2591:
3134:
2037:
3106:
1502:
5148:
3120:
2835:
1823:
2223:
279:
1343:
1100:
2360:
2576:
253:
1494:
4085:
1081:
1115:
2969:
6362:
2215:
2599:
6374:
5871:
5160:
4874:
4725:
5994:
2903:
5883:
4886:
2052:
2328:
2774:
2515:
2154:
1976:
1282:
1020:
799:
84:
43:
6386:
5907:
5895:
5172:
4898:
4094:
186:
2911:
2079:). One computes the position of a point in space from measurements linking terrestrial or extraterrestrial points of known location ("known points") with terrestrial ones of unknown location ("unknown points"). The computation may involve transformations between or among astronomical and terrestrial coordinate systems. Known points used in point positioning can be
2971:
2975:
2974:
2970:
1956:(IERS) uses the term "reference system" for the same. When coordinates are realized by choosing datum points and fixing a geodetic datum, ISO speaks of a "coordinate reference system", whereas IERS uses a "reference frame" for the same. The ISO term for a datum transformation again is a "coordinate transformation".
2976:
3007:
is the discipline that studies deformations and motions of Earth's crust and its solidity as a whole. Often the study of Earth's irregular rotation is included in the above definition. Geodynamical studies require terrestrial reference frames realized by the stations belonging to the Global
Geodetic
2867:
the same as the direction of the plumbline, i.e., local gravity, which is also the normal to the geoid surface. For this reason, astronomical position determination – measuring the direction of the plumbline by astronomical means – works reasonably well when one also uses an ellipsoidal model of the
2133:
One purpose of point positioning is the provision of known points for mapping measurements, also known as (horizontal and vertical) control. There can be thousands of those geodetically determined points in a country, usually documented by national mapping agencies. Surveyors involved in real estate
2644:
Commonly for local detail surveys, tachymeters are employed, although the old-fashioned rectangular technique using an angle prism and steel tape is still an inexpensive alternative. As mentioned, also there are quick and relatively accurate real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS techniques. Data collected
3534:
The definition of geodesy can be explained as the academic field of earth science that is involved with measuring and comprehending the Earth's orientation in space, the Earth's gravity field, and the Earth's shape geometrically. ... Geodesy is an applied mathematics discipline used to understand
3434:
geodesy was thought to occupy the space delimited by the following definition ... "the science of measuring and portraying the earth's surface." ... the new definition of geodesy ... "the discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the earth, including its gravity field, in a
2887:
in the current definitions). This situation means that one kilometre roughly equals (1/40,000) * 360 * 60 meridional minutes of arc, or 0.54 nautical miles. (This is not exactly so as the two units had been defined on different bases, so the international nautical mile is 1,852 m exactly, which
2973:
1802:
1245:(GPS) and is thus also in widespread use outside the geodetic community. Numerous systems used for mapping and charting are becoming obsolete as countries increasingly move to global, geocentric reference systems utilizing the GRS 80 reference ellipsoid.
1252:. The geoid can, therefore, be considered a physical ("real") surface. The reference ellipsoid, however, has many possible instantiations and is not readily realizable, so it is an abstract surface. The third primary surface of geodetic interest — the
2295:
and are valid for small areas on Earth's surface; on a sphere, solutions become significantly more complex as, for example, in the inverse problem, the azimuths differ going between the two end points along the arc of the connecting
1701:
3917:
Pearlman, M.; Arnold, D.; Davis, M.; Barlier, F.; Biancale, R.; Vasiliev, V.; Ciufolini, I.; Paolozzi, A.; Pavlis, E. C.; Sośnica, K.; Bloßfeld, M. (November 2019). "Laser geodetic satellites: a high-accuracy scientific tool".
1416:
satellites orbit about the geocenter that this point becomes naturally the origin of a coordinate system defined by satellite geodetic means, as the satellite positions in space themselves get computed within such a system.
2838:
The definition of latitude (φ) and longitude (λ) on an ellipsoid of revolution (or spheroid). The graticule spacing is 10 degrees. The latitude is defined as the angle between the normal to the ellipsoid and the equatorial
2922:
Various techniques are used in geodesy to study temporally changing surfaces, bodies of mass, physical fields, and dynamical systems. Points on Earth's surface change their location due to a variety of mechanisms:
1928:
Because coordinates and heights of geodetic points always get obtained within a system that itself was constructed based on real-world observations, geodesists introduced the concept of a "geodetic datum" (plural
2972:
956:
For the longest time, geodesy was the science of measuring and understanding Earth's geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field; however, geodetic science and operations are applied to other
2882:
was originally defined as the 10-millionth part of the length from the equator to the North Pole along the meridian through Paris (the target was not quite reached in actual implementation, as it is off by 200
2116:
to determine vectors between terrestrial points. These vectors then get adjusted in a traditional network fashion. A global polyhedron of permanently operating GPS stations under the auspices of the
2875:
is one minute of astronomical latitude. The radius of curvature of the ellipsoid varies with latitude, being the longest at the pole and the shortest at the equator same as with the nautical mile.
3325:
2315:
are solvable numerically. On the ellipsoid of revolution, geodesics are expressible in terms of elliptic integrals, which are usually evaluated in terms of a series expansion — see, for example,
1717:
1638:
2721:
s are spring-based and more common. They are used in gravity surveys over large areas — to establish the figure of the geoid over these areas. The most accurate relative gravimeters are called
2093:
Traditionally, geodesists built a hierarchy of networks to allow point positioning within a country. The highest in this hierarchy were triangulation networks, densified into the networks of
1712:
1230:. Its relationship with geometrical flattening is indirect and depends on the internal density distribution or, in simplest terms, the degree of central concentration of mass.
2590:
1941:
datum point — the reference benchmark, typically a tide gauge at the shore. Thus we have vertical datums, such as the NAVD 88 (North
American Vertical Datum 1988), NAP (
1953:
2120:
is the basis for defining a single global, geocentric reference frame that serves as the "zero-order" (global) reference to which national measurements are attached.
2108:
Commonly used nowadays is GPS, except for specialized measurements (e.g., in underground or high-precision engineering). The higher-order networks are measured with
2727:
s, which are sensitive to one-thousandth of one-billionth of Earth-surface gravity. Twenty-some superconducting gravimeters are used worldwide in studying Earth's
2067:
employs geodetic methods to determine a set of precise geodetic coordinates of a point on land, at sea, or in space. It may be done within a coordinate system (
5798:
3330:
1633:
3435:
three-dimensional time varying space." ... a virtually identical definition ... the inclusion of other celestial bodies and their respective gravity fields.
2641:, the distance to a target and is highly automated or even robotic in operations. Widely used for the same purpose is the method of free station position.
2422:: the direction angle within the plane of the horizon, typically counted clockwise from the north (in geodesy and astronomy) or the south (in France).
