1353: For over three decades, the math department at Harvard was ruled by a man whom Albert Einstein called "one of the world's great anti-Semites." This is one of the key revelations in "A History in Sum," a new account of mathematics teaching at Harvard published by Harvard University Press. Co-authored by science journalist Steve Nadis and current Harvard math professor Shing-Tung Yau, "A History in Sum" describes how George Birkhoff reigned over the Harvard department from 1912 to 1944. Birkhoff, an American of Dutch origin, was instrumental in preventing Jewish mathematicians from being hired. It may seem counterintuitive that a Harvard professor would shed light on this shameful legacy in a book published by the university's own press, but Yau is a veteran whistle-blower who has frequently criticized academic corruption and educational abuses in his native China.
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633:, who was at Harvard at the time, would call Einstein's allegations "worthless" as he was not familiar with American processes and that the two had competing ideas regarding general relativity while also rebutting the reports of anti-Semitism against Wiener, writing "Birkhoff clearly listened to Norbert's ideas. There could be many reasons why Birkhoff did not take steps to appoint him". Mac Lane also stated that Birkhoff's efforts were motivated less by animus towards Jews than by a desire to find jobs for home-grown American mathematicians.
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1337:"Math and Anti-Semitism Went Hand-in-Hand at Harvard for Decades -- (Note: While this may be a tertiary source, it clearly mentions, in detail, by way of reference [see the quote] a book that is a reliable secondary source ["A History in Sum," a new account of mathematics teaching at Harvard -- published by Harvard University Press].)"
42:
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This reference is worthless: Einstein did not then carefully follow the
American academic scene Birkhoff had a (then well-known) competing theory of relativity ... Wiener attended Harvard's colloquia; Birkhoff clearly listened to Norbert's ideas. There could be many reasons why Birkhoff did not take
644:
writes: "Like other persons rumored to be anti-Semitic, he would occasionally feel the urge to shower his protective instincts on some good-looking young Jew. Ulam's sparkling manners were diametrically opposite to
Birkhoff's hard-working, aggressive, touchy personality. Birkhoff tried to keep Ulam
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Birkhoff believed that fellowships from foreign nations would improve the mathematic standards in the United States, though he wanted to raise the standards for fellowships, believing that the qualifications in less-developed countries were different and that access should be limited. He also was
429:
From 1925 to 1926, he was
President of the American Mathematical Society. During his tenure as president of the society, Birkhoff sought to create a lectureship program to travel the United States to promote mathematics. In 1926, he travelled Europe to serve as an unofficial representative if the
407:
from 1909 to 1912, he taught at
Harvard from 1912 until his death. Being the only American familiar with the three main mathematical institutions within the United States—Chicago, Harvard and Princeton—he was held in high regard by his colleagues.
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selection processes. During the 1930s, when many Jewish mathematicians fled Europe and tried to obtain positions in the United States, Birkhoff is alleged to have influenced the selection process at
American institutions to exclude Jews.
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While
Birkhoff was subject to as many prejudices as most of us, he kept always what most of us lose as we grow older, the power to see people and events simply and naively rather than with reference to current
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combined his ideas on philosophy and science. His 1943 theory of gravitation is also puzzling since
Birkhoff knew (but didn't seem to mind) that his theory allows as sources only matter which is a
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Birkhoff was part of a generation of
American mathematicians who were the first to study entirely within the United States and not participate in academics within Europe. Following his time at the
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434:'s International Education Board. During his time in Europe, Birkhoff attempted to create links between American and French institutions, especially due to his affection for Paris.
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Rockefeller and the
Internationalization of Mathematics Between the Two Worlds Wars: Documents and Studies for the Social History of Mathematics in the 20th Century
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349:, the son of two Dutch immigrants, David Birkhoff, who arrived in the United States in 1870, and Jane Gertrude Droppers. Birkhoff's father worked as a
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are not merely a mathematical curiosity, but could result from any spherical star having sufficient mass. His theorem was later used to develop the
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George D. Birkhoff, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1943 August; 29(8): 231–239, "Matter, Electricity and
Gravitation in Flat Space-Time".
