652.
1109: : 549–588.
1080: : 725–727.
1061:
1055:
1052:
1046:
1031:
1025:
1004:
998:
983:
977:
948:
942:
928:
922:
921: : 588–594.
884:
878:
875:
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796:
790:
764:
758:
737:
731:
730:
728:
726:
707:
701:
692:Published 2007.
687:
678:
677:
669:
663:
653:
647:
642:Ordish, George.
640:
631:
616:
610:
609:
607:
605:
596:. Archived from
590:
573:
558:
549:
548: : 333–336.
527:
521:
513:
424:Neosho, Missouri
398:
117:
62:grape phylloxera
2046:
2045:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2016:1860s in France
2001:History of wine
1976:
1975:
1972:
1967:
1953:
1939:Outline of wine
1907:
1898:Organic farming
1883:Biodynamic wine
1870:
1864:
1855:Red spider mite
1776:
1770:
1727:
1689:Green harvest (
1674:Erosion control
1651:
1645:
1626:Row orientation
1608:
1602:
1538:
1532:
1477:Grape varieties
1459:
1453:
1448:
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1413:Biennial Report
1362:Kolleen M. Guy
1353:
1352:
1335:
1331:
1315:Leo A. Loubère
1314:
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1293:
1289:
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1275:Grayson College
1269:
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1258:Wayback Machine
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25:A cartoon from
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2021:1863 in France
2018:
2013:
2008:
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1841:Powdery mildew
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1691:Vendange verte
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1527:Vitis vinifera
1523:
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1095:
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999:
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943:
923:
915:Comptes rendus
913:, Planch.))),
879:
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759:
743:, new series,
732:
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664:
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542:Comptes rendus
522:
517:Punch magazine
507:
506:
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454:
440:
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420:Hermann Jaeger
413:Denison, Texas
390:Gaston Bazille
369:
366:
296:
293:
274:
271:
250:
247:
242:Vitis vinifera
233:
230:
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171:
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147:Vitis vinifera
131:
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109:Gaston Bazille
15:
9:
6:
4:
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2:
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1537:Environmental
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1407:0-275-98931-3
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1372:0-8018-7164-6
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1346:1-885211-80-5
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1304:0-534-40653-X
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835:Research Gate
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570:0-306-47272-4
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53:
49:
45:
42:was a severe
41:
34:
30:
29:
23:
19:
1973:
1845:
1820:
1811:Downy mildew
1723:Weed control
1713:Millerandage
1690:
1561:Microclimate
1525:
1518:
1500:
1487:Hybrid grape
1467:Ampelography
1460:horticulture
1412:
1398:
1388:
1363:
1337:
1336:Thom Elkjer
1332:
1316:
1311:
1295:
1290:
1278:. Retrieved
1274:
1265:
1245:
1229:
1224:
1215:
1194:
1184:
1181:
1163:
1159:
1141:
1131:
1122:From p. 651:
1117:
1113:
1106:
1102:
1091:
1082:From p. 727:
1077:
1073:
1059:
1050:
1042:
1038:
1029:
1021:
1018:
1002:
989:
981:
963:
959:
955:
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946:
941: : 109.
938:
934:
926:
918:
914:
910:
906:
896:, Planch.))"
893:
889:
882:
873:
863:
862:From p. 29:
855:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
794:
775:
771:
767:
762:
744:
740:
735:
723:. Retrieved
714:
705:
689:
673:
667:
659:
655:
651:
643:
619:
618:Ted Henzell
614:
602:. Retrieved
598:the original
561:
545:
541:
525:
516:
511:
485:
465:
461:
459:
442:
433:
417:
400:
383:
373:successful.
371:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
333:
329:
325:
321:
306:
276:
254:
252:
241:
225:
221:
217:
206:
196:
192:
173:
163:
159:
157:
151:
146:
141:
123:
96:
90:
85:
73:
68:
66:
61:
55:
39:
37:
32:
26:
18:
2006:Viticulture
1991:French wine
1621:Propagation
1458:Biology and
1451:Viticulture
823:Chermesidae
811:Chermesidae
711:"Languedoc"
456:Present day
428:T.V. Munson
393: [
386:Leo Laliman
317:Montpellier
212:, a French
112: [
105:Leo Laliman
31:from 1890:
1980:Categories
1949:Winemaking
1871:and issues
1869:Approaches
1831:Phylloxera
1801:Bot canker
1703:Irrigation
1679:Fertilizer
1652:management
1581:Topography
1571:Soil types
909:(recently
815:Phylloxera
803:Phylloxera
768:Phylloxera
749:see p. 72.
725:4 November
656:Phylloxera
604:4 November
479:island of
466:Phylloxera
462:Phylloxera
362:Phylloxera
358:Phylloxera
354:Phylloxera
350:Phylloxera
346:Phylloxera
342:Phylloxera
309:Roquemaure
255:Phylloxera
232:The blight
226:Phylloxera
222:Phylloxera
218:Phylloxera
197:Phylloxera
193:Phylloxera
170:Phylloxera
152:Phylloxera
130:Background
124:Phylloxera
97:Phylloxera
86:Phylloxera
82:steamships
74:Phylloxera
69:Phylloxera
1860:Vine moth
1826:Nematodes
1791:Black rot
1775:Pests and
1751:Noble rot
1746:Festivals
1591:elevation
1539:variation
1509:Rootstock
1306:, p. 628.
968:page 189.
911:Rhizaphis
894:Rhizaphis
819:Hemiptera
807:Hemiptera
492:Bollinger
481:Santorini
470:Assyrtiko
295:Discovery
267:Languedoc
214:biologist
177:proboscis
78:Languedoc
48:vineyards
1965:Category
1934:Oenology
1912:See also
1806:Dead arm
1778:diseases
1756:Ripeness
1708:Klopotec
1650:Vineyard
1609:planting
1607:Vineyard
1556:Drainage
1514:Vineyard
1502:Veraison
1497:Ripening
1254:Archived
1240:, p. 23.
1174:Archived
1153:Archived
1125:Archived
1085:Archived
1010:Archived
971:Archived
899:Archived
860:page 29.
846:Archived
783:Archived
752:Archived
719:Archived
534:Archived
503:Specific
474:volcanic
405:grafting
401:vinifera
368:Solution
164:vinifera
160:vinifera
67:How the
1766:Weather
1761:Vintage
1733:Harvest
1718:Pruning
1669:Coulure
1576:Terroir
1387:(ed.).
1356:General
1280:13 June
1007:Page 86
892:(nuper
662:. 2004.
658:, from
320:insect
311:, near
284:raisins
280:Algiers
120:grafted
1659:Canopy
1586:aspect
1482:Grapes
1405:
1370:
1344:
1323:
1302:
1236:
696:
626:
568:
468:, the
313:Pujaut
289:Francs
273:Damage
259:Pujaut
44:blight
1786:Birds
1641:Yield
1596:slope
1520:Vitis
1383:. In
1145:See:
1063:See:
985:See:
798:See:
477:Greek
439:Prize
397:]
185:toxin
116:]
52:aphid
28:Punch
1944:Wine
1741:Brix
1664:Clos
1403:ISBN
1368:ISBN
1342:ISBN
1321:ISBN
1300:ISBN
1282:2022
1234:ISBN
1076:… ,
825:)),
727:2007
694:ISBN
624:ISBN
606:2007
566:ISBN
388:and
263:Gard
189:root
144:vine
107:and
38:The
831:111
770:,"
422:of
181:sap
1982::
1273:.
1203:^
1162:,
1116:,
1043:34
1041:,
962:,
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937:,
919:67
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809:,
776:54
774:,
745:41
717:.
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682:^
635:^
577:^
553:^
546:67
544:,
395:fr
291:.
114:fr
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837:.
789:.
729:.
700:.
676:.
630:.
608:.
572:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
