2590:
3133:
2036:
3105:
1501:
5147:
3119:
2834:
1822:
2222:
279:
1343:
1100:
2359:
2575:
253:
1493:
4084:
1081:
1115:
2968:
6361:
2214:
2598:
6373:
5870:
5159:
4873:
4724:
5993:
2902:
5882:
4885:
2051:
2327:
2773:
2514:
2153:
1975:
1282:
1020:
799:
84:
43:
6385:
5906:
5894:
5171:
4897:
4093:
186:
2910:
2078:). One computes the position of a point in space from measurements linking terrestrial or extraterrestrial points of known location ("known points") with terrestrial ones of unknown location ("unknown points"). The computation may involve transformations between or among astronomical and terrestrial coordinate systems. Known points used in point positioning can be
2970:
2974:
2973:
2969:
1955:(IERS) uses the term "reference system" for the same. When coordinates are realized by choosing datum points and fixing a geodetic datum, ISO speaks of a "coordinate reference system", whereas IERS uses a "reference frame" for the same. The ISO term for a datum transformation again is a "coordinate transformation".
2975:
3006:
is the discipline that studies deformations and motions of Earth's crust and its solidity as a whole. Often the study of Earth's irregular rotation is included in the above definition. Geodynamical studies require terrestrial reference frames realized by the stations belonging to the Global
Geodetic
2866:
the same as the direction of the plumbline, i.e., local gravity, which is also the normal to the geoid surface. For this reason, astronomical position determination – measuring the direction of the plumbline by astronomical means – works reasonably well when one also uses an ellipsoidal model of the
2132:
One purpose of point positioning is the provision of known points for mapping measurements, also known as (horizontal and vertical) control. There can be thousands of those geodetically determined points in a country, usually documented by national mapping agencies. Surveyors involved in real estate
2643:
Commonly for local detail surveys, tachymeters are employed, although the old-fashioned rectangular technique using an angle prism and steel tape is still an inexpensive alternative. As mentioned, also there are quick and relatively accurate real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS techniques. Data collected
3533:
The definition of geodesy can be explained as the academic field of earth science that is involved with measuring and comprehending the Earth's orientation in space, the Earth's gravity field, and the Earth's shape geometrically. ... Geodesy is an applied mathematics discipline used to understand
3433:
geodesy was thought to occupy the space delimited by the following definition ... "the science of measuring and portraying the earth's surface." ... the new definition of geodesy ... "the discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the earth, including its gravity field, in a
2886:
in the current definitions). This situation means that one kilometre roughly equals (1/40,000) * 360 * 60 meridional minutes of arc, or 0.54 nautical miles. (This is not exactly so as the two units had been defined on different bases, so the international nautical mile is 1,852 m exactly, which
2972:
1801:
1245:(GPS) and is thus also in widespread use outside the geodetic community. Numerous systems used for mapping and charting are becoming obsolete as countries increasingly move to global, geocentric reference systems utilizing the GRS 80 reference ellipsoid.
1252:. The geoid can, therefore, be considered a physical ("real") surface. The reference ellipsoid, however, has many possible instantiations and is not readily realizable, so it is an abstract surface. The third primary surface of geodetic interest — the
2294:
and are valid for small areas on Earth's surface; on a sphere, solutions become significantly more complex as, for example, in the inverse problem, the azimuths differ going between the two end points along the arc of the connecting
1700:
3916:
Pearlman, M.; Arnold, D.; Davis, M.; Barlier, F.; Biancale, R.; Vasiliev, V.; Ciufolini, I.; Paolozzi, A.; Pavlis, E. C.; Sośnica, K.; Bloßfeld, M. (November 2019). "Laser geodetic satellites: a high-accuracy scientific tool".
1416:
satellites orbit about the geocenter that this point becomes naturally the origin of a coordinate system defined by satellite geodetic means, as the satellite positions in space themselves get computed within such a system.
2837:
The definition of latitude (φ) and longitude (λ) on an ellipsoid of revolution (or spheroid). The graticule spacing is 10 degrees. The latitude is defined as the angle between the normal to the ellipsoid and the equatorial
2921:
Various techniques are used in geodesy to study temporally changing surfaces, bodies of mass, physical fields, and dynamical systems. Points on Earth's surface change their location due to a variety of mechanisms:
1927:
Because coordinates and heights of geodetic points always get obtained within a system that itself was constructed based on real-world observations, geodesists introduced the concept of a "geodetic datum" (plural
2971:
956:
For the longest time, geodesy was the science of measuring and understanding Earth's geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field; however, geodetic science and operations are applied to other
2881:
was originally defined as the 10-millionth part of the length from the equator to the North Pole along the meridian through Paris (the target was not quite reached in actual implementation, as it is off by 200
2115:
to determine vectors between terrestrial points. These vectors then get adjusted in a traditional network fashion. A global polyhedron of permanently operating GPS stations under the auspices of the
2874:
is one minute of astronomical latitude. The radius of curvature of the ellipsoid varies with latitude, being the longest at the pole and the shortest at the equator same as with the nautical mile.
3324:
2314:
are solvable numerically. On the ellipsoid of revolution, geodesics are expressible in terms of elliptic integrals, which are usually evaluated in terms of a series expansion — see, for example,
1716:
1637:
2720:
s are spring-based and more common. They are used in gravity surveys over large areas — to establish the figure of the geoid over these areas. The most accurate relative gravimeters are called
2092:
Traditionally, geodesists built a hierarchy of networks to allow point positioning within a country. The highest in this hierarchy were triangulation networks, densified into the networks of
1711:
1230:. Its relationship with geometrical flattening is indirect and depends on the internal density distribution or, in simplest terms, the degree of central concentration of mass.
2589:
1940:
datum point — the reference benchmark, typically a tide gauge at the shore. Thus we have vertical datums, such as the NAVD 88 (North
American Vertical Datum 1988), NAP (
1952:
2119:
is the basis for defining a single global, geocentric reference frame that serves as the "zero-order" (global) reference to which national measurements are attached.
2107:
Commonly used nowadays is GPS, except for specialized measurements (e.g., in underground or high-precision engineering). The higher-order networks are measured with
2726:
s, which are sensitive to one-thousandth of one-billionth of Earth-surface gravity. Twenty-some superconducting gravimeters are used worldwide in studying Earth's
2066:
employs geodetic methods to determine a set of precise geodetic coordinates of a point on land, at sea, or in space. It may be done within a coordinate system (
5797:
3329:
1632:
3434:
three-dimensional time varying space." ... a virtually identical definition ... the inclusion of other celestial bodies and their respective gravity fields.
2640:, the distance to a target and is highly automated or even robotic in operations. Widely used for the same purpose is the method of free station position.
2421:: the direction angle within the plane of the horizon, typically counted clockwise from the north (in geodesy and astronomy) or the south (in France).
1248:
The geoid is a "realizable" surface, meaning it can be consistently located on Earth by suitable simple measurements from physical objects like a
2142:
638:
6653:
1948:
1584:. It is impossible to map the curved surface of Earth onto a flat map surface without deformation. The compromise most often chosen — called a
1241:), posited a 6,378,137 m semi-major axis and a 1:298.257 flattening. GRS 80 essentially constitutes the basis for geodetic positioning by the
6423:
3293:
1175:
A reference ellipsoid, customarily chosen to be the same size (volume) as the geoid, is described by its semi-major axis (equatorial radius)
1165:
for solving geometrical problems like point positioning. The geometrical separation between the geoid and a reference ellipsoid is called
6742:
4694:
3311:
3213:
888:
spanning over it. Two early arguments for a spherical Earth were that lunar eclipses appear to an observer as circular shadows and that
460:
4117:
1868:
above sea level, whereas geopotential numbers are measures of potential energy (unit: m s) and not metric. The reference surface is the
5209:
628:
596:
2625:
reference ellipsoid. As geoid determination improves, one may expect that the use of GPS in height determination shall increase, too.
5848:
3706:
2632:
is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical (relative to the local vertical) angles to target points. In addition, the
4935:
3146:
3072:
2082:
606:
1882:, which has a few-metre separation from the geoid due to the density assumption in its continuation under the continental masses.
1618:
It is easy enough to "translate" between polar and rectangular coordinates in the plane: let, as above, direction and distance be
4760:
4105:
Geodetic awareness guidance note, Geodesy
Subcommittee, Geomatics Committee, International Association of Oil & Gas Producers
3276:
3266:
2374:), some basic observational concepts like angles and coordinates include (most commonly from the viewpoint of a local observer):
1932:): a physical (real-world) realization of a coordinate system used for describing point locations. This realization follows from
1580:-axis will point to the local north. More formally, such coordinates can be obtained from 3D coordinates using the artifice of a
2407:: the (direction to the) antipodal point where the downward-extending gravity vector intersects the (obscured) celestial sphere.
6621:
3422:
3305:
586:
6237:
1393:, but with the origin differing from the geocenter by hundreds of meters due to regional deviations in the direction of the
4699:
3455:
3299:
2670:
To monitor the Earth's rotation irregularities and plate tectonic motions and for planet-wide geodetic surveys, methods of
1936:(therefore conventional) coordinate values for one or more datum points. In the case of height data, it suffices to choose
1612:
2456:) instantaneous spin axis extended northward to intersect the celestial sphere. (Similarly for the south celestial pole.)
2079:
5623:
1876:
surface approximating the mean sea level as described above. For normal heights, the reference surface is the so-called
1402:
566:
367:
2617:; the more economical use of GPS instruments for height determination requires precise knowledge of the figure of the
148:
6416:
5944:
4021:
3032:
2984:
2914:
2820:
2739:
2671:
2561:
2200:
2022:
1588:— preserves angles and length ratios so that small circles get mapped as small circles and small squares as squares.