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420:, Birkhoff served multiple positions in the organization. In 1919, he served as vice president of the society. He was editor of
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589:. While writing this book, he spent a year studying the art, music and poetry of various cultures around the world. His 1938
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12, 1944) was one of the top American mathematicians of his generation. He made valuable contributions to the theory of
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457:. Even though this line of attack did not prove fruitful, the polynomial itself became an important object of study in
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Birkhoff married Margaret Elizabeth Graftus in 1908. They two had three children, Barbara, mathematician
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Birkhoff, George David (1912). "A determinant formula for the number of ways of coloring a map".
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Birkhoff's most durable result has been his 1931 discovery of what is now called the
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Mac Lane, Saunders (1994). "Jobs in the 1930s and the Views of George D. Birkhoff".
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From cardinals to chaos: reflections on the life and legacy of Stanislaw Ulam
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for his paper in 1917 containing, among other things, what is now called the
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in Chicago while he was a child. From 1896 to 1902, he would attend the
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536:, this theorem solved, at least in principle, a fundamental problem of
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Birkhoff, George D. (1913). "Proof of Poincare's Geometric Theorem".
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1710:. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 143–146.
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adamant that foreign fellows be able to meet language requirements.
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1580:(1994). "Jobs in the 1930s and the views of George D. Birkhoff".
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Manifold Mirrors: The Crossing Paths of the Arts and Mathematics
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Summarizing Birkhoff's selection process, fellow mathematician
540:. The ergodic theorem has also had repercussions for dynamics,
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was his supervisor, he was most influenced by the writings of
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109:
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Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities
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Veblen, Oswald (2001). "Biographical Memoirs: Volume 80".
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Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
118:
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701:, and the London and Edinburgh Mathematical Societies.
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Harvard University Department of Mathematics faculty
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at Harvard, but his colleagues balked at the idea."
499:
is the unique spherically symmetric solution of the
1679:. Progress in Mathematics. Vol. 25. Springer.
1632:"Some of my recollections of George David Birkhoff"
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American Association for the Advancement of Science
1013:"Former Fellows of The Royal Society of Edinburgh"
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1669:
1505:Transactions of the American Mathematical Society
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1213:Transactions of the American Mathematical Society
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971:"George David Birkhoff and his mathematical work"
708:in applied mathematics is awarded jointly by the
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423:Transactions of the American Mathematical Society
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1789:National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
838:Birkhoff, George David and Ralph Beatley. 1959.
636:Birkhoff was also close to Jewish mathematician
2504:Presidents of the American Mathematical Society
1501:"Dynamical systems with two degrees of freedom"
796:"Dynamical Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom"
624:, among others, accused Birkhoff of advocating
714:Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
2514:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences
1811:
1511:(2). American Mathematical Society: 199–300.
1307:
976:Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society
321:. Today, Birkhoff is best remembered for the
1047:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
922:Birkhoff–Kellogg invariant-direction theorem
1565:Aubin, David, 2005, "Dynamical systems" in
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373:. He then obtained his A.B. and A.M. from
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2524:Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
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988:
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1571:Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics
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1390:
1367:"Recollections of Harry Austryn Wolfson"
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737:
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2474:University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty
1755:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
1704:(1970–1980). "Birkhoff, George David".
1663:. MIT Press. Especially pp. 27–28.
769:"Proof of Poincaré's geometric theorem"
437:In 1937, he served as president of the
14:
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1314:Nadis, Steve; Yau, Shing-Tung (2014).
1245:
1098:
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666:In 1923, he was awarded the inaugural
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691:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
369:, Birkhoff would spend a year at the
2459:20th-century American mathematicians
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572:); this work culminated in his text
564:. He proposed an axiomatization of
24:
1707:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
1694:
1438:The Montana Mathematics Enthusiast
297:21, 1884 – November
27:American mathematician (1884–1944)
25:
2540:
1725:
1075:
813:10.1090/s0002-9947-1917-1501070-3
786:10.1090/s0002-9947-1913-1500933-9
676:Birkhoff curve shortening process
587:mathematical theory of aesthetics
449:In 1912, attempting to solve the
2489:American people of Dutch descent
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491:in 1923. In 1923, Birkhoff also
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990:10.1090/s0002-9904-1946-08553-5
842:3rd ed. Chelsea Publishing Co.