1248:
The geoid is a "realizable" surface, meaning it can be consistently located on Earth by suitable simple measurements from physical objects like a
2143:
638:
6654:
1949:
1585:. It is impossible to map the curved surface of Earth onto a flat map surface without deformation. The compromise most often chosen — called a
1241:), posited a 6,378,137 m semi-major axis and a 1:298.257 flattening. GRS 80 essentially constitutes the basis for geodetic positioning by the
6424:
3294:
1175:
A reference ellipsoid, customarily chosen to be the same size (volume) as the geoid, is described by its semi-major axis (equatorial radius)
1165:
for solving geometrical problems like point positioning. The geometrical separation between the geoid and a reference ellipsoid is called
6743:
4695:
3312:
3214:
888:
spanning over it. Two early arguments for a spherical Earth were that lunar eclipses appear to an observer as circular shadows and that
460:
4118:
1869:
above sea level, whereas geopotential numbers are measures of potential energy (unit: m s) and not metric. The reference surface is the
5210:
628:
596:
2626:
reference ellipsoid. As geoid determination improves, one may expect that the use of GPS in height determination shall increase, too.
5849:
3707:
2633:
is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical (relative to the local vertical) angles to target points. In addition, the
4936:
3147:
3073:
2083:
606:
1883:, which has a few-metre separation from the geoid due to the density assumption in its continuation under the continental masses.
1619:
It is easy enough to "translate" between polar and rectangular coordinates in the plane: let, as above, direction and distance be
4761:
4106:
Geodetic awareness guidance note, Geodesy
Subcommittee, Geomatics Committee, International Association of Oil & Gas Producers
3277:
3267:
2375:), some basic observational concepts like angles and coordinates include (most commonly from the viewpoint of a local observer):
1933:): a physical (real-world) realization of a coordinate system used for describing point locations. This realization follows from
1581:-axis will point to the local north. More formally, such coordinates can be obtained from 3D coordinates using the artifice of a
2408:: the (direction to the) antipodal point where the downward-extending gravity vector intersects the (obscured) celestial sphere.
6622:
3423:
3306:
586:
6238:
1393:, but with the origin differing from the geocenter by hundreds of meters due to regional deviations in the direction of the
4700:
3456:
3300:
2671:
To monitor the Earth's rotation irregularities and plate tectonic motions and for planet-wide geodetic surveys, methods of
1937:(therefore conventional) coordinate values for one or more datum points. In the case of height data, it suffices to choose
1613:
2457:) instantaneous spin axis extended northward to intersect the celestial sphere. (Similarly for the south celestial pole.)
2080:
5624:
1877:
surface approximating the mean sea level as described above. For normal heights, the reference surface is the so-called
1402:
566:
367:
2618:; the more economical use of GPS instruments for height determination requires precise knowledge of the figure of the
148:
6417:
5945:
4022:
3033:
2985:
2915:
2821:
2740:
2672:
2562:
2201:
2023:
1589:— preserves angles and length ratios so that small circles get mapped as small circles and small squares as squares.
1329:
1067:
846:
666:
239:
221:
167:
70:
3996:, Springer-Verlag Wien, 2005. (This text is an updated edition of the 1967 classic by W.A. Heiskanen and H. Moritz).
2803:
2544:
2183:
2005:
1908:
typically provide ellipsoidal heights unless fitted with special conversion software based on a model of the geoid.
1311:
1049:
828:
120:
5844:
5808:
4105:
3849:"Impact of network constraining on the terrestrial reference frame realization based on SLR observations to LAGEOS"
733:
and many consider the study of Earth's shape and gravity to be central to that science. It is also a discipline of
3724:
Zajdel, Radosław; Sośnica, Krzysztof; Bury, Grzegorz; Dach, Rolf; Prange, Lars; Kazmierski, Kamil (January 2021).
3133:
3070:
based on microwave and laser observations for studying the ocean surface, sea level rise, and ice cover monitoring
2130:
mapping. In that measurement technique, unknown points can get quickly tied into nearby terrestrial known points.
1822:
5911:
4902:
4786:
4430:
4148:
3337:
3282:
2123:
1441:
17:
2668:). GNSS receivers have almost completely replaced terrestrial instruments for large-scale base network surveys.
1797:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}s&={\sqrt {x^{2}+y^{2}}}\\\alpha &=\arctan {\frac {y}{x}}.\end{aligned}}}
6570:
5803:
5557:
5203:
4259:
3667:"Impact of loading displacements on SLR-derived parameters and on the consistency between GNSS and SLR results"
3024:
2799:
2540:
2179:
2001:
1905:
1307:
1045:
985:
824:
452:
127:
105:
5663:
3262:
2948:
Mass variations due to hydrological changes, including the atmosphere, cryosphere, land hydrology, and oceans
2646:
1593:
1227:
468:
2606:
The reference surface (level) used to determine height differences and height reference systems is known as
6789:
6410:
5829:
5590:
4929:
3373:
1577:
One can intuitively use rectangular coordinates in the plane for one's current location, in which case the
3808:"Geocenter coordinates derived from multi-GNSS: a look into the role of solar radiation pressure modeling"
1965:
6707:
6016:
5248:
5233:
4754:
4601:
4523:
2440:: azimuth (direction angle within the plane of the horizon), elevation angle (or zenith angle), distance.
2036:
1467:
The coordinate transformation between these two systems to good approximation is described by (apparent)
1359:
134:
2063:, or simply positioning, is the determination of the location of points on Earth, by myriad techniques.
6538:
6511:
6200:
5899:
4528:
3767:"System-specific systematic errors in earth rotation parameters derived from GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo"
2723:
1865:
Each system has its advantages and disadvantages. Both orthometric and normal heights are expressed in
1501:
1405:(North American Datum 1927), have ellipsoids associated with them that are regional "best fits" to the
3632:
Altamimi, Zuheir; Métivier, Laurent; Rebischung, Paul; Rouby, Hélène; Collilieux, Xavier (June 2017).
2746:
In the future, gravity and altitude might become measurable using the special-relativistic concept of
5983:
5705:
5196:
4781:
4533:
3220:
3016:
2653:
2109:
2087:
1413:
1242:
431:
196:
3519:
3401:
116:
6644:
5176:
5070:
5065:
4335:
4249:
4098:
3368:
3235:
3049:
2834:
2795:
2784:
2536:
2525:
2282:
Given the coordinates of two points, determine the azimuth and length of the (straight, curved, or
2175:
2164:
2101:) into which local mapping and surveying measurements, usually collected using a measuring tape, a
1997:
1986:
1451:
or "Earth
Centred, Earth Fixed"), in which the axes are "attached" to the solid body of Earth. The
1303:
1292:
1041:
1030:
820:
809:
756:
398:
345:
101:
56:
984:, resisted by Earth's gravitational field. This applies to the solid surface, the liquid surface (
6769:
5813:
5778:
5720:
5243:
4922:
4878:
3665:
Sośnica, Krzysztof; Thaller, Daniela; Dach, Rolf; Jäggi, Adrian; Beutler, Gerhard (August 2013).