1329:
1067:
846:
666:
239:
221:
167:
70:
3995:, Springer-Verlag Wien, 2005. (This text is an updated edition of the 1967 classic by W.A. Heiskanen and H. Moritz).
2802:
2543:
2182:
2004:
1907:
typically provide ellipsoidal heights unless fitted with special conversion software based on a model of the geoid.
1311:
1049:
828:
120:
5843:
5807:
4104:
3848:"Impact of network constraining on the terrestrial reference frame realization based on SLR observations to LAGEOS"
733:
and many consider the study of Earth's shape and gravity to be central to that science. It is also a discipline of
3723:
Zajdel, Radosław; Sośnica, Krzysztof; Bury, Grzegorz; Dach, Rolf; Prange, Lars; Kazmierski, Kamil (January 2021).
3132:
3069:
based on microwave and laser observations for studying the ocean surface, sea level rise, and ice cover monitoring
2129:
mapping. In that measurement technique, unknown points can get quickly tied into nearby terrestrial known points.
1821:
5910:
4901:
4785:
4429:
4147:
3336:
3281:
2122:
1441:
2667:). GNSS receivers have almost completely replaced terrestrial instruments for large-scale base network surveys.
1796:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&={\sqrt {x^{2}+y^{2}}}\\\alpha &=\arctan {\frac {y}{x}}.\end{aligned}}}
6569:
5802:
5556:
5202:
4258:
3666:"Impact of loading displacements on SLR-derived parameters and on the consistency between GNSS and SLR results"
3023:
2798:
2539:
2178:
2000:
1904:
1307:
1045:
985:
824:
452:
127:
105:
5662:
3261:
2947:
Mass variations due to hydrological changes, including the atmosphere, cryosphere, land hydrology, and oceans
2645:
1592:
1227:
468:
2605:
The reference surface (level) used to determine height differences and height reference systems is known as
6788:
6409:
5828:
5589:
4928:
3372:
1576:
One can intuitively use rectangular coordinates in the plane for one's current location, in which case the
3807:"Geocenter coordinates derived from multi-GNSS: a look into the role of solar radiation pressure modeling"
1964:
6706:
6015:
5247:
5232:
4753:
4600:
4522:
2439:: azimuth (direction angle within the plane of the horizon), elevation angle (or zenith angle), distance.
2035:
1466:
The coordinate transformation between these two systems to good approximation is described by (apparent)
1359:
134:
2062:, or simply positioning, is the determination of the location of points on Earth, by myriad techniques.
6537:
6510:
6199:
5898:
4527:
3766:"System-specific systematic errors in earth rotation parameters derived from GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo"
2722:
1864:
Each system has its advantages and disadvantages. Both orthometric and normal heights are expressed in
1500:
1405:(North American Datum 1927), have ellipsoids associated with them that are regional "best fits" to the
3631:
Altamimi, Zuheir; Métivier, Laurent; Rebischung, Paul; Rouby, Hélène; Collilieux, Xavier (June 2017).
2745:
In the future, gravity and altitude might become measurable using the special-relativistic concept of
5982:
5704:
5195:
4780:
4532:
3219:
3015:
2652:
2108:
2086:
1413:
1242:
431:
196:
17:
3518:
3400:
116:
6643:
5175:
5069:
5064:
4334:
4248:
4097:
3367:
3234:
3048:
2833:
2794:
2783:
2535:
2524:
2281:
Given the coordinates of two points, determine the azimuth and length of the (straight, curved, or
2174:
2163:
2100:) into which local mapping and surveying measurements, usually collected using a measuring tape, a
1996:
1985:
1450:
or "Earth
Centred, Earth Fixed"), in which the axes are "attached" to the solid body of Earth. The
1303:
1292:
1041:
1030:
820:
809:
756:
398:
345:
101:
56:
984:, resisted by Earth's gravitational field. This applies to the solid surface, the liquid surface (
6768:
5812:
5777:
5719:
5242:
4921:
4877:
3664:
Sośnica, Krzysztof; Thaller, Daniela; Dach, Rolf; Jäggi, Adrian; Beutler, Gerhard (August 2013).
3256:
3038:
2992:
2870:
One geographical mile, defined as one minute of arc on the equator, equals 1,855.32571922 m. One
2787:
2683:
2528:
2395:: the (direction to the) intersection of the upwards-extending gravity vector at a point and the
2221:
2167:
1989:
1941:
1296:
1034:
813:
710:
536:
496:
94:
3978:
3964:
6727:
6589:
5632:
5599:
5347:
5277:
4746:
2358:
2315:
909:
516:
1237:), adopted at the XVII General Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (
6732:
6701:
6564:
6485:
6278:
5937:
5754:
5594:
5566:
5447:
5297:
4889:
4803:
4301:
3179:
3170:
3110:
2687:
2307:
1409:
within their areas of validity, minimizing the deflections of the vertical over these areas.
1271:
1162:
1127:
1092:
989:
977:
659:
576:
326:
3764:
Zajdel, Radosław; Sośnica, Krzysztof; Bury, Grzegorz; Dach, Rolf; Prange, Lars (July 2020).
6778:
6773:
6691:
6515:
6475:
5772:
5744:
5645:
5581:
5481:
5352:
5342:
5312:
5282:
5252:
5237:
5221:
4984:
4462:
4414:
4195:
3926:
3859:
3818:
3777:
3736:
3682:
3158:
2883:
2762:
2466:
2093:
1922:
1585:
1459:
1154:
476:
426:
352:
3665:
8:
6783:
6666:
6525:
6520:
6505:
6480:
6457:
6433:
6339:
6303:
6273:
6020:
5972:
5853:
5838:
5533:
5438:
5379:
5362:
5337:
5287:
4798:
4605:
4562:
4396:
4339:
4190:
4182:
4140:
2988:
2859:
2716:
2702:
2679:
2633:
2462:: the (instantaneous) intersection of Earth's equatorial plane with the celestial sphere.
2225:
1900:
1853:
1487:
1420:
Geocentric coordinate systems used in geodesy can be divided naturally into two classes:
1158:
1009:
969:
958:
860:
734:
699:
691:
388:
336:
3930:
3863:
3822:
3781:
3740:
3686:
1695:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=s\cos \alpha \\y&=s\sin \alpha \end{aligned}}}
6722:
6599:
6594:
6547:
6293:
6232:
6184:
6110:
6071:
6002:
5977:
5967:
5874:
5734:
5684:
5523:
5394:
5357:
5332:
5322:
5317:
5302:
5292:
5001:
4963:
4958:
4848:
4474:
4111:
3942:
3698:
3673:
3414:
3224:
3164:
3091:
3085:
2663:, as well as frames by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (
2491:
1891:
1843:
1455:
943:, literally "geomensuration") — concerned with measuring Earth on the global scale, or
788:
308:
278:
2471:: any plane perpendicular to the celestial equator and containing the celestial poles.
1428:
reference systems, where the coordinate axes retain their orientation relative to the
1342:
916:
encompasses practical applications of geodesy on local and regional scales, including
6737:
6686:
6631:
6611:
6497:
6389:
6283:
5881:
5604:
5424:
5384:
4884:
4704:
4686:
4590:
4557:
4047:
4038:
4017:
3946:
3604:
3546:
3418:
3396:
3190:
2487:
2366:
animation over oceans from the NASA's GRACE (Gravity
Recovery and Climate Experiment)
2339:
1812:
1382:
1099:
768:
726:
718:
714:
408:
393:
141:
3702:
3573:"Comparison of different methods for estimating the geoid-to-quasi-geoid separation"
3161: – Scientific study of the Earth's spheres and their natural integrated systems
2750:
2574:
1378:, with the Z-axis aligned to Earth's (conventional or instantaneous) rotation axis.
6763:
6676:
6616:
6542:
6377:
6298:
6268:
6194:
6179:
6089:
5930:
5886:
5699:
5571:
5456:
5374:
5307:
5163:
5089:
5079:
5011:
4996:
4617:
4484:
4469:
4346:
4326:
4268:
4172:
4167:
3934:
3896:
3867:
3846:
Zajdel, R.; Sośnica, K.; Drożdżewski, M.; Bury, G.; Strugarek, D. (November 2019).
3826:
3785:
3744:
3690:
3644:
3594:
3584:
3470:
3410:
3229:
3152:
2714:). They are used to establish vertical geospatial control or in the field. Second,
2396:
2112:
2101:
1886:
1873:
1374:. Since the advent of satellite positioning, such coordinate systems are typically
993:
973:
901:
695:
652:
403:
4065:
4056:
1947:
In both mathematics and geodesy, a coordinate system is a "coordinate system" per
1168:
6696:
6606:
6552:
6452:
6318:
6120:
6094:
6041:
5667:
5460:
5367:
5269:
5084:
5054:
4843:
4612:
4595:
4552:
4542:
4434:
3271:
2996:
2927:
2430:
2363:
1836:
1386:
1265:
1110:. When mapping in geodetic coordinates, a latitude circle forms a truncated cone.
924:
744:
707:
252:
203:
3446:
6626:
6581:
6559:
6447:
6365:
6313:
6247:
6209:
6204:
6156:
6036:
5729:
5724:
5689:
5609:
5551:
5412:
5151:
5059:
5031:
5026:
5021:
4727:
4645:
4635:
4499:
4494:
4253:
4243:
4133:
3938:
3872:
3847:
3831:
3806:
3790:
3765:
3749:
3724:
3204:
3138:
3124:
2637:
2606:
2444:
2229:
2059:
1916:
1848:
1816:
1581:
1146:
764:
616:
383:
357:
4087:
3694:
2477:: the plane which contains the direction to the zenith and the celestial pole.