794:Birkhoff, George David (1917).
767:Birkhoff, George David (1913).
464:In 1913, he proved Poincaré's "
401:University of Wisconsin–Madison
1394:The Mathematical Intelligencer
1037:
1005:
959:
699:Pontifical Academy of Sciences
687:American Philosophical Society
661:
609:Influence on selection process
568:different from Hilbert's (see
13:
1:
2499:American relativity theorists
1828:American Mathematical Society
1770:Mathematics Genealogy Project
1559:
902:Birkhoff–Grothendieck theorem
710:American Mathematical Society
672:American Mathematical Society
489:Relativity and Modern Physics
418:American Mathematical Society
416:During his membership in the
340:
2519:Mathematicians from Michigan
2479:Princeton University faculty
2469:University of Chicago alumni
1649:10.1016/0022-247x(63)90052-0
1499:Birkhoff, George D. (1917).
683:National Academy of Sciences
511:. In 1927, he published his
7:
1671:Siegmund-Schultze, Reinhard
1489:by Gian-Carlo Rota, page 26
846:
706:George David Birkhoff Prize
347:Overisel Township, Michigan
63:Overisel Township, Michigan
10:
2545:
2081:Theophil Henry Hildebrandt
1613:Black Holes and Time Warps
1434:"Reaction to the reactors"
1255:Cambridge University Press
524:. Combining insights from
453:, Birkhoff introduced the
411:
335:National Historic Landmark
2464:Harvard University alumni
2329:
2214:
2107:
1992:
1885:
1834:
927:Poincaré–Birkhoff theorem
468:," a special case of the
403:from 1907 to 1909 and at
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159:
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70:
48:
39:
32:
1779:National Academies Press
1760:University of St Andrews
1374:American Jewish Archives
1320:Harvard University Press
952:
932:Equidistribution theorem
728:(1911–1996) and Rodney.
509:Oppenheimer–Snyder model
503:. A consequence is that
501:Einstein field equations
399:. After teaching at the
333:, has been designated a
331:Cambridge, Massachusetts
327:George D. Birkhoff House
82:Cambridge, Massachusetts
2303:Cathleen Synge Morawetz
1875:Robert Simpson Woodward
1843:John Howard Van Amringe
1750:"George David Birkhoff"
1541:"George David Birkhoff"
1451:10.54870/1551-3440.1083
1432:Eisenberg, Ted (2008),
1044:Hockey, Thomas (2009).
558:Riemann–Hilbert problem
444:
151:Newcomb Cleveland Prize
1958:Leonard Eugene Dickson
1302:Siegmund-Schultze 2001
1290:Siegmund-Schultze 2001
1278:Siegmund-Schultze 2001
1199:Siegmund-Schultze 2001
1187:Siegmund-Schultze 2001
1175:Siegmund-Schultze 2001
1163:Siegmund-Schultze 2001
1151:Siegmund-Schultze 2001
983:(5, Part 1): 357–391.
917:Birkhoff interpolation
897:Birkhoff factorization
800:Trans. Amer. Math. Soc
773:Trans. Amer. Math. Soc
681:He was elected to the
659:
591:Electricity as a Fluid
497:Schwarzschild geometry
479:to the development of
466:Last Geometric Theorem
459:algebraic graph theory
432:Rockefeller Foundation
389:differential equations
303:differential equations
2180:Charles B. Morrey Jr.
2172:Abraham Adrian Albert
2124:Gordon Thomas Whyburn
2017:Earle Raymond Hedrick
2001:George David Birkhoff
1942:Edward Burr Van Vleck
1766:George David Birkhoff
1738:George David Birkhoff
1365:Feuer, Lewis (1976).