3257:
3039:
2993:
2871:
One geographical mile, defined as one minute of arc on the equator, equals 1,855.32571922 m. One
2788:
2684:
2529:
2396:: the (direction to the) intersection of the upwards-extending gravity vector at a point and the
2222:
2168:
1990:
1942:
1296:
1034:
813:
710:
536:
496:
94:
3979:
3965:
6728:
6590:
5633:
5600:
5348:
5278:
4747:
2359:
2316:
909:
516:
1237:), adopted at the XVII General Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (
6733:
6702:
6565:
6486:
6279:
5938:
5755:
5595:
5567:
5448:
5298:
4890:
4804:
4302:
3180:
3171:
3111:
2688:
2308:
1409:
within their areas of validity, minimizing the deflections of the vertical over these areas.
1271:
1162:
1127:
1092:
989:
977:
659:
576:
326:
3765:
Zajdel, Radosław; Sośnica, Krzysztof; Bury, Grzegorz; Dach, Rolf; Prange, Lars (July 2020).
6779:
6774:
6692:
6516:
6476:
5773:
5745:
5646:
5582:
5482:
5353:
5343:
5313:
5283:
5253:
5238:
5222:
4985:
4463:
4415:
4196:
3927:
3860:
3819:
3778:
3737:
3683:
3159:
2884:
2763:
2467:
2094:
1923:
1586:
1460:
1154:
476:
426:
352:
3666:
8:
6784:
6667:
6526:
6521:
6506:
6481:
6458:
6434:
6340:
6304:
6274:
6021:
5973:
5854:
5839:
5534:
5439:
5380:
5363:
5338:
5288:
4799:
4606:
4563:
4397:
4340:
4191:
4183:
4141:
2989:
2860:
2717:
2703:
2680:
2634:
2463:: the (instantaneous) intersection of Earth's equatorial plane with the celestial sphere.
2226:
1901:
1854:
1488:
1420:
Geocentric coordinate systems used in geodesy can be divided naturally into two classes:
1158:
1009:
969:
958:
860:
734:
699:
691:
388:
336:
3931:
3864:
3823:
3782:
3741:
3687:
1696:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=s\cos \alpha \\y&=s\sin \alpha \end{aligned}}}
6723:
6600:
6595:
6548:
6294:
6233:
6185:
6111:
6072:
6003:
5978:
5968:
5875:
5735:
5685:
5524:
5395:
5358:
5333:
5323:
5318:
5303:
5293:
5002:
4964:
4959:
4849:
4475:
4112:
3943:
3699:
3674:
3415:
3225:
3165:
3092:
3086:
2664:, as well as frames by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (
2492:
1892:
1844:
1456:
943:, literally "geomensuration") — concerned with measuring Earth on the global scale, or
788:
308:
278:
2472:: any plane perpendicular to the celestial equator and containing the celestial poles.
1428:
reference systems, where the coordinate axes retain their orientation relative to the
1342:
916:
encompasses practical applications of geodesy on local and regional scales, including
6738:
6687:
6632:
6612:
6498:
6390:
6284:
5882:
5605:
5425:
5385:
4885:
4705:
4687:
4591:
4558:
4048:
4039:
4018:
3947:
3605:
3547:
3419:
3397:
3191:
2488:
2367:
animation over oceans from the NASA's GRACE (Gravity
Recovery and Climate Experiment)
2340:
1813:
1382:
1099:
768:
726:
718:
714:
408:
393:
141:
3703:
3574:"Comparison of different methods for estimating the geoid-to-quasi-geoid separation"
3162: – Scientific study of the Earth's spheres and their natural integrated systems
2751:
2575:
1378:, with the Z-axis aligned to Earth's (conventional or instantaneous) rotation axis.
6764:
6677:
6617:
6543:
6378:
6299:
6269:
6195:
6180:
6090:
5931:
5887:
5700:
5572:
5457:
5375:
5308:
5164:
5090:
5080:
5012:
4997:
4618:
4485:
4470:
4347:
4327:
4269:
4173:
4168:
3935:
3897:
3868:
3847:
Zajdel, R.; Sośnica, K.; Drożdżewski, M.; Bury, G.; Strugarek, D. (November 2019).
3827:
3786:
3745:
3691:
3645:
3595:
3585:
3471:
3411:
3230:
3153:
2715:). They are used to establish vertical geospatial control or in the field. Second,
2397:
2113:
2102:
1887:
1874:
1374:. Since the advent of satellite positioning, such coordinate systems are typically
993:
973:
901:
695:
652:
403:
4066:
4057:
1948:
In both mathematics and geodesy, a coordinate system is a "coordinate system" per
1168:
6697:
6607:
6553:
6453:
6319:
6121:
6095:
6042:
5668:
5461:
5368:
5270:
5085:
5055:
4844:
4613:
4596:
4553:
4543:
4435:
3272:
2997:
2928:
2431:
2364:
1837:
1386:
1265:
1110:. When mapping in geodetic coordinates, a latitude circle forms a truncated cone.
924:
744:
707:
252:
203:
3447:
6627:
6582:
6560:
6448:
6366:
6314:
6248:
6210:
6205:
6157:
6037:
5730:
5725:
5690:
5610:
5552:
5413:
5152:
5060:
5032:
5027:
5022:
4728:
4646:
4636:
4500:
4495:
4254:
4244:
4134:
3939:
3873:
3848:
3832:
3807:
3791:
3766:
3750:
3725:
3205:
3139:
3125:
2638:
2607:
2445:
2230:
2060:
1917:
1849:
1817:
1582:
1146:
764:
616:
383:
357:
4088:
3695:
2478:: the plane which contains the direction to the zenith and the celestial pole.
1493:
6758:
6637:
6345:
6126:
6062:
6011:
5695:
5658:
5487:
5434:
5075:
5037:
4770:
4656:
4586:
4538:
4505:
4377:
4367:
4357:
4317:
4312:
4084:
3902:
3889:
3609:
3060:
Monitoring of gravity change using land, airborne, shipborne, and spaceborne
3043:
2981:
2897:
2872:
2747:
1859:
1468:
1358:
The locations of points in 3D space most conveniently are described by three
1215:
is the semi-minor axis (polar radius), is purely geometrical. The mechanical
1150:
1080:
864:
760:
730:
6402:
3470:
US Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
2594:
Gravity measurement devices, pendulum (left) and absolute gravimeter (right)
2144:
Geodesics on an ellipsoid § Solution of the direct and inverse problems
6662:
6228:
6152:
6085:
6080:
6047:
5834:
5673:
5510:
5429:
5418:
5403:
5328:
4854:
4839:
4710:
4661:
4651:
4641:
4581:
4362:
4216:
4206:
3342:
2851:
are stated in the units degree, minute of arc, and second of arc. They are
2611:
2297:
2292:
1476:
1161:, the geoid is irregular and too complicated to serve as the computational
962:
752:
341:
257:
62:
2614:
directly produces such (for practical purposes most useful) heights above
1840:" as an irregular, physically defined surface. Height systems in use are:
1114:
6309:
6175:
6131:
6116:
5763:
5715:
5710:
5651:
5641:
5453:
5443:
5126:
4990:
4980:
4859:
4834:
4458:
4264:
4201:
4003:, Dover Publications, 2000. (This text is a reprint of the 1966 classic).
3650:
3633:
3590:
3573:
3400:; Krakiwsky, Edward J., eds. (November 1, 1986). "Structure of Geodesy".