1492:
6757:
6636:
6344:
6125:
6061:
6010:
5694:
5657:
5486:
5433:
5074:
5036:
4769:
4655:
4585:
4537:
4504:
4376:
4366:
4356:
4316:
4311:
4083:
3901:
3888:
3608:
3059:
Monitoring of gravity change using land, airborne, shipborne, and spaceborne
3042:
2980:
2896:
2871:
2746:
1858:
1467:
1358:
The locations of points in 3D space most conveniently are described by three
1215:
is the semi-minor axis (polar radius), is purely geometrical. The mechanical
1150:
1080:
864:
760:
730:
6401:
3469:
US Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
2593:
Gravity measurement devices, pendulum (left) and absolute gravimeter (right)
2143:
Geodesics on an ellipsoid § Solution of the direct and inverse problems
6661:
6227:
6151:
6084:
6079:
6046:
5833:
5672:
5509:
5428:
5417:
5402:
5327:
4853:
4838:
4709:
4660:
4650:
4640:
4580:
4361:
4215:
4205:
3341:
2850:
are stated in the units degree, minute of arc, and second of arc. They are
2610:
2296:
2291:
1475:
1161:, the geoid is irregular and too complicated to serve as the computational
962:
752:
341:
257:
62:
2613:
directly produces such (for practical purposes most useful) heights above
1839:" as an irregular, physically defined surface. Height systems in use are:
1114:
6308:
6174:
6130:
6115:
5762:
5714:
5709:
5650:
5640:
5452:
5442:
5125:
4989:
4979:
4858:
4833:
4457:
4263:
4200:
4002:, Dover Publications, 2000. (This text is a reprint of the 1966 classic).
3649:
3632:
3589:
3572:
3399:; Krakiwsky, Edward J., eds. (November 1, 1986). "Structure of Geodesy".
3244:
3184:
3003:
2711:
2697:
1878:
1548:, with points defined by distances from two mutually perpendicular axes,
1509:
740:
298:
4000:
Theory of
Satellite Geodesy : Applications of Satellites to Geodesy
3494:
2983:
Project, including an overview of its four fundamental techniques: GPS,
2597:
2213:
6681:
6671:
6288:
6263:
6242:
6219:
6146:
6051:
5767:
5517:
5495:
5470:
5465:
5120:
5016:
4823:
4818:
4547:
4514:
4489:
4371:
4291:
4210:
3599:
3060:
3010:
Techniques for studying geodynamic phenomena on global scales include:
2941:
2933:
2656:
2629:
2499:
2449:
1433:
1429:
1390:
1375:
1249:
1216:
1172:, and it varies globally between ±110 m based on the GRS 80 ellipsoid.
1138:
881:
6360:
5992:
2901:
992:. For this reason, the study of Earth's gravitational field is called
6532:
6334:
6189:
6056:
5739:
5561:
5541:
5504:
5500:
5218:
5110:
5006:
4828:
4479:
4424:
4409:
4381:
4351:
4278:
4220:
3805:
Zajdel, Radosław; Sośnica, Krzysztof; Bury, Grzegorz (January 2021).
3346:
3066:
2960:
2847:
2707:
2614:
2503:
2495:
2425:
2379:
2371:
2331:
2326:
2126:
2050:
1556:. Contrary to the mathematical convention, in geodetic practice, the
1520:
1394:
1103:
917:
913:
885:
377:
303:
4027:
Thomas H. Meyer, Daniel R. Roman, and David B. Zilkoski. "What does
3986:
Die mathematischen und physikalischen
Theorieen der höheren Geodäsie
3972:
Die mathematischen und physikalischen
Theorieen der höheren Geodäsie
2772:
2513:
2429:: the angular height of an object above the horizon; alternatively:
2152:
1974:
1281:
1019:
798:
83:
5513:
5187:
3406:
2843:
2731:
2453:
2343:
2311:
2303:
2282:
2258:
2097:
1561:
1527:, two general types of coordinate systems in the plane are in use:
1425:
1142:
556:
373:
362:
31:
2290:
The solutions to both problems in plane geometry reduce to simple
2261:
to a second point, determine the coordinates of that second point.
1226:) can be determined to high precision by observation of satellite
5953:
5677:
5490:
5407:
5130:
5115:
4813:
4572:
4419:
4235:
4225:
3239:
3019:
2909:
2693:
2417:
2254:
1569:
1513:
1253:
1157:
variations, and continued under the continental masses. Unlike a
981:
953:) that includes surveying — measuring parts or regions of Earth.
905:
889:
687:
436:
27:
Science of measuring the shape, orientation, and gravity of Earth
4738:
1944:), the Kronstadt datum, the Trieste datum, and numerous others.
4439:
4306:
4286:
4092:
3630:
3027:
2675:
2391:
1831:
1505:
892:
appears lower and lower in the sky to a traveler headed South.
880:
Early ideas about the figure of the Earth held the Earth to be
722:
546:
506:
444:
4110:
4031:
really mean?" (This is a series of four articles published in
2133:
and insurance will use these to tie their local measurements.
1603:. In this case, the north direction used for reference is the
4627:
4404:
4386:
4156:
2887:
corresponds to the rounding of 1,000/0.54 m to four digits).
2878:
2735:
2660:
2622:
2618:
2403:
2347:
2335:
2043:
1869:
1865:
1406:
1351:
1347:
1234:
1134:
1107:
1088:
1084:
1005:
868:
703:
331:
30:"Geodetic" redirects here. For the mathematical concept, see
3984:, ACIC (St. Louis, 1964). This is an English translation of
3970:, ACIC (St. Louis, 1964). This is an English translation of
3845:
2932:
The episodic motion of tectonic origin, especially close to
5094:
4676:
4296:
2727:
2664:
2583:
2579:
2116:
1474:
variations). A more accurate description also accounts for
1470:, which accounts for variations in Earth's axial rotation (
1447:
1398:
1238:
748:
633:
526:
261:
5922:
4913:
3915:
2959:
Anthropogenic movements such as reservoir construction or
1953:
International Earth
Rotation and Reference Systems Service
976:, and the competition of geological processes such as the
2413:: a plane perpendicular to the gravity vector at a point.
2354:; the orbit direction is counter-clockwise (to the left).
2351:
2039:
1595:). Within the map plane, we have rectangular coordinates
1524:
1471:
4125:
1538:, from a specified point along a ray having a direction
4121:. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 607–615.
3725:"Sub-daily polar motion from GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo"
3663:
3175:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1137:
essentially is the figure of Earth abstracted from its
2756:
2253:
Given the coordinates of a point and the directional (
1534:, with points in the plane defined by their distance,
3763:
3722:
3468:
2738:
and atmospheric loading, as well as in verifying the
2682:(LLR) measuring distances to prisms on the Moon, and
2235:
In geometrical geodesy, there are two main problems:
1714:
1635:
3980:
Mathematical and Physical Theories of Higher Geodesy
3966:
Mathematical and Physical Theories of Higher Geodesy
3519:"Geodesy Definition, Characteristics & Branches"
3100:
2979:
A NASA project manager talks about his work for the
1397:(vertical). These regional geodetic datums, such as
1385:, the coordinate systems associated with a geodetic
1141:
features. It is an idealized equilibrium surface of
763:
and terrestrial geodetic techniques, and relying on
3147:
Outline of metrology and measurement § Geodesy
108:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2387:: (the line along) the direction of local gravity.
1795:
1694:
1481:
968:To a large extent, Earth's shape is the result of
755:, can be studied by designing global and national
3804:
3564:
2655:) receivers directly produce 3D coordinates in a
2644:are tagged and recorded digitally for entry into
1478:as a phenomenon closely monitored by geodesists.
6755:
3621:(ISO 19111: Spatial referencing by coordinates).
3395:
3193: – Science of planets and planetary systems
1899:), representing the height of a point above the
1611:north. The difference between the two is called
1432:or, equivalently, to the rotation axes of ideal
999:
2938:Periodic effects due to tides and tidal loading
4071:Vol. 66, No. 3, pages 165–183, September 2006.
3570:
1965:Geodetic network § Measurement techniques
1259:
1126:) and mean Earth radii as defined in the 1984
6431:
6417:
5938:
5798:Geographic data and information organizations
5203:
4929:
4754:
4141:
4044:Vol. 64, No. 4, pages 223–233, December 2004.
4033:Surveying and Land Information Science, SaLIS
3294:International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
2956:Earth's center-of-mass (geocenter) variations
660:
3889:"Global Geodetic Observing System 2015–2018"
1825:Height measurement using satellite altimetry
948:
938:
932:
3887:Sośnica, Krzysztof; Bosy, Jarosław (2019).
3886:
3312:International Geodetic Student Organisation
3214:Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography
2801:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2542:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2181:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2003:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1310:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1048:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
827:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
71:Learn how and when to remove these messages
6424:
6410:
5945:
5931:
5210:
5196:
4936:
4922:
4761:
4747:
4148:
4134:
2706:s, based on measuring the acceleration of
2700:, of which there are two kinds. First are
863:, so the very word geodesy comes from the
667:
653:
634:Spatial Reference System Identifier (SRID)
629:International Terrestrial Reference System
5849:National Council for Geographic Education
4062:Vol. 66, No. 2, pages 149–160, June 2006.
3900:
3871:
3830:
3789:
3748:
3648:
3598:
3588:
3571:Foroughi, Ismael; Tenzer, Robert (2017).
2821:Learn how and when to remove this message
2562:Learn how and when to remove this message
2321:
2201:Learn how and when to remove this message
2104:, and the red-and-white poles, are tied.