1025:on September 19, 2015
732:Selected publications
695:Académie des Sciences
668:Bôcher Memorial Prize
654:
538:statistical mechanics
371:University of Chicago
291:George David Birkhoff
144:Bôcher Memorial Prize
115:University of Chicago
34:George David Birkhoff
2494:American topologists
2132:Raymond Louis Wilder
1950:Ernest William Brown
1775:Birkhoff's biography
1746:Robertson, Edmund F.
1740:at Wikimedia Commons
1661:I am a Mathematician
1567:Grattan-Guinness, I.
1420:steps to appoint him
1257:. pp. 116–120.
1101:Biographical Memoirs
947:Topological dynamics
937:Chromatic polynomial
552:. He also worked on
475:Birkhoff was also a
455:chromatic polynomial
405:Princeton University
221:Robert D. Carmichael
187:Princeton University
2025:Luther P. Eisenhart
1934:Henry Burchard Fine
1910:William Fogg Osgood
1859:George William Hill
1744:O'Connor, John J.;
1636:J. Math. Anal. Appl
1582:Math. Intelligencer
1573:. Elsevier: 871–81.
1343:on January 12, 2014
1052:Springer Publishing
562:four colour problem
550:functional analysis
426:from 1920 to 1924.
329:, his residence in
2033:Arthur Byron Coble
1974:Gilbert Ames Bliss
1826:Presidents of the
1594:10.1007/bf03024350
1578:Mac Lane, Saunders
1407:10.1007/BF03024350
907:Birkhoff's theorem
875:Mathematics portal
566:Euclidean geometry
542:probability theory
530:ergodic hypothesis
481:general relativity
470:three-body problem
451:four color problem
375:Harvard University
319:general relativity
315:three-body problem
311:four-color problem
180:Harvard University
102:Harvard University
2436:
2435:
2247:Andrew M. Gleason
2204:Saunders Mac Lane
2148:Edward J. McShane
2073:Marshall H. Stone
2057:Griffith C. Evans
2041:Solomon Lefschetz
1918:Henry Seely White
1736:Media related to
1717:978-0-684-10114-9
1264:978-0-521-72876-8
1130:978-0-309-08281-5
1061:978-0-387-31022-0
912:Birkhoff's axioms
631:Saunders Mac Lane
582:Aesthetic Measure
570:Birkhoff's axioms
514:Dynamical Systems
307:dynamical systems
288:
287:
249:Marshall H. Stone
209:Doctoral students
191:Radcliffe College
161:Scientific career
148:
134:Birkhoff's axioms
74:November 12, 1944
16:(Redirected from
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1316:A History in Sum
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861:Biography portal
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487:) the monograph
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265:Kenneth Williams
198:Doctoral advisor
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1695:Further reading
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942:Recurrent point
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840:Basic Geometry,
752:10.2307/1967597
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642:Gian-Carlo Rota
618:Albert Einstein
611:
601:must equal the
522:ergodic theorem
447:
414:
380:summa cum laude
367:Lewis Institute
363:
357:as a teenager.
355:Lewis Institute
345:He was born in
343:
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697:in Paris, the
663:
660:
638:Stanislaw Ulam
622:Norbert Wiener
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603:speed of light
599:speed of sound
574:Basic Geometry
534:measure theory
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2009:Virgil Snyder
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1982:Oswald Veblen
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658:
653:
652:would write:
651:
650:Oswald Veblen
646:
643:
639:
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606:
604:
600:
597:in which the
596:
595:perfect fluid
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2311:Arthur Jaffe
2000:
1966:Frank Morley
1902:Thomas Fiske
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1545:. Retrieved
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1444:(1): 37–44,
1441:
1437:
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1341:the original
1315:
1309:
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1241:
1219:(1): 14–22.