3245:
3185:
3004:
2712:
2698:
1879:
1549:, with points defined by distances from two mutually perpendicular axes,
1510:
740:
298:
4001:
Theory of
Satellite Geodesy : Applications of Satellites to Geodesy
3495:
2984:
Project, including an overview of its four fundamental techniques: GPS,
2598:
2214:
6682:
6672:
6289:
6264:
6243:
6220:
6147:
6052:
5768:
5518:
5496:
5471:
5466:
5121:
5017:
4824:
4819:
4548:
4515:
4490:
4372:
4292:
4211:
3600:
3061:
3011:
Techniques for studying geodynamic phenomena on global scales include:
2942:
2934:
2657:
2630:
2500:
2450:
1433:
1429:
1390:
1375:
1249:
1216:
1172:, and it varies globally between ±110 m based on the GRS 80 ellipsoid.
1138:
881:
6361:
5993:
2902:
992:. For this reason, the study of Earth's gravitational field is called
6533:
6335:
6190:
6057:
5740:
5562:
5542:
5505:
5501:
5219:
5111:
5007:
4829:
4480:
4425:
4410:
4382:
4352:
4279:
4221:
3806:
Zajdel, Radosław; Sośnica, Krzysztof; Bury, Grzegorz (January 2021).
3347:
3067:
2961:
2848:
2708:
2615:
2504:
2496:
2426:
2380:
2372:
2332:
2327:
2127:
2051:
1557:. Contrary to the mathematical convention, in geodetic practice, the
1521:
1394:
1103:
917:
913:
885:
377:
303:
4028:
Thomas H. Meyer, Daniel R. Roman, and David B. Zilkoski. "What does
3987:
Die mathematischen und physikalischen
Theorieen der höheren Geodäsie
3973:
Die mathematischen und physikalischen
Theorieen der höheren Geodäsie
2773:
2514:
2430:: the angular height of an object above the horizon; alternatively:
2153:
1975:
1281:
1019:
798:
83:
5514:
5188:
3407:
2844:
2732:
2454:
2344:
2312:
2304:
2283:
2259:
2098:
1562:
1528:, two general types of coordinate systems in the plane are in use:
1425:
1142:
556:
373:
362:
31:
2291:
The solutions to both problems in plane geometry reduce to simple
2262:
to a second point, determine the coordinates of that second point.
1226:) can be determined to high precision by observation of satellite
5954:
5678:
5491:
5408:
5131:
5116:
4814:
4573:
4420:
4236:
4226:
3240:
3020:
2910:
2694:
2418:
2255:
1570:
1514:
1253:
1157:
variations, and continued under the continental masses. Unlike a
981:
953:) that includes surveying — measuring parts or regions of Earth.
905:
889:
687:
436:
27:
Science of measuring the shape, orientation, and gravity of Earth
4739:
1945:), the Kronstadt datum, the Trieste datum, and numerous others.
4440:
4307:
4287:
4093:
3631:
3028:
2676:
2392:
1832:
1506:
892:
appears lower and lower in the sky to a traveler headed South.
880:
Early ideas about the figure of the Earth held the Earth to be
722:
546:
506:
444:
4111:
4032:
really mean?" (This is a series of four articles published in
2134:
and insurance will use these to tie their local measurements.
1604:. In this case, the north direction used for reference is the
4628:
4405:
4387:
4157:
2888:
corresponds to the rounding of 1,000/0.54 m to four digits).
2879:
2736:
2661:
2623:
2619:
2404:
2348:
2336:
2044:
1870:
1866:
1406:
1351:
1347:
1234:
1134:
1107:
1088:
1084:
1005:
868:
703:
331:
30:"Geodetic" redirects here. For the mathematical concept, see
3985:, ACIC (St. Louis, 1964). This is an English translation of
3971:, ACIC (St. Louis, 1964). This is an English translation of
3846:
2933:
The episodic motion of tectonic origin, especially close to
5095:
4677:
4297:
2728:
2665:
2584:
2580:
2117:
1475:
variations). A more accurate description also accounts for
1471:, which accounts for variations in Earth's axial rotation (
1448:
1398:
1238:
748:
633:
526:
261:
5923:
4914:
3916:
2960:
Anthropogenic movements such as reservoir construction or
1954:
International Earth
Rotation and Reference Systems Service
976:, and the competition of geological processes such as the
2414:: a plane perpendicular to the gravity vector at a point.
2355:; the orbit direction is counter-clockwise (to the left).
2352:
2040:
1596:). Within the map plane, we have rectangular coordinates
1525:
1472:
4126:
1539:, from a specified point along a ray having a direction
4122:. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 607–615.
3726:"Sub-daily polar motion from GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo"
3664:
3176:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1137:
essentially is the figure of Earth abstracted from its
2757:
2254:
Given the coordinates of a point and the directional (
1535:, with points in the plane defined by their distance,
3764:
3723:
3469:
2739:
and atmospheric loading, as well as in verifying the
2683:(LLR) measuring distances to prisms on the Moon, and
2236:
In geometrical geodesy, there are two main problems:
1715:
1636:
3981:
Mathematical and Physical Theories of Higher Geodesy
3967:
Mathematical and Physical Theories of Higher Geodesy
3520:"Geodesy Definition, Characteristics & Branches"
3101:
2980:
A NASA project manager talks about his work for the
1397:(vertical). These regional geodetic datums, such as
1385:, the coordinate systems associated with a geodetic
1141:
features. It is an idealized equilibrium surface of
763:
and terrestrial geodetic techniques, and relying on
3148:
Outline of metrology and measurement § Geodesy
108:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2388:: (the line along) the direction of local gravity.
1796:
1695:
1482:
968:To a large extent, Earth's shape is the result of
755:, can be studied by designing global and national
3805:
3565:
2656:) receivers directly produce 3D coordinates in a
2645:are tagged and recorded digitally for entry into
1479:as a phenomenon closely monitored by geodesists.
6756:
3622:(ISO 19111: Spatial referencing by coordinates).
3396:
3194: – Science of planets and planetary systems
1900:), representing the height of a point above the
1612:north. The difference between the two is called
1432:or, equivalently, to the rotation axes of ideal
999:
2939:Periodic effects due to tides and tidal loading
4072:Vol. 66, No. 3, pages 165–183, September 2006.
3571:
1966:Geodetic network § Measurement techniques
1259:
1126:) and mean Earth radii as defined in the 1984
6432:
6418:
5939:
5799:Geographic data and information organizations
5204:
4930:
4755:
4142:
4045:Vol. 64, No. 4, pages 223–233, December 2004.
4034:Surveying and Land Information Science, SaLIS
3295:International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
2957:Earth's center-of-mass (geocenter) variations
660:
3890:"Global Geodetic Observing System 2015–2018"
1826:Height measurement using satellite altimetry
948:
938:
932:
3888:Sośnica, Krzysztof; Bosy, Jarosław (2019).