2083:continuously operating reference stations
2023:Learn how and when to remove this message
1885:One can relate these heights through the
1330:Learn how and when to remove this message
1068:Learn how and when to remove this message
847:Learn how and when to remove this message
240:Learn how and when to remove this message
222:Learn how and when to remove this message
168:Learn how and when to remove this message
4016:(3rd edition), published by de Gruyter,
3073:Interferometric synthetic aperture radar
2966:
2908:
2905:Global plate tectonic movement using GPS
2900:
2854:, not metric measures, and describe the
2832:
2596:
2588:
2573:
2357:
2325:
2220:
2212:
2049:
2034:
1820:
1705:The reverse transformation is given by:
1591:An example of such a projection is UTM (
1499:
1491:
1446:The co-rotating reference systems (also
1341:
1113:
1098:
1087:, an approximation for the shape of the
1079:
251:
4053:Vol. 65, No. 1, pages 5–15, March 2005.
3277:United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
3267:National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
3053:Regionally and locally precise leveling
2944:land uplift due to isostatic adjustment
2686:(SLR) measuring distances to prisms on
2578:Variations in the gravity field of the
2054:Initial acquisition of GPS signal in 2D
1219:of Earth (dynamical flattening, symbol
1106:- a mathematical representation of the
14:
6756:
6622:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
3325:Council of European Geodetic Surveyors
3187: – Study of dynamics of the Earth
2621:, as GPS only gives heights above the
6405:
5926:
5191:
4917:
4742:
4129:
3306:International Federation of Surveyors
3079:
5893:
5217:
5170:
4896:
4700:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
3991:B. Hofmann-Wellenhof and H. Moritz,
3456:International Association of Geodesy
3391:
3389:
3300:International Association of Geodesy
2799:adding citations to reliable sources
2766:
2659:coordinate frame. One such frame is
2540:adding citations to reliable sources
2507:
2433:equal to 90 degrees minus elevation.
2306:for the surface considered, and the
2179:adding citations to reliable sources
2146:
2136:
2125:(RTK GPS) is employed frequently in
2042:Block IIA satellite orbits over the
2001:adding citations to reliable sources
1968:
1308:adding citations to reliable sources
1275:
1233:The 1980 Geodetic Reference System (
1046:adding citations to reliable sources
1013:
825:adding citations to reliable sources
792:
179:
106:adding citations to reliable sources
77:
36:
6384:
5905:
2890:
2757:Units and measures on the ellipsoid
2302:The general solution is called the
639:Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
601:European Terrestrial Ref. Sys. 1989
24:
3957:
3415:10.1016/B978-0-444-87775-8.50009-5
3173: – Geographic data discipline
2710:(e.g., of a reflecting prism in a
1910:
1496:2D grid for elliptical coordinates
877:(literally, "division of Earth").
690:of measuring and representing the
511:Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936
477:Discrete Global Grid and Geocoding
368:Horizontal position representation
25:
6800:
4768:
4077:
3988:, Vol 2 (Teubner, Leipzig, 1884).
3974:, Vol 1 (Teubner, Leipzig, 1880).
3637:Geophysical Journal International
3577:Geophysical Journal International
3386:
3033:Very-long-baseline interferometry
2915:very-long-baseline interferometry
2862:of revolution. This direction is
2740:Newtonian constant of gravitation
2672:very-long-baseline interferometry
256:A modern instrument for geodetic
52:This article has multiple issues.
6383:
6372:
6371:
6359:
5991:
5904:
5892:
5880:
5869:
5868:
5844:International Geography Olympiad
5169:
5158:
5157:
5145:
4895:
4883:
4872:
4871:
4723:
4722:
4091:
4082:
3712:from the original on 2022-03-18.
3551:Occupational Information Network
3131:
3117:
3103:
2771:
2512:
2370:As defined in geodesy (and also
2151:
2074:) or relative to another point (
1973:
1280:
1095:(10000 vertical scaling factor).
1018:
859:Geodesy began in pre-scientific
797:
427:Global Nav. Sat. Systems (GNSSs)
277:
184:
82:
41:
6743:Timeline of physics discoveries
4430:Human impact on the environment
4009:, pp. 714, Elsevier, 1986.
4005:Vaníček P. and E.J. Krakiwsky,
3909:
3880:
3839:
3798:
3757:
3716:
3657:
3624:
3337:EPSG Geodetic Parameter Dataset
3282:United States Geological Survey
3075:(InSAR) using satellite images.
2481:
2285:) line connecting those points.
2123:Real-time kinematic positioning
1905:Satellite positioning receivers
1482:Coordinate systems in the plane
1256:of Earth — is also realizable.
591:N. American Vertical Datum 1988
93:needs additional citations for
60:or discuss these issues on the
5557:Geographic information science
4259:Climate variability and change
4048:"Part II: Physics and gravity"
3615:
3539:
3511:
3487:
3462:
3439:
3360:
2674:(VLBI) measuring distances to
2636:determines, electronically or
1958:
1519:In geodetic applications like
986:dynamic sea surface topography
927:, geodesy can refer to either
908:of measuring and representing
771:. Geodetic job titles include
621:Internet link to a point 2010
551:Geodetic Reference System 1980
469:Quasi-Zenith Sat. Sys. (QZSS)
193:This article needs editing to
13:
1:
5663:Geographic information system
4695:Evolution of the Solar System
3633:"ITRF2014 plate motion model"
3534:various aspects of the Earth.
3499:LSU Center for GeoInformatics
3353:
3262:U.S. National Geodetic Survey
2651:Geodetic GNSS (most commonly
2646:Geographic Information System
2437:Local topocentric coordinates
1829:In geodesy, point or terrain
1593:Universal Transverse Mercator
1000:Geoid and reference ellipsoid
895:
611:Chinese obfuscated datum 2002
5590:Environmental social science
4435:Evolutionary history of life
3373:Cambridge English Dictionary
2897:Geoid § Temporal change
2448:: the extension of Earth's (
2350:is shown as viewed from the
1362:or rectangular coordinates,
561:Geographic point coord. 1983
7:
6707:Quantum information science
6016:Geological history of Earth
5952:
5090:Precession of the equinoxes
4943:
3288:International organizations
3096:
2858:of the local normal to the
2334:), rotation axis, plane of
2089:of a higher-order network.
1626:respectively, then we have
1260:Coordinate systems in space
521:Systema Koordinat 1942 goda
10:
6805:
6538:Classical electromagnetism
5989:
4057:"Part III: Height systems"
3939:10.1007/s00190-019-01228-y
3873:10.1007/s00190-019-01307-0
3832:10.1007/s10291-020-01037-3
3791:10.1007/s10291-020-00989-w
3750:10.1007/s00190-020-01453-w
3167: – Notable geodesists
3150:
3144:
3089:
3083:
2926:Continental plate motion,
2894:
2760:
2723:superconducting gravimeter
2485:
2140:
1962:
1920:
1914:
1810:
1806:
1485:
1269:
1263:
1149:surface in the absence of
1003:
869:
786:
782:
581:World Geodetic System 1984
29:
6715:
6652:
6580:
6496:
6468:
6440:
6353:
6327:
6256:
6218:
6165:
6139:
6103:
6070:
6030:Composition and structure
6029:
6001:
5983:Index of geology articles
5960:
5864:
5821:
5790:
5753:
5705:Global Positioning System
5631:
5622:
5580:
5532:
5393:
5268:
5261:
5228:
5139:
5103:
5045:
4972:
4951:
4867:
4794:
4776:
4718:
4685:
4669:
4626:
4571:
4513:
4448:
4395:
4325:
4277:
4234:
4181:
4163:
4155:
3695:10.1007/s00190-013-0644-1
3257:National mapping agencies
3220:Geodesics on an ellipsoid
3014:Satellite positioning by
3007:Observing System (GGOS).
2953:Length-of-day variability
1951:terminology, whereas the
1401:(European Datum 1950) or
1243:Global Positioning System
571:North American Datum 1983
541:South American Datum 1969
6644:Condensed matter physics
4705:Location in the Universe
4636:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
4335:List of sovereign states
4066:"Part IV: GPS heighting"
3902:10.24425/gac.2019.126090
2113:differential measurement
1542:from a baseline or axis;
904:, geodesy refers to the
432:Global Pos. System (GPS)
399:Spatial reference system
195:comply with Knowledge's
5813:National mapping agency
5778:Survey (human research)
5720:Participant observation
4118:Encyclopædia Britannica
3893:Geodesy and Cartography
3039:Satellite laser ranging
2684:satellite laser ranging
1942:Normaal Amsterdams Peil
727:circumplanetary systems
6728:Nobel Prize in Physics
6590:Relativistic mechanics
5803:Geographical societies
5600:Landscape architecture
4039:"Part I: Introduction"
3000:
2950:Sub-daily polar motion
2918:
2906:
2839:
2602:
2594:
2586:
2367:
2355:
2322:Observational concepts
2308:differential equations
2232:
2218:
2055:
2047:
1826:
1797:
1696:
1516:
1497:
1454:-axis lies within the
1355:
1130:
1111:
1096:
949:
939:
933:
910:geospatial information
264:
6733:Philosophy of physics
6279:Environmental geology
5595:Environmental studies
5567:Statistical geography
5448:Environmental science
5070:Earth's gravity field
5065:Earth's energy budget
4804:Environmental science
4415:Biogeochemical cycles
4340:dependent territories
4100:at Wikimedia Commons
4007:Geodesy: the Concepts
3475:oceanservice.noaa.gov
3402:Geodesy: The Concepts
3251:Governmental agencies
3235:Earth's circumference
3180:History of geophysics
3171:Geomatics engineering
3111:Earth sciences portal
2978:
2912:
2904:
2867:figure of the Earth.