1216:
1212:
1206:
1194:
1182:
1170:
1158:
1104:
1100:
1065:. Retrieved
1046:
1039:
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1020:the original
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980:
974:
961:
839:
803:
799:
776:
772:
743:
739:
723:
703:
680:
665:
655:
647:
635:
626:anti-Semitic
616:
612:
590:
580:
578:
573:
546:group theory
519:
512:
488:
485:R. E. Langer
474:
463:
448:
436:
428:
421:
415:
387:in 1907, on
378:
364:
344:
290:
289:
261:David Widder
177:Institutions
160:
76:(1944-11-12)
2454:1944 deaths
2449:1884 births
2428:(2023–2024)
2420:(2021–2022)
2412:(2019–2020)
2410:Jill Pipher
2404:(2017–2018)
2396:(2015–2016)
2388:(2013–2014)
2386:David Vogan
2380:(2011–2012)
2372:(2009–2010)
2364:(2007–2008)
2362:James Glimm
2356:(2005–2006)
2348:(2003–2004)
2340:(2001–2002)
2321:(1999–2000)
2313:(1997–1998)
2305:(1995–1996)
2297:(1993–1994)
2289:(1991–1992)
2281:(1989–1990)
2273:(1987–1988)
2265:(1985–1986)
2257:(1983–1984)
2249:(1981–1982)
2241:(1979–1980)
2233:(1977–1978)
2225:(1975–1976)
2223:Lipman Bers
2206:(1973–1974)
2198:(1971–1972)
2190:(1969–1970)
2182:(1967–1968)
2174:(1965–1966)
2166:(1963–1964)
2158:(1961–1962)
2150:(1959–1960)
2142:(1957–1958)
2134:(1955–1956)
2126:(1953–1954)
2118:(1951–1952)
2099:(1949–1950)
2091:(1947–1948)
2089:Einar Hille
2083:(1945–1946)
2075:(1943–1944)
2067:(1941–1942)
2059:(1939–1940)
2051:(1937–1938)
2043:(1935–1936)
2035:(1933–1934)
2027:(1931–1932)
2019:(1929–1930)
2011:(1927–1928)
2003:(1925–1926)
1984:(1923–1924)
1976:(1921–1922)
1968:(1919–1920)
1960:(1917–1918)
1952:(1915–1916)
1944:(1913–1914)
1936:(1911–1912)
1928:(1909–1910)
1920:(1907–1908)
1912:(1905–1906)
1904:(1903–1904)
1896:(1901–1902)
1894:E. H. Moore
1877:(1899–1900)
1869:(1897–1898)
1861:(1895–1896)
1853:(1891–1894)
1845:(1888–1890)
1588:(3): 9–10.
1401:(3): 9–10.
1380:(1): 25–50.
1347:January 12,
662:Recognition
585:proposed a
505:black holes
477:contributor
393:E. H. Moore
203:E. H. Moore
171:Mathematics
90:Nationality
2443:Categories
2338:Hyman Bass
2231:R. H. Bing
1609:Kip Thorne
1560:References
1547:August 17,
1067:August 22,
560:, and the
341:Early life
55:1884-03-21
2426:Bryna Kra
2402:Ken Ribet
2330:2001–2024
2239:Peter Lax
2215:1975–2000
2108:1951–1974
1993:1925–1950
1886:1901–1924
1835:1888–1900
1602:189887142
1470:117640225
1415:189887142
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1029:April 12,
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740:Ann. Math
579:His 1933
495:that the
383:with his
351:physician
275:Signature
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1659:, 1956.
1630:(1963).
1611:, 19nn.
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969:(1946).
847:See also
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657:opinion.
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1233:1988766
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309:, the
299:
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154:(1926)
147:(1923)
140:Awards
84:, U.S.
65:, U.S.
1781:, by
1598:S2CID
1523:JSTOR
1466:S2CID
1411:S2CID
1370:(PDF)
1229:JSTOR
1023:(PDF)
1016:(PDF)
953:Notes
756:JSTOR
532:with
385:Ph.D.
1712:ISBN
1681:ISBN
1617:ISBN
1549:2012
1456:ISBN
1349:2014
1259:ISBN
1125:ISBN
1069:2012
1056:ISBN
1031:2015
828:PMID
704:The
620:and
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71:Died
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1644:doi
1590:doi
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