3887:
3313:International Geodetic Student Organisation
3215:Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography
2802:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2543:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2182:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2004:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1310:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1048:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
827:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
71:Learn how and when to remove these messages
6425:
6411:
5946:
5932:
5211:
5197:
4937:
4923:
4762:
4748:
4149:
4135:
2707:s, based on measuring the acceleration of
2701:, of which there are two kinds. First are
863:, so the very word geodesy comes from the
667:
653:
634:Spatial Reference System Identifier (SRID)
629:International Terrestrial Reference System
5850:National Council for Geographic Education
4063:Vol. 66, No. 2, pages 149–160, June 2006.
3901:
3872:
3831:
3790:
3749:
3649:
3599:
3589:
3572:Foroughi, Ismael; Tenzer, Robert (2017).
2822:Learn how and when to remove this message
2563:Learn how and when to remove this message
2322:
2202:Learn how and when to remove this message
2105:, and the red-and-white poles, are tied.
2084:continuously operating reference stations
2024:Learn how and when to remove this message
1886:One can relate these heights through the
1330:Learn how and when to remove this message
1068:Learn how and when to remove this message
847:Learn how and when to remove this message
240:Learn how and when to remove this message
222:Learn how and when to remove this message
168:Learn how and when to remove this message
4017:(3rd edition), published by de Gruyter,
3074:Interferometric synthetic aperture radar
2967:
2909:
2906:Global plate tectonic movement using GPS
2901:
2855:, not metric measures, and describe the
2833:
2597:
2589:
2574:
2358:
2326:
2221:
2213:
2050:
2035:
1821:
1706:The reverse transformation is given by:
1592:An example of such a projection is UTM (
1500:
1492:
1447:The co-rotating reference systems (also
1341:
1113:
1098:
1087:, an approximation for the shape of the
1079:
251:
4054:Vol. 65, No. 1, pages 5–15, March 2005.
3278:United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
3268:National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
3054:Regionally and locally precise leveling
2945:land uplift due to isostatic adjustment
2687:(SLR) measuring distances to prisms on
2579:Variations in the gravity field of the
2055:Initial acquisition of GPS signal in 2D
1219:of Earth (dynamical flattening, symbol
1106:- a mathematical representation of the
14:
6757:
6623:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
3326:Council of European Geodetic Surveyors
3188: – Study of dynamics of the Earth
2622:, as GPS only gives heights above the
6406:
5927:
5192:
4918:
4743:
4130:
3307:International Federation of Surveyors
3080:
5894:
5218:
5171:
4897:
4701:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
3992:B. Hofmann-Wellenhof and H. Moritz,
3457:International Association of Geodesy
3392:
3390:
3301:International Association of Geodesy
2800:adding citations to reliable sources
2767:
2660:coordinate frame. One such frame is
2541:adding citations to reliable sources
2508:
2434:equal to 90 degrees minus elevation.
2307:for the surface considered, and the
2180:adding citations to reliable sources
2147:
2137:
2126:(RTK GPS) is employed frequently in
2043:Block IIA satellite orbits over the
2002:adding citations to reliable sources
1969:
1308:adding citations to reliable sources
1275:
1233:The 1980 Geodetic Reference System (
1046:adding citations to reliable sources
1013:
825:adding citations to reliable sources
792:
179:
106:adding citations to reliable sources
77:
36:
6385:
5906:
2891:
2758:Units and measures on the ellipsoid
2303:The general solution is called the
639:Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
601:European Terrestrial Ref. Sys. 1989
24:
3958:
3416:10.1016/B978-0-444-87775-8.50009-5
3174: – Geographic data discipline
2711:(e.g., of a reflecting prism in a
1911:
1497:2D grid for elliptical coordinates
877:(literally, "division of Earth").
690:of measuring and representing the
511:Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936
477:Discrete Global Grid and Geocoding
368:Horizontal position representation
25:
6801:
4769:
4078:
3989:, Vol 2 (Teubner, Leipzig, 1884).
3975:, Vol 1 (Teubner, Leipzig, 1880).
3638:Geophysical Journal International
3578:Geophysical Journal International
3387:
3034:Very-long-baseline interferometry
2916:very-long-baseline interferometry
2863:of revolution. This direction is
2741:Newtonian constant of gravitation
2673:very-long-baseline interferometry
256:A modern instrument for geodetic
52:This article has multiple issues.
6384:
6373:
6372:
6360:
5992:
5905:
5893:
5881:
5870:
5869:
5845:International Geography Olympiad
5170:
5159:
5158:
5146:
4896:
4884:
4873:
4872:
4724:
4723:
4092:
4083:
3713:from the original on 2022-03-18.
3552:Occupational Information Network
3132:
3118:
3104:
2772:
2513:
2371:As defined in geodesy (and also
2152:
2075:) or relative to another point (
1974:
1280:
1095:(10000 vertical scaling factor).
1018:
859:Geodesy began in pre-scientific
797:
427:Global Nav. Sat. Systems (GNSSs)
277:
184:
82:
41:
6744:Timeline of physics discoveries
4431:Human impact on the environment
4010:, pp. 714, Elsevier, 1986.
4006:Vaníček P. and E.J. Krakiwsky,
3910:
3881:
3840:
3799:
3758:
3717:
3658:
3625:
3338:EPSG Geodetic Parameter Dataset
3283:United States Geological Survey
3076:(InSAR) using satellite images.
2482:
2286:) line connecting those points.
2124:Real-time kinematic positioning
1906:Satellite positioning receivers
1483:Coordinate systems in the plane
1256:of Earth — is also realizable.
591:N. American Vertical Datum 1988
93:needs additional citations for
60:or discuss these issues on the
5558:Geographic information science
4260:Climate variability and change
4049:"Part II: Physics and gravity"
3616:
3540:
3512:
3488:
3463:
3440:
3361:
2675:(VLBI) measuring distances to
2637:determines, electronically or
1959:
1520:In geodetic applications like
986:dynamic sea surface topography
927:, geodesy can refer to either
908:of measuring and representing
771:. Geodetic job titles include
621:Internet link to a point 2010
551:Geodetic Reference System 1980
469:Quasi-Zenith Sat. Sys. (QZSS)
193:This article needs editing to
13:
1:
5664:Geographic information system
4696:Evolution of the Solar System
3634:"ITRF2014 plate motion model"
3535:various aspects of the Earth.
3500:LSU Center for GeoInformatics
3354:
3263:U.S. National Geodetic Survey
2652:Geodetic GNSS (most commonly
2647:Geographic Information System
2438:Local topocentric coordinates
1830:In geodesy, point or terrain
1594:Universal Transverse Mercator
1000:Geoid and reference ellipsoid
895:
611:Chinese obfuscated datum 2002
5591:Environmental social science
4436:Evolutionary history of life
3374:Cambridge English Dictionary
2898:Geoid § Temporal change
2449:: the extension of Earth's (
2351:is shown as viewed from the
1362:or rectangular coordinates,
561:Geographic point coord. 1983
7:
6708:Quantum information science
6017:Geological history of Earth
5953:
5091:Precession of the equinoxes
4944:
3289:International organizations
3097:
2859:of the local normal to the
2335:), rotation axis, plane of
2090:of a higher-order network.