2836:
2761:Further information:
2688:artificial satellites
2601:A relative gravimeter
2600:
2592:
2577:
2486:Further information:
2361:
2329:
2224:
2217:Geodetic control mark
2216:
2053:
2038:
1921:Further information:
1824:
1811:Further information:
1798:
1697:
1503:
1495:
1345:
1272:World Geodetic System
1270:Further information:
1128:World Geodetic System
1117:
1102:
1093:vertical exaggeration
1083:
743:phenomena, including
327:Geographical distance
255:
6692:Mathematical physics
6238:Planetary geophysics
5808:Geoscience societies
5773:Interview (research)
5745:Land change modeling
5646:Computer cartography
5624:Techniques and tools
5482:Earth system science
4985:Computer cartography
4463:Computer cartography
4196:Prebiotic atmosphere
3547:"Geodetic Surveyors"
3159:Earth system science
2795:improve this section
2763:Geodetic coordinates
2536:improve this section
2175:improve this section
2087:triangulation points
2076:relative positioning
2072:absolute positioning
2064:Geodetic positioning
1997:improve this section
1923:Datum transformation
1854:Geopotential heights
1712:
1633:
1613:meridian convergence
1586:conformal projection
1440:-axis points to the
1346:Datum shift between
1304:improve this section
1042:improve this section
821:improve this section
717:when studying other
501:Sea Level Datum 1929
353:Geodetic coordinates
102:improve this article
6789:Applied mathematics
6667:Atmospheric physics
6506:Classical mechanics
6434:branches of physics
6340:Petroleum geologist
6304:Forensic geophysics
6274:Engineering geology
6021:Timeline of geology
5973:Glossary of geology
5854:Spatial citizenship
5839:Geographers on Film
5829:Geography education
5439:Atmospheric science
5104:Related disciplines
4799:Atmospheric science
4606:Geologic time scale
4327:Culture and society
4191:Atmosphere of Earth
3931:2019JGeod..93.2181P
3864:2019JGeod..93.2293Z
3823:2021GPSS...25....1Z
3782:2020GPSS...24...74Z
3741:2021JGeod..95....3Z
3687:2013JGeod..87..751S
3405:(Second ed.).
3056:Precise tachymeters
2963:or water extraction
2860:reference ellipsoid
2717:relative gravimeter
2703:absolute gravimeter
2680:lunar laser ranging
2316:Vincenty's formulae
1901:reference ellipsoid
1892:ellipsoidal heights
1844:Orthometric heights
1488:Horizontal position
1412:It is only because
1254:topographic surface
1228:orbit perturbations
1159:reference ellipsoid
1010:Reference ellipsoid
978:collision of plates
972:, which causes its
959:astronomical bodies
945:engineering geodesy
735:applied mathematics
719:astronomical bodies
700:spatial orientation
531:European Datum 1950
489:Standards (history)
389:Reference ellipsoid
337:Figure of the Earth
204:improve the content
6723:History of physics
6366:Geology portal
6294:Geologic modelling
6233:Geophysical survey
6185:Geodetic astronomy
6111:Structural geology
6072:Historical geology
6003:History of geology
5978:History of geology
5968:Outline of geology
5735:Statistical survey
5685:Geologic modelling
5524:Quaternary science
5152:Geodesy portal
5002:Geodetic astronomy
4849:Physical geography
4601:Geological history
4475:Geodetic astronomy
3919:Journal of Geodesy
3852:Journal of Geodesy
3729:Journal of Geodesy
3674:Journal of Geodesy
3650:10.1093/gji/ggx136
3590:10.1093/gji/ggx221
3471:"What is geodesy?"
3409:. pp. 45–51.
3225:History of geodesy
3165:List of geodesists
3086:List of geodesists
3080:Notable geodesists
3001:
2919:
2907:
2840:
2696:is measured using
2609:. The traditional
2603:
2595:
2587:
2492:Geodetic astronomy
2368:
2356:
2275:) geodetic problem
2247:) geodetic problem
2233:
2219:
2056:
2048:
1827:
1793:
1791:
1692:
1690:
1517:
1512:plates of maps of
1498:
1381:Before the era of
1356:
1131:
1112:
1097:
1091:; shown here with
990:Earth's atmosphere
884:and the heavens a
789:History of geodesy
769:coordinate systems
708:temporally varying
409:Vertical positions
265:
6751:
6750:
6738:Physics education
6687:Materials science
6654:Interdisciplinary
6612:Quantum mechanics
6399:
6398:
6284:Planetary geology
6200:Planetary geodesy
5920:
5919:
5786:
5785:
5618:
5617:
5605:Landscape ecology
5425:Coastal geography
5185:
5184:
4911:
4910:
4736:
4735:
4687:Planetary science
4670:Natural satellite
4591:Extremes on Earth
4558:Signal processing
4096:Media related to
4012:Torge, W (2001),
3925:(11): 2181–2194.
3858:(11): 2293–2313.
3424:978-0-444-87775-8
3191:Planetary science
3092:Notable surveyors
2976:
2831:
2830:
2823:
2648:(GIS) databases.
2638:electro-optically
2572:
2571:
2564:
2488:Satellite geodesy
2460:Celestial equator
2411:Celestial horizon
2340:celestial equator
2211:
2210:
2203:
2137:Geodetic problems
2068:point positioning
2033:
2032:
2025:
1813:Vertical position
1784:
1754:
1383:satellite geodesy
1340:
1339:
1332:
1078:
1077:
1070:
950:Ingenieurgeodäsie
857:
856:
849:
777:geodetic surveyor
715:planetary geodesy
677:
676:
625:
624:
404:Spatial relations
394:Satellite geodesy
349:
250:
249:
242:
232:
231:
224:
178:
177:
170:
152:
75:
16:(Redirected from
6796:
6677:Chemical physics
6617:Particle physics
6543:Classical optics
6426:
6419:
6412:
6403:
6402:
6387:
6386:
6375:
6374:
6364:
6363:
6299:Forensic geology
6269:Economic geology
6195:Gravity of Earth
6090:Paleoclimatology
5995:
5947:
5940:
5933:
5924:
5923:
5908:
5907:
5896:
5895:
5884:
5872:
5871:
5700:Geovisualization
5629:
5628:
5572:Spatial analysis
5457:Paleoclimatology
5266:
5265:
5212:
5205:
5198:
5189:
5188:
5173:
5172:
5161:
5160:
5150:
5149:
5148:
5080:Gravity of Earth
5012:Gravity of Earth
4938:
4931:
4924:
4915:
4914:
4899:
4898:
4887:
4875:
4874:
4763:
4756:
4749:
4740:
4739:
4726:
4725:
4618:History of Earth
4269:Paleoclimatology
4150:
4143:
4136:
4127:
4126:
4122:
4114:
4095:
4086:
3993:Physical Geodesy
3951:
3950:
3913:
3907:
3906:
3904:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3875:
3843:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3761:
3755:
3754:
3752:
3720:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3670:
3661:
3655:
3654:
3652:
3643:(3): 1906–1912.
3628:
3622:
3619:
3613:
3612:
3602:
3592:
3583:(2): 1001–1020.
3568:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3543:
3537:
3536:
3530:
3529:
3515:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3466:
3460:
3459:
3453:
3448:What is Geodesy?
3443:
3437:
3436:
3432:
3393:
3384:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3364:
3333:
3230:Physical geodesy
3176:
3141:
3136:
3135:
3127:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3113:
3108:
3107:
3106:
3041:(SLR) and lunar
2977:
2891:Temporal changes
2826:
2819:
2815:
2812:
2806:
2775:
2767:
2690:, are employed.