1627:respectively, then we have
1260:Coordinate systems in space
521:Systema Koordinat 1942 goda
10:
6806:
6539:Classical electromagnetism
5990:
4058:"Part III: Height systems"
3940:10.1007/s00190-019-01228-y
3874:10.1007/s00190-019-01307-0
3833:10.1007/s10291-020-01037-3
3792:10.1007/s10291-020-00989-w
3751:10.1007/s00190-020-01453-w
3168: – Notable geodesists
3151:
3145:
3090:
3084:
2927:Continental plate motion,
2895:
2761:
2724:superconducting gravimeter
2486:
2141:
1963:
1921:
1915:
1811:
1807:
1486:
1269:
1263:
1149:surface in the absence of
1003:
869:
786:
782:
581:World Geodetic System 1984
29:
6716:
6653:
6581:
6497:
6469:
6441:
6354:
6328:
6257:
6219:
6166:
6140:
6104:
6071:
6031:Composition and structure
6030:
6002:
5984:Index of geology articles
5961:
5865:
5822:
5791:
5754:
5706:Global Positioning System
5632:
5623:
5581:
5533:
5394:
5269:
5262:
5229:
5140:
5104:
5046:
4973:
4952:
4868:
4795:
4777:
4719:
4686:
4670:
4627:
4572:
4514:
4449:
4396:
4326:
4278:
4235:
4182:
4164:
4156:
3696:10.1007/s00190-013-0644-1
3258:National mapping agencies
3221:Geodesics on an ellipsoid
3015:Satellite positioning by
3008:Observing System (GGOS).
2954:Length-of-day variability
1952:terminology, whereas the
1401:(European Datum 1950) or
1243:Global Positioning System
571:North American Datum 1983
541:South American Datum 1969
6645:Condensed matter physics
4706:Location in the Universe
4637:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
4336:List of sovereign states
4067:"Part IV: GPS heighting"
3903:10.24425/gac.2019.126090
2114:differential measurement
1543:from a baseline or axis.
904:, geodesy refers to the
432:Global Pos. System (GPS)
399:Spatial reference system
195:comply with Knowledge's
5814:National mapping agency
5779:Survey (human research)
5721:Participant observation
4119:Encyclopædia Britannica
3894:Geodesy and Cartography
3040:Satellite laser ranging
2685:satellite laser ranging
1943:Normaal Amsterdams Peil
727:circumplanetary systems
6729:Nobel Prize in Physics
6591:Relativistic mechanics
5804:Geographical societies
5601:Landscape architecture
4040:"Part I: Introduction"
3001:
2951:Sub-daily polar motion
2919:
2907:
2840:
2603:
2595:
2587:
2368:
2356:
2323:Observational concepts
2309:differential equations
2233:
2219:
2056:
2048:
1827:
1798:
1697:
1517:
1498:
1455:-axis lies within the
1355:
1130:
1111:
1096:
949:
939:
933:
910:geospatial information
264:
6734:Philosophy of physics
6280:Environmental geology
5596:Environmental studies
5568:Statistical geography
5449:Environmental science
5071:Earth's gravity field
5066:Earth's energy budget
4805:Environmental science
4416:Biogeochemical cycles
4341:dependent territories
4101:at Wikimedia Commons
4008:Geodesy: the Concepts
3476:oceanservice.noaa.gov
3403:Geodesy: The Concepts
3252:Governmental agencies
3236:Earth's circumference
3181:History of geophysics
3172:Geomatics engineering
3112:Earth sciences portal
2979:
2913:
2905:
2868:figure of the Earth.
2837:
2762:Further information:
2689:artificial satellites
2602:A relative gravimeter
2601:
2593:
2578:
2487:Further information:
2362:
2330:
2225:
2218:Geodetic control mark
2217:
2054:
2039:
1922:Further information:
1825:
1812:Further information:
1799:
1698:
1504:
1496:
1345:
1272:World Geodetic System
1270:Further information:
1128:World Geodetic System
1117:
1102:
1093:vertical exaggeration
1083:
743:phenomena, including
327:Geographical distance
255:
6693:Mathematical physics
6239:Planetary geophysics
5809:Geoscience societies
5774:Interview (research)
5746:Land change modeling
5647:Computer cartography
5625:Techniques and tools
5483:Earth system science
4986:Computer cartography
4464:Computer cartography
4197:Prebiotic atmosphere
3548:"Geodetic Surveyors"
3160:Earth system science
2796:improve this section
2764:Geodetic coordinates
2537:improve this section
2176:improve this section
2088:triangulation points
2077:relative positioning
2073:absolute positioning
2065:Geodetic positioning
1998:improve this section
1924:Datum transformation
1855:Geopotential heights
1713:
1634:
1614:meridian convergence
1587:conformal projection
1440:-axis points to the
1346:Datum shift between
1304:improve this section
1042:improve this section
821:improve this section
717:when studying other
501:Sea Level Datum 1929
353:Geodetic coordinates
102:improve this article
6790:Applied mathematics
6668:Atmospheric physics
6507:Classical mechanics
6435:branches of physics
6341:Petroleum geologist
6305:Forensic geophysics
6275:Engineering geology
6022:Timeline of geology
5974:Glossary of geology
5855:Spatial citizenship
5840:Geographers on Film
5830:Geography education
5440:Atmospheric science
5105:Related disciplines
4800:Atmospheric science
4607:Geologic time scale
4328:Culture and society
4192:Atmosphere of Earth
3932:2019JGeod..93.2181P
3865:2019JGeod..93.2293Z
3824:2021GPSS...25....1Z
3783:2020GPSS...24...74Z
3742:2021JGeod..95....3Z
3688:2013JGeod..87..751S
3406:(Second ed.).
3057:Precise tachymeters
2964:or water extraction
2861:reference ellipsoid
2718:relative gravimeter
2704:absolute gravimeter
2681:lunar laser ranging
2317:Vincenty's formulae
1902:reference ellipsoid
1893:ellipsoidal heights
1845:Orthometric heights
1489:Horizontal position
1412:It is only because
1254:topographic surface
1228:orbit perturbations
1159:reference ellipsoid
1010:Reference ellipsoid
978:collision of plates
972:, which causes its
959:astronomical bodies
945:engineering geodesy
735:applied mathematics
719:astronomical bodies
700:spatial orientation
531:European Datum 1950
489:Standards (history)
389:Reference ellipsoid
337:Figure of the Earth
204:improve the content
6724:History of physics
6367:Geology portal
6295:Geologic modelling
6234:Geophysical survey
6186:Geodetic astronomy
6112:Structural geology
6073:Historical geology
6004:History of geology
5979:History of geology
5969:Outline of geology
5736:Statistical survey
5686:Geologic modelling
5525:Quaternary science
5153:Geodesy portal
5003:Geodetic astronomy
4850:Physical geography
4602:Geological history
4476:Geodetic astronomy
3920:Journal of Geodesy
3853:Journal of Geodesy
3730:Journal of Geodesy
3675:Journal of Geodesy
3651:10.1093/gji/ggx136
3591:10.1093/gji/ggx221
3472:"What is geodesy?"
3410:. pp. 45–51.