2567:
2560:
2556:
2553:
2547:
2516:
2508:
2397:celestial sphere
2206:
2199:
2195:
2192:
2186:
2155:
2147:
2028:
2021:
2017:
2014:
2008:
1977:
1969:
1897:geodetic heights
1887:geoid undulation
1874:equigeopotential
1802:
1800:
1799:
1794:
1792:
1785:
1777:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1740:
1739:
1730:
1701:
1699:
1698:
1693:
1691:
1389:attempted to be
1335:
1328:
1324:
1321:
1315:
1284:
1276:
1210:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1199:
1125:
1121:
1073:
1066:
1062:
1059:
1053:
1022:
1014:
994:physical geodesy
980:, as well as of
974:equatorial bulge
952:
942:
936:
872:
871:
852:
845:
841:
838:
832:
801:
793:
757:control networks
729:. Geodesy is an
669:
662:
655:
493:
492:
472:
464:
456:
448:
440:
380:
339:
281:
267:
266:
245:
238:
227:
220:
216:
213:
207:
188:
187:
180:
173:
166:
162:
159:
153:
151:
110:
86:
78:
67:
45:
44:
37:
21:
6804:
6803:
6799:
6798:
6797:
6795:
6794:
6793:
6754:
6753:
6752:
6747:
6711:
6697:Medical physics
6648:
6607:Nuclear physics
6576:
6570:Non-equilibrium
6492:
6464:
6436:
6430:
6400:
6395:
6358:
6349:
6323:
6319:Mineral physics
6252:
6214:
6161:
6135:
6121:Plate tectonics
6099:
6095:Palaeogeography
6066:
6042:Crystallography
6025:
5997:
5996:
5987:
5956:
5951:
5921:
5916:
5860:
5817:
5782:
5749:
5668:Distributed GIS
5614:
5576:
5528:
5461:Palaeogeography
5389:
5257:
5224:
5216:
5186:
5181:
5146:
5144:
5135:
5099:
5085:Plate tectonics
5060:Coriolis effect
5055:Chandler wobble
5047:
5041:
4968:
4947:
4942:
4912:
4907:
4863:
4844:Paleogeoscience
4790:
4772:
4767:
4737:
4732:
4714:
4681:
4665:
4622:
4613:Geologic record
4567:
4553:Plate tectonics
4543:Mineral physics
4523:Earth structure
4509:
4444:
4391:
4321:
4273:
4230:
4177:
4159:
4154:
4112:"Geodesy"
4109:
4080:
3977:F. R. Helmert,
3963:F. R. Helmert,
3960:
3958:Further reading
3955:
3954:
3914:
3910:
3885:
3881:
3844:
3840:
3803:
3799:
3762:
3758:
3721:
3717:
3709:
3668:
3662:
3658:
3629:
3625:
3620:
3616:
3569:
3565:
3556:
3554:
3545:
3544:
3540:
3527:
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3517:
3516:
3512:
3503:
3501:
3493:
3492:
3488:
3479:
3477:
3467:
3463:
3451:
3445:
3444:
3440:
3430:
3425:
3394:
3387:
3378:
3376:
3366:
3365:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3327:
3272:Ordnance Survey
3174:
3155:
3151:Main category:
3149:
3137:
3130:
3123:
3118:
3116:
3109:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3094:
3088:
3082:
2967:
2928:plate tectonics
2899:
2893:
2827:
2816:
2810:
2807:
2792:
2776:
2765:
2759:
2568:
2557:
2551:
2548:
2533:
2517:
2506:
2484:
2431:zenith distance
2364:gravity anomaly
2330:Axial tilt (or
2324:
2207:
2196:
2190:
2187:
2172:
2156:
2145:
2139:
2029:
2018:
2012:
2009:
1994:
1978:
1967:
1961:
1925:
1919:
1913:
1911:Geodetic datums
1895:(also known as
1849:Dynamic heights
1837:above sea level
1819:
1809:
1790:
1789:
1776:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1748:
1744:
1735:
1731:
1729:
1722:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1689:
1688:
1669:
1663:
1662:
1643:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1607:north, not the
1490:
1484:
1336:
1325:
1319:
1316:
1301:
1285:
1274:
1268:
1266:Geodetic system
1262:
1225:
1203:
1200:
1191:
1190:
1188:
1183:. The quantity
1179:and flattening
1123:
1119:
1074:
1063:
1057:
1054:
1039:
1023:
1012:
1004:Main articles:
1002:
934:höhere Geodäsie
898:
853:
842:
836:
833:
818:
802:
791:
785:
713:. It is called
673:
644:
643:
490:
482:
481:
470:
462:
454:
446:
438:
422:
414:
413:
372:
322:
314:
313:
289:
246:
235:
234:
233:
228:
217:
211:
208:
201:
197:Manual of Style
189:
185:
174:
163:
157:
154:
111:
109:
99:
87:
46:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6802:
6792:
6791:
6786:
6781:
6776:
6771:
6769:Earth sciences
6766:
6749:
6748:
6746:
6745:
6740:
6735:
6730:
6725:
6719:
6717:
6713:
6712:
6710:
6709:
6704:
6699:
6694:
6689:
6684:
6679:
6674:
6669:
6664:
6658:
6656:
6650:
6649:
6647:
6646:
6641:
6640:
6639:
6634:
6629:
6619:
6614:
6609:
6604:
6603:
6602:
6597:
6586:
6584:
6578:
6577:
6575:
6574:
6573:
6572:
6567:
6560:Thermodynamics
6557:
6556:
6555:
6550:
6540:
6535:
6530:
6529:
6528:
6523:
6518:
6513:
6502:
6500:
6494:
6493:
6491:
6490:
6489:
6488:
6478:
6472:
6470:
6466:
6465:
6463:
6462:
6461:
6460:
6450:
6444:
6442:
6438:
6437:
6429:
6428:
6421:
6414:
6406:
6397:
6396:
6394:
6393:
6381:
6369:
6354:
6351:
6350:
6348:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6331:
6329:
6325:
6324:
6322:
6321:
6316:
6314:Mining geology
6311:
6306:
6301:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6281:
6276:
6271:
6266:
6260:
6258:
6254:
6253:
6251:
6250:
6248:Tectonophysics
6245:
6240:
6235:
6230:
6224:
6222:
6216:
6215:
6213:
6212:
6210:Geopositioning
6207:
6205:Remote sensing
6202:
6197:
6192:
6187:
6182:
6177:
6171:
6169:
6163:
6162:
6160:
6159:
6157:Marine geology
6154:
6149:
6143:
6141:
6137:
6136:
6134:
6133:
6128:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6107:
6105:
6101:
6100:
6098:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6076:
6074:
6068:
6067:
6065:
6064:
6059:
6054:
6049:
6044:
6039:
6037:Cosmochemistry
6033:
6031:
6027:
6026:
6024:
6023:
6018:
6013:
6007:
6005:
5999:
5998:
5990:
5988:
5986:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5970:
5964:
5962:
5958:
5957:
5950:
5949:
5942:
5935:
5927:
5918:
5917:
5915:
5914:
5902:
5890:
5878:
5865:
5862:
5861:
5859:
5858:
5857:
5856:
5851:
5846:
5841:
5836:
5825:
5823:
5819:
5818:
5816:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5794:
5792:
5788:
5787:
5784:
5783:
5781:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5759:
5757:
5751:
5750:
5748:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5730:Remote sensing
5727:
5725:Photogrammetry
5722:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5690:Geomathematics
5687:
5682:
5681:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5660:
5655:
5654:
5653:
5648:
5637:
5635:
5626:
5620:
5619:
5616:
5615:
5613:
5612:
5610:Time geography
5607:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5586:
5584:
5578:
5577:
5575:
5574:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5552:Geoinformatics
5549:
5544:
5538:
5536:
5530:
5529:
5527:
5526:
5521:
5507:
5498:
5493:
5484:
5479:
5478:
5477:
5468:
5463:
5450:
5445:
5431:
5422:
5421:
5420:
5415:
5413:Phytogeography
5410:
5399:
5397:
5391:
5390:
5388:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5371:
5370:
5365:
5360:
5350:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5274:
5272:
5263:
5259:
5258:
5256:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5229:
5226:
5225:
5215:
5214:
5207:
5200:
5192:
5183:
5182:
5180:
5179:
5167:
5155:
5140:
5137:
5136:
5134:
5133:
5128:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5107:
5105:
5101:
5100:
5098:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5051:
5049:
5043:
5042:
5040:
5039:
5034:
5032:Geopositioning
5029:
5027:Remote Sensing
5024:
5022:Photogrammetry
5019:
5014:
5009:
5004:
4999:
4994:
4993:
4992:
4987:
4976:
4974:
4970:
4969:
4967:
4966:
4961:
4955:
4953:
4949:
4948:
4941:
4940:
4933:
4926:
4918:
4909:
4908:
4906:
4905:
4893:
4881:
4868:
4865:
4864:
4862:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4846:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4826:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4795:
4792:
4791:
4789:
4788:
4783:
4777:
4774:
4773:
4766:
4765:
4758:
4751:
4743:
4734:
4733:
4731:
4730:
4719:
4716:
4715:
4713:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4691:
4689:
4683:
4682:
4680:
4679:
4673:
4671:
4667:
4666:
4664:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4646:Atlantic Ocean
4643:
4638:
4632:
4630:
4624:
4623:
4621:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4609:
4608:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4577:
4575:
4569:
4568:
4566:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4528:Fluid dynamics
4525:
4519:
4517:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4507:
4502:
4500:Geopositioning
4497:
4495:Remote Sensing
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4466:
4465:
4454:
4452:
4446:
4445:
4443:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4401:
4399:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4331:
4329:
4323:
4322:
4320:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4283:
4281:
4275:
4274:
4272:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4254:Climate change
4251:
4249:Energy balance
4246:
4244:Climate system
4240:
4238:
4232:
4231:
4229:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4187:
4185:
4179:
4178:
4176:
4175:
4170:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4153:
4152:
4145:
4138:
4130:
4124:
4123:
4107:
4079:
4078:External links
4076:
4075:
4074:
4073:
4072:
4063:
4054:
4045:
4025:
4010:
4003:
3996:
3989:
3975:
3959:
3956:
3953:
3952:
3908:
3879:
3838:
3797:
3756:
3715:
3681:(8): 751–769.
3656:
3623:
3614:
3563:
3538:
3510:
3486:
3461:
3438:
3423:
3385:
3358:
3357:
3355:
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3349:
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3339:
3334:
3321:
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3315:
3309:
3303:
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3290:
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3259:
3253:
3252:
3248:
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3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
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3217:
3210:
3201:
3200:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3188:
3182:
3177:
3168:
3162:
3145:Main article:
3143:
3142:
3139:Physics portal
3128:
3125:Geodesy portal
3114:
3098:
3095:
3084:Main article:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3076:
3070:
3063:
3057:
3054:
3051:
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3030:
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2948:
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2939:
2936:
2930:
2892:
2889:
2829:
2828:
2779:
2777:
2770:
2758:
2755:
2751:optical clocks
2607:mean sea level
2570:
2569:
2520:
2518:
2511:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2475:Local meridian
2472:
2463:
2457:
2445:celestial pole
2440:
2434:
2422:
2414:
2408:
2400:
2388:
2323:
2320:
2288:
2287:
2277:
2276:
2264:
2263:
2249:
2248:
2230:Apollo program
2209:
2208:
2159:
2157:
2150:
2141:Main article:
2138:
2135:
2060:geopositioning
2031:
2030:
1981:
1979:
1972:
1960:
1957:
1917:Geodetic datum
1915:Main article:
1912:
1909:
1862:
1861:
1859:Normal heights
1856:
1851:
1846:
1817:Vertical datum
1808:
1805:
1804:
1803:
1788:
1783:
1780:
1775:
1772:
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1703:
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1649:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1582:map projection
1574:
1573:
1543:
1486:Main article:
1483:
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1442:vernal equinox
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1264:Main article:
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1147:mean sea level
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929:higher geodesy
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6702:Ocean physics
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6486:Computational
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6345:Volcanologist
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6126:Geomorphology
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6104:Dynamic Earth
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6062:Sedimentology
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6011:Geochronology
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5695:Geostatistics
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5658:Geochronology
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5487:Geomorphology
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5434:Earth science
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5037:Virtual globe
5035:
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5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
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4997:Earth's orbit
4995:
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4802:
4800:
4797:
4796:
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4782:
4779:
4778:
4775:
4771:
4770:Earth science
4764:
4759:
4757:
4752:
4750:
4745:
4744:
4741:
4729:
4721:
4720:
4717:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4690:
4688:
4684:
4678:
4675:
4674:
4672:
4668:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4656:Pacific Ocean
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4633:
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4629:
4625:
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4611:
4607:
4604:
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4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4586:Earth science
4584:
4582:
4579:
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4574:
4570:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
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4541:
4539:
4538:Magnetosphere
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4520:
4518:
4516:
4512:
4506:
4505:Virtual globe
4503:
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4498:
4496:
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4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4470:Earth's orbit
4468:
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4459:
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4408:
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4403:
4402:
4400:
4398:
4394:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4377:World history
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4367:World economy
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4341:
4338:
4337:
4336:
4333:
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4328:
4324:
4318:
4317:South America
4315:
4313:
4312:North America
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4284:
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4270:
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4180:
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4158:
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4146:
4144:
4139:
4137:
4132:
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4128:
4120:
4119:
4113:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4094:
4090:at Wikibooks
4089:
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4070:
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4064:
4061:
4058:
4055:
4052:
4049:
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4026:
4023:
4022:3-11-017072-8
4019:
4015:
4011:
4008:
4004:
4001:
3997:
3994:
3990:
3987:
3983:
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3861:
3857:
3853:
3849:
3842:
3833:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3811:GPS Solutions
3808:
3801:
3792:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3770:GPS Solutions
3767:
3760:
3751:
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3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3719:
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3412:
3408:
3404:
3403:
3398:
3397:Vaníček, Petr
3392:
3390:
3375:
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3369:
3363:
3359:
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3134:
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3115:
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3087:
3074:
3071:
3068:
3064:
3062:
3058:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3044:
3043:laser ranging
3040:
3037:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3008:
3005:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2981:Space Geodesy
2962:
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2923:
2916:
2911:
2903:
2898:
2888:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2873:
2872:nautical mile
2868:
2865:
2864:approximately
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2842:Geographical
2835:
2825:
2822:
2814:
2811:February 2024
2804:
2800:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2785:
2780:This section
2778:
2774:
2769:
2768:
2764:
2754:
2752:
2749:as gauged by
2748:
2747:time dilation
2743:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
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2718:
2713:
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2704:
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2555:
2552:February 2024
2545:
2541:
2537:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2521:This section
2519:
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2505:
2501:
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2256:
2251:
2250:
2246:
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2238:
2237:
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2227:
2223:
2215:
2205:
2202:
2194:
2191:February 2024
2184:
2180:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2160:This section
2158:
2154:
2149:
2148:
2144:
2134:
2130:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2090:
2088:
2084:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2052:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2027:
2024:
2016:
2013:February 2024
2006:
2002:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1987:
1982:This section
1980:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1956:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1924:
1918:
1908:
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1786:
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1724:
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1685:
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1679:
1676:
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1659:
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1650:
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1640:
1629:
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1627:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1560:-axis points
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1530:
1529:
1528:
1526:
1522:
1515:
1511:
1508:archive with
1507:
1502:
1494:
1489:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1472:length-of-day
1469:
1468:sidereal time
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1422:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1334:
1331:
1323:
1320:February 2024
1313:
1309:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1289:This section
1287:
1283:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1267:
1257:
1255:
1251:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1229:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1206:
1198:
1194:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1170:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1139:topographical
1136:
1129:
1116:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1072:
1069:
1061:
1058:February 2024
1051:
1047:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1032:
1027:This section
1025:
1021:
1016:
1015:
1011:
1007:
997:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
966:
964:
960:
954:
951:
946:
941:
935:
930:
926:
921:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
893:
891:
887:
886:physical dome
883:
878:
876:
866:
865:Ancient Greek
862:
851:
848:
840:
837:February 2024
830:
826:
822:
816:
815:
811:
806:This section
804:
800:
795:
794:
790:
780:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
761:space geodesy
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
736:
732:
731:earth science
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
670:
665:
663:
658:
656:
651:
650:
648:
647:
640:
637:
635:
632:
630:
627:
626:
620:
618:
615:
614:
610:
608:
605:
604:
600:
598:
595:
594:
590:
588:
585:
584:
580:
578:
575:
574:
570:
568:
565:
564:
560:
558:
555:
554:
550:
548:
545:
544:
540:
538:
535:
534:
530:
528:
525:
524:
520:
518:
515:
514:
510:
508:
505:
504:
500:
498:
495:
494:
486:
485:
478:
475:
473:
467:
465:
459:
457:
451:
449:
445:BeiDou (BDS)
443:
441:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
424:
418:
417:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
379:
375:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
347:
346:circumference
343:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
324:
318:
317:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
291:
285:
284:
280:
276:
275:
272:
269:
268:
263:
259:
254:
244:
241:
226:
223:
215:
205:
200:
198:
191:
182:
181:
172:
169:
161:
158:February 2024
150:
147:
143:
140:
136:
133:
129:
126:
122:
119: –
118:
114:
113:Find sources:
107:
103:
97:
96:
91:This article
89:
85:
80:
79:
74:
72:
65:
64:
59:
58:
53:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
6662:Astrophysics
6476:Experimental
6388:
6376:
6357:
6257:Applications
6228:Geomagnetism
6166:
6152:Hydrogeology
6085:Paleontology
6080:Stratigraphy
6047:Geochemistry
5909:
5897:
5885:
5873:
5834:Geo-literacy
5791:Institutions
5673:Internet GIS
5633:Quantitative
5546:
5510:Soil science
5474:
5429:Oceanography
5418:Zoogeography
5403:Biogeography
5278:Agricultural
5174:
5162:
5143:
4944:
4900:
4888:
4876:
4854:Soil science
4839:Oceanography
4808:
4710:Solar System
4661:Oceanography
4651:Indian Ocean
4641:Arctic Ocean
4581:Age of Earth
4533:Geomagnetism
4449:
4216:Thermosphere
4206:Stratosphere
4116:
4081:
4068:
4059:
4050:
4041:
4032:
4028:
4013:
4006:
3999:
3992:
3985:
3979:
3971:
3965:
3922:
3918:
3911:
3892:
3882:
3855:
3851:
3841:
3814:
3810:
3800:
3773:
3769:
3759:
3732:
3728:
3718:
3678:
3672:
3659:
3640:
3636:
3626:
3617:
3580:
3576:
3566:
3555:. Retrieved
3553:. 2020-11-26
3550:
3541:
3532:
3526:. Retrieved
3522:
3513:
3502:. Retrieved
3498:
3489:
3478:. Retrieved
3474:
3464:
3447:
3441:
3428:
3401:
3377:. Retrieved
3371:
3362:
3342:Meridian arc
3212:
3205:
3199:Fundamentals
3009:
3002:
2920:
2917:(VLBI) works
2876:
2869:
2863:
2855:
2851:
2841:
2817:
2808:
2793:Please help
2781:
2744:
2734:, interior,
2721:
2715:
2701:
2692:
2669:
2650:
2642:
2627:
2611:spirit level
2604:
2558:
2549:
2534:Please help
2522:
2482:Measurements
2474:
2465:
2459:
2442:
2436:
2424:
2416:
2410:
2402:
2390:
2384:
2378:
2369:
2301:
2297:great circle
2292:trigonometry
2289:
2280:
2272:
2268:
2252:
2244:
2240:
2234:
2197:
2188:
2173:Please help
2161:
2131:
2121:
2106:
2102:corner prism
2091:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2019:
2010:
1995:Please help
1983:
1946:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1926:
1896:
1890:
1884:
1877:
1863:
1830:
1828:
1704:
1623:
1619:
1617:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1590:
1577:
1575:
1565:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1518:
1476:polar motion
1465:
1451:
1437:
1419:
1411:
1380:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1326:
1317:
1302:Please help
1290:
1247:
1232:
1220:
1212:
1204:
1196:
1192:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1174:
1166:
1155:air pressure
1132:
1118:Equatorial (
1064:
1055:
1040:Please help
1028:
967:
963:Solar System
955:
944:
928:
922:
899:
879:
874:
858:
843:
834:
819:Please help
807:
776:
772:
753:polar motion
741:Geodynamical
739:
683:
679:
678:
421:Technologies
376: /
293:
288:Fundamentals
270:
258:measurements
236:
218:
209:
202:Please help
194:
164:
155:
145:
138:
131:
124:
112:
100:Please help
95:verification
92:
68:
61:
55:
54:Please help
51:
6779:Measurement
6774:Cartography
6565:Statistical
6481:Theoretical
6458:Engineering
6328:Occupations
6309:Meteoritics
6175:Cartography
6131:Volcanology
6116:Geodynamics
5911:WikiProject
5763:Ethnography
5755:Qualitative
5715:Map algebra
5710:Hydrography
5651:Web mapping
5641:Cartography
5453:Climatology
5443:Meteorology
5298:Development
5126:Mathematics
4990:Web mapping
4980:Cartography
4859:Volcanology
4834:Meteorology
4458:Cartography
4397:Environment
4264:Climatology
4201:Troposphere
3600:10397/75053
3368:"geodetics"
3328: [
3245:Geosciences
3185:Geodynamics
3004:Geodynamics
2942:Postglacial
2934:fault lines
2712:vacuum tube
2698:gravimeters
1959:Positioning
1889:concept to
1879:quasi-geoid
1546:Rectangular
1532:Plano-polar
1510:lithography
1430:fixed stars
1354:, in metres
1217:ellipticity
759:, applying
299:Geodynamics
6784:Navigation
6758:Categories
6682:Geophysics
6672:Biophysics
6516:Analytical
6469:Approaches
6289:Geobiology
6264:Biogeology
6243:Seismology
6220:Geophysics
6147:Glaciology
6052:Mineralogy
5768:Geopoetics
5582:Integrated
5518:Edaphology
5496:Glaciology
5471:Geophysics
5466:Geobiology
5353:Settlement
5343:Population
5313:Historical
5283:Behavioral
5243:Philosophy
5121:Geophysics
5017:Navigation
4964:Geodesists
4824:Glaciology
4819:Geophysics
4563:Tomography
4548:Seismology
4515:Geophysics
4490:Navigation
4382:Time zones
4347:In culture
4292:Antarctica
4279:Continents
4211:Mesosphere
4183:Atmosphere
3998:W. Kaula,
3557:2022-01-28
3528:2024-06-08
3504:2024-06-08
3480:2024-06-09
3379:2024-06-08
3354:References
3090:See also:
3065:Satellite
3061:gravimetry
2895:See also:
2657:geocentric
2634:tachymeter
2630:theodolite
2500:Gravimetry
2450:precessing
2226:Navigation
2109:static GPS
1963:See also:
1434:gyroscopes
1391:geocentric
1376:geocentric
1250:tide gauge
1169:undulation
1122:), polar (
940:Erdmessung
896:Definition
721:, such as
262:satellites
128:newspapers
57:improve it
6632:Molecular
6533:Acoustics
6526:Continuum
6521:Celestial
6511:Newtonian
6498:Classical
6441:Divisions
6335:Geologist
6190:Geomatics
6057:Petrology
5961:Overviews
5822:Education
5740:Surveying
5562:Geomatics
5542:Geodesign
5534:Technical
5505:Limnology
5501:Hydrology
5380:Strategic
5363:Transport
5338:Political
5328:Marketing
5288:Cognitive
5219:Geography
5111:Astronomy
5075:Geodynamo
5048:phenomena
5046:Physical
5007:Geomatics
4973:Subfields
4829:Hydrology
4480:Geomatics
4425:Ecosystem
4410:Biosphere
4372:Etymology
4352:Earth Day
4302:Australia
4221:Exosphere
3947:127408940
3776:(3): 74.
3609:0956-540X
3523:Study.com
3495:"Geodesy"
3347:Surveying
3067:altimetry
2961:petroleum
2856:direction
2848:longitude
2782:does not
2708:free fall
2615:sea level
2523:does not
2504:Levelling
2496:Surveying
2426:Elevation
2380:Plumbline
2372:astronomy
2332:Obliquity
2162:does not
2094:traverses
1984:does not
1774:
1761:α
1686:α
1683:
1660:α
1657:
1521:surveying
1456:Greenwich
1395:plumbline
1360:cartesian
1291:does not
1104:Ellipsoid
1029:does not
982:volcanism
918:surveying
914:geomatics
875:geodaisia
870:γεωδαισία
861:antiquity
808:does not
773:geodesist
684:geodetics
378:Longitude
304:Geomatics
212:June 2024
117:"Geodesy"
63:talk page
18:Geodetics
5875:Category
5514:Pedology
5395:Physical
5358:Regional
5348:Religion
5333:Military
5323:Language
5318:Internet
5303:Economic
5293:Cultural
5262:Branches
5233:Glossary
5164:Category
4952:Overview
4878:Category
4728:Category
3982:, Part 2
3968:, Part 1
3817:(1): 1.
3735:(1): 3.
3707:Archived
3703:56017067
3407:Elsevier
3097:See also
2844:latitude
2732:rotation
2467:Meridian
2454:nutating
2385:vertical
2344:ecliptic
2312:geodesic
2310:for the
2304:geodesic
2283:geodesic
2267:Second (
2259:distance
2228:device,
2111:, using
2098:polygons
2058:General
1934:choosing
1564:and the
1460:meridian
1426:inertial
1211:, where
1167:geoidal
1151:currents
1143:seawater
970:rotation
912:, while
747:motion,
692:geometry
557:ISO 6709
455:(Europe)
453:Galileo
439:(Russia)
437:GLONASS
374:Latitude
363:Geodesic
321:Concepts
32:Geodesic
6764:Geodesy
6716:Related
6600:General
6595:Special
6453:Applied
6390:Geology
6378:Geology
6167:Geodesy
5954:Geology
5899:Commons
5678:Web GIS
5547:Geodesy
5491:Geology
5475:Geodesy
5408:Ecology
5385:Tourism
5253:Outline
5238:History
5176:Commons
5131:Physics
5116:Geology
4959:History
4945:Geodesy
4902:Commons
4814:Geology
4809:Geodesy
4781:Outline
4573:Geology
4485:Gravity
4450:Geodesy
4420:Ecology
4236:Climate
4226:Weather
4173:History
4168:Outline
4098:Geodesy
4088:Geodesy
4014:Geodesy
3927:Bibcode
3860:Bibcode
3819:Bibcode
3778:Bibcode
3737:Bibcode
3683:Bibcode
3240:Physics
3206:Geodesy
3153:Geodesy
3024:Galileo
3020:GLONASS
2803:removed
2788:sources
2736:oceanic
2694:Gravity
2676:quasars
2582:, from
2544:removed
2529:sources
2418:Azimuth
2362:Global
2273:reverse
2269:inverse
2255:azimuth
2245:forward
2239:First (
2183:removed
2168:sources
2005:removed
1990:sources
1832:heights
1807:Heights
1525:mapping
1514:Bavaria
1312:removed
1297:sources
1209:
1189:
1163:surface
1050:removed
1035:sources
988:), and
961:in our
906:science
902:English
890:Polaris
829:removed
814:sources
783:History
745:crustal
723:planets
702:of the
696:gravity
688:science
686:is the
680:Geodesy
617:Geo URI
587:NAVD 88
497:NGVD 29
471:(Japan)
463:(India)
447:(China)
309:History
294:Geodesy
271:Geodesy
142:scholar
6627:Atomic
6582:Modern
6432:Major
5887:Portal
5375:Social
5308:Health
5222:topics
4890:Portal
4628:Oceans
4596:Future
4440:Nature
4362:Symbol
4307:Europe
4287:Africa
4029:height
4020:
3945:
3701:
3607:
3431:
3421:
3314:(IGSO)
3296:(IUGG)
3208:(book)
3035:(VLBI)
3028:BeiDou
3026:, and
2995:, and
2852:angles
2838:plane.
2502:, and
2443:North
2392:Zenith
2257:) and
2241:direct
2127:survey
1930:datums
1866:metres
1771:arctan
1568:-axis
1506:Munich
1462:plane.
1436:; the
1407:geoids
1403:NAD 27
1370:, and
1235:GRS 80
1145:, the
965:also.
925:German
765:datums
751:, and
698:, and
607:GCJ-02
597:ETRS89
577:WGS 84
567:NAD 83
547:GRS 80
507:OSGB36
461:NAVIC
342:radius
260:using
144:
137:
130:
123:
115:
6140:Water
5368:Urban
5270:Human
5248:Index
4786:Index
4405:Biome
4387:World
4157:Earth
4069:SaLIS
4060:SaLIS
4051:SaLIS
4042:SaLIS
3943:S2CID
3710:(PDF)
3699:S2CID
3669:(PDF)
3452:(PDF)
3332:]
3319:Other
3308:(IFS)
3302:(IAG)
3049:DORIS
3045:(LLR)
2997:DORIS
2879:metre
2728:tides
2661:WGS84
2623:GRS80
2619:geoid
2469:plane
2404:Nadir
2348:Earth
2336:orbit
2044:Earth
1872:, an
1870:geoid
1835:are "
1609:local
1562:North
1399:ED 50
1387:datum
1352:NAD83
1348:NAD27
1135:geoid
1108:Earth
1089:Earth
1085:Geoid
1006:Geoid
867:word
749:tides
704:Earth
537:SAD69
517:SK-42
332:Geoid
149:JSTOR
135:books
6553:Wave
6448:Pure
5095:Tide
4677:Moon
4357:Flag
4297:Asia
4018:ISBN
3605:ISSN
3419:ISBN
2985:VLBI
2913:How
2846:and
2786:any
2784:cite
2665:IERS
2628:The
2584:NASA
2580:Moon
2527:any
2525:cite
2452:and
2342:and
2166:any
2164:cite
2117:IERS
2080:GNSS
1988:any
1986:cite
1815:and
1622:and
1599:and
1570:East
1552:and
1523:and
1448:ECEF
1424:The
1350:and
1295:any
1293:cite
1239:IUGG
1153:and
1133:The
1033:any
1031:cite
1008:and
882:flat
812:any
810:cite
775:and
767:and
527:ED50
344:and
121:news
6548:Ray
4035:.)
3935:doi
3897:doi
3868:doi
3827:doi
3786:doi
3745:doi
3691:doi
3645:doi
3641:209
3595:hdl
3585:doi
3581:210
3429:...
3411:doi
3016:GPS
2993:SLR
2989:LLR
2884:ppm
2797:by
2653:GPS
2538:by
2383:or
2352:Sun
2271:or
2243:or
2177:by
2085:or
2070:or
2040:GPS
1999:by
1949:ISO
1938:one
1680:sin
1654:cos
1605:map
1414:GPS
1306:by
1044:by
937:or
923:In
900:In
873:or
823:by
725:or
706:in
682:or
104:by
6760::
5503:/
5489:/
5473:/
5459:/
5455:/
5441:/
5427:/
4115:.
3941:.
3933:.
3923:93
3921:.
3895:.
3891:.
3866:.
3856:93
3854:.
3850:.
3825:.
3815:25
3813:.
3809:.
3784:.
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