3226:History of geodesy
3166:List of geodesists
3087:List of geodesists
3081:Notable geodesists
3002:
2920:
2908:
2841:
2697:is measured using
2610:. The traditional
2604:
2596:
2588:
2493:Geodetic astronomy
2369:
2357:
2276:) geodetic problem
2248:) geodetic problem
2234:
2220:
2057:
2049:
1828:
1794:
1792:
1693:
1691:
1518:
1513:plates of maps of
1499:
1381:Before the era of
1356:
1131:
1112:
1097:
1091:; shown here with
990:Earth's atmosphere
884:and the heavens a
789:History of geodesy
769:coordinate systems
708:temporally varying
409:Vertical positions
265:
6752:
6751:
6739:Physics education
6688:Materials science
6655:Interdisciplinary
6613:Quantum mechanics
6400:
6399:
6285:Planetary geology
6201:Planetary geodesy
5921:
5920:
5787:
5786:
5619:
5618:
5606:Landscape ecology
5426:Coastal geography
5186:
5185:
4912:
4911:
4737:
4736:
4688:Planetary science
4671:Natural satellite
4592:Extremes on Earth
4559:Signal processing
4097:Media related to
4013:Torge, W (2001),
3926:(11): 2181–2194.
3859:(11): 2293–2313.
3425:978-0-444-87775-8
3192:Planetary science
3093:Notable surveyors
2977:
2832:
2831:
2824:
2649:(GIS) databases.
2639:electro-optically
2573:
2572:
2565:
2489:Satellite geodesy
2461:Celestial equator
2412:Celestial horizon
2341:celestial equator
2212:
2211:
2204:
2138:Geodetic problems
2069:point positioning
2034:
2033:
2026:
1814:Vertical position
1785:
1755:
1383:satellite geodesy
1340:
1339:
1332:
1078:
1077:
1070:
950:Ingenieurgeodäsie
857:
856:
849:
777:geodetic surveyor
715:planetary geodesy
677:
676:
625:
624:
404:Spatial relations
394:Satellite geodesy
349:
250:
249:
242:
232:
231:
224:
178:
177:
170:
152:
75:
16:(Redirected from
6797:
6678:Chemical physics
6618:Particle physics
6544:Classical optics
6427:
6420:
6413:
6404:
6403:
6388:
6387:
6376:
6375:
6365:
6364:
6300:Forensic geology
6270:Economic geology
6196:Gravity of Earth
6091:Paleoclimatology
5996:
5948:
5941:
5934:
5925:
5924:
5909:
5908:
5897:
5896:
5885:
5873:
5872:
5701:Geovisualization
5630:
5629:
5573:Spatial analysis
5458:Paleoclimatology
5267:
5266:
5213:
5206:
5199:
5190:
5189:
5174:
5173:
5162:
5161:
5151:
5150:
5149:
5081:Gravity of Earth
5013:Gravity of Earth
4939:
4932:
4925:
4916:
4915:
4900:
4899:
4888:
4876:
4875:
4764:
4757:
4750:
4741:
4740:
4727:
4726:
4619:History of Earth
4270:Paleoclimatology
4151:
4144:
4137:
4128:
4127:
4123:
4115:
4096:
4087:
3994:Physical Geodesy
3952:
3951:
3914:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3885:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3844:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3803:
3797:
3796:
3794:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3753:
3721:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3671:
3662:
3656:
3655:
3653:
3644:(3): 1906–1912.
3629:
3623:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3603:
3593:
3584:(2): 1001–1020.
3569:
3563:
3562:
3560:
3559:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3531:
3530:
3516:
3510:
3509:
3507:
3506:
3492:
3486:
3485:
3483:
3482:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3454:
3449:What is Geodesy?
3444:
3438:
3437:
3433:
3394:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3365:
3334:
3231:Physical geodesy
3177:
3142:
3137:
3136:
3128:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3114:
3109:
3108:
3107:
3042:(SLR) and lunar
2978:
2892:Temporal changes
2827:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2807:
2776:
2768:
2691:, are employed.
2568:
2561:
2557:
2554:
2548:
2517:
2509:
2398:celestial sphere
2207:
2200:
2196:
2193:
2187:
2156:
2148:
2029:
2022:
2018:
2015:
2009:
1978:
1970:
1898:geodetic heights
1888:geoid undulation
1875:equigeopotential
1803:
1801:
1800:
1795:
1793:
1786:
1778:
1756:
1754:
1753:
1741:
1740:
1731:
1702:
1700:
1699:
1694:
1692:
1389:attempted to be
1335:
1328:
1324:
1321:
1315:
1284:
1276:
1210:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1199:
1125:
1121:
1073:
1066:
1062:
1059:
1053:
1022:
1014:
994:physical geodesy
980:, as well as of
974:equatorial bulge
952:
942:
936:
872:
871:
852:
845:
841:
838:
832:
801:
793:
757:control networks
729:. Geodesy is an
669:
662:
655:
493:
492:
472:
464:
456:
448:
440:
380:
339:
281:
267:
266:
245:
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227:
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216:
213:
207:
188:
187:
180:
173:
166:
162:
159:
153:
151:
110:
86:
78:
67:
45:
44:
37:
21:
6805:
6804:
6800:
6799:
6798:
6796:
6795:
6794:
6755:
6754:
6753:
6748:
6712:
6698:Medical physics
6649:
6608:Nuclear physics
6577:
6571:Non-equilibrium
6493:
6465:
6437:
6431:
6401:
6396:
6359:
6350:
6324:
6320:Mineral physics
6253:
6215:
6162:
6136:
6122:Plate tectonics
6100:
6096:Palaeogeography
6067:
6043:Crystallography
6026:
5998:
5997:
5988:
5957:
5952:
5922:
5917:
5861:
5818:
5783:
5750:
5669:Distributed GIS
5615:
5577:
5529:
5462:Palaeogeography
5390:
5258:
5225:
5217:
5187:
5182:
5147:
5145:
5136:
5100:
5086:Plate tectonics
5061:Coriolis effect
5056:Chandler wobble
5048:
5042:
4969:
4948:
4943:
4913:
4908:
4864:
4845:Paleogeoscience
4791:
4773:
4768:
4738:
4733:
4715:
4682:
4666:
4623:
4614:Geologic record
4568:
4554:Plate tectonics
4544:Mineral physics
4524:Earth structure
4510:
4445:
4392:
4322:
4274:
4231:
4178:
4160:
4155:
4113:"Geodesy"
4110:
4081:
3978:F. R. Helmert,
3964:F. R. Helmert,
3961:
3959:Further reading
3956:
3955:
3915:
3911:
3886:
3882:
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3759:
3722:
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3446:
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3441:
3431:
3426:
3395:
3388:
3379:
3377:
3367:
3366:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3328:
3273:Ordnance Survey
3175:
3156:
3152:Main category:
3150:
3138:
3131:
3124:
3119:
3117:
3110:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3095:
3089:
3083:
2968:
2929:plate tectonics
2900:
2894:
2828:
2817:
2811:
2808:
2793:
2777:
2766:
2760:
2569:
2558:
2552:
2549:
2534:
2518:
2507:
2485:
2432:zenith distance
2365:gravity anomaly
2331:Axial tilt (or
2325:
2208:
2197:
2191:
2188:
2173:
2157:
2146:
2140:
2030:
2019:
2013:
2010:
1995:
1979:
1968:
1962:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1912:Geodetic datums
1896:(also known as
1850:Dynamic heights
1838:above sea level
1820:
1810:
1791:
1790:
1777:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1749:
1745:
1736:
1732:
1730:
1723:
1716:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1690:
1689:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1644:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1608:north, not the
1491:
1485:
1336:
1325:
1319:
1316:
1301:
1285:
1274:
1268:
1266:Geodetic system
1262:
1225:
1203:
1200:
1191:
1190:
1188:
1183:. The quantity
1179:and flattening
1123:
1119:
1074:
1063:
1057:
1054:
1039:
1023:
1012:
1004:Main articles:
1002:
934:höhere Geodäsie
898:
853:
842:
836:
833:
818:
802:
791:
785:
713:. It is called
673:
644:
643:
490:
482:
481:
470:
462:
454:
446:
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422:
414:
413:
372:
322:
314:
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289:
246:
235:
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233:
228:
217:
211:
208:
201:
197:Manual of Style
189:
185:
174:
163:
157:
154:
111:
109:
99:
87:
46:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Geodetic survey
15:
12:
11:
5:
6803:
6793:
6792:
6787:
6782:
6777:
6772:
6770:Earth sciences
6767:
6750:
6749:
6747:
6746:
6741:
6736:
6731:
6726:
6720:
6718:
6714:
6713:
6711:
6710:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6685:
6680:
6675:
6670:
6665:
6659:
6657:
6651:
6650:
6648:
6647:
6642:
6641:
6640:
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6630:
6620:
6615:
6610:
6605:
6604:
6603:
6598:
6587:
6585:
6579:
6578:
6576:
6575:
6574:
6573:
6568:
6561:Thermodynamics
6558:
6557:
6556:
6551:
6541:
6536:
6531:
6530:
6529:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6503:
6501:
6495:
6494:
6492:
6491:
6490:
6489:
6479:
6473:
6471:
6467:
6466:
6464:
6463:
6462:
6461:
6451:
6445:
6443:
6439:
6438:
6430:
6429:
6422:
6415:
6407:
6398:
6397:
6395:
6394:
6382:
6370:
6355:
6352:
6351:
6349:
6348:
6343:
6338:
6332:
6330:
6326:
6325:
6323:
6322:
6317:
6315:Mining geology
6312:
6307:
6302:
6297:
6292:
6287:
6282:
6277:
6272:
6267:
6261:
6259:
6255:
6254:
6252:
6251:
6249:Tectonophysics
6246:
6241:
6236:
6231:
6225:
6223:
6217:
6216:
6214:
6213:
6211:Geopositioning
6208:
6206:Remote sensing
6203:
6198:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6172:
6170:
6164:
6163:
6161:
6160:
6158:Marine geology
6155:
6150:
6144:
6142:
6138:
6137:
6135:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6119:
6114:
6108:
6106:
6102:
6101:
6099:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6077:
6075:
6069:
6068:
6066:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6045:
6040:
6038:Cosmochemistry
6034:
6032:
6028:
6027:
6025:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6008:
6006:
6000:
5999:
5991:
5989:
5987:
5986:
5981:
5976:
5971:
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5959:
5958:
5951:
5950:
5943:
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5928:
5919:
5918:
5916:
5915:
5903:
5891:
5879:
5866:
5863:
5862:
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5859:
5858:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5826:
5824:
5820:
5819:
5817:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5801:
5795:
5793:
5789:
5788:
5785:
5784:
5782:
5781:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5760:
5758:
5752:
5751:
5749:
5748:
5743:
5738:
5733:
5731:Remote sensing
5728:
5726:Photogrammetry
5723:
5718:
5713:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5693:
5691:Geomathematics
5688:
5683:
5682:
5681:
5676:
5671:
5661:
5656:
5655:
5654:
5649:
5638:
5636:
5627:
5621:
5620:
5617:
5616:
5614:
5613:
5611:Time geography
5608:
5603:
5598:
5593:
5587:
5585:
5579:
5578:
5576:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5560:
5555:
5553:Geoinformatics
5550:
5545:
5539:
5537:
5531:
5530:
5528:
5527:
5522:
5508:
5499:
5494:
5485:
5480:
5479:
5478:
5469:
5464:
5451:
5446:
5432:
5423:
5422:
5421:
5416:
5414:Phytogeography
5411:
5400:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5389:
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5372:
5371:
5366:
5361:
5351:
5346:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5275:
5273:
5264:
5260:
5259:
5257:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5230:
5227:
5226:
5216:
5215:
5208:
5201:
5193:
5184:
5183:
5181:
5180:
5168:
5156:
5141:
5138:
5137:
5135:
5134:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5108:
5106:
5102:
5101:
5099:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5052:
5050:
5044:
5043:
5041:
5040:
5035:
5033:Geopositioning
5030:
5028:Remote Sensing
5025:
5023:Photogrammetry
5020:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4994:
4993:
4988:
4977:
4975:
4971:
4970:
4968:
4967:
4962:
4956:
4954:
4950:
4949:
4942:
4941:
4934:
4927:
4919:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4906:
4894:
4882:
4869:
4866:
4865:
4863:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
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4807:
4802:
4796:
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4790:
4789:
4784:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4767:
4766:
4759:
4752:
4744:
4735:
4734:
4732:
4731:
4720:
4717:
4716:
4714:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4692:
4690:
4684:
4683:
4681:
4680:
4674:
4672:
4668:
4667:
4665:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4647:Atlantic Ocean
4644:
4639:
4633:
4631:
4625:
4624:
4622:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4610:
4609:
4599:
4594:
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4578:
4576:
4570:
4569:
4567:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4529:Fluid dynamics
4526:
4520:
4518:
4512:
4511:
4509:
4508:
4503:
4501:Geopositioning
4498:
4496:Remote Sensing
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4467:
4466:
4455:
4453:
4447:
4446:
4444:
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4402:
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4391:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4355:
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4345:
4344:
4343:
4332:
4330:
4324:
4323:
4321:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4284:
4282:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4255:Climate change
4252:
4250:Energy balance
4247:
4245:Climate system
4241:
4239:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4188:
4186:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4176:
4171:
4165:
4162:
4161:
4154:
4153:
4146:
4139:
4131:
4125:
4124:
4108:
4080:
4079:External links
4077:
4076:
4075:
4074:
4073:
4064:
4055:
4046:
4026:
4011:
4004:
3997:
3990:
3976:
3960:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3909:
3880:
3839:
3798:
3757:
3716:
3682:(8): 751–769.
3657:
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3615:
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3201:
3197:
3196:
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3183:
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3169:
3163:
3146:Main article:
3144:
3143:
3140:Physics portal
3129:
3126:Geodesy portal
3115:
3099:
3096:
3085:Main article:
3082:
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2931:
2893:
2890:
2830:
2829:
2780:
2778:
2771:
2759:
2756:
2752:optical clocks
2608:mean sea level
2571:
2570:
2521:
2519:
2512:
2484:
2481:
2480:
2479:
2476:Local meridian
2473:
2464:
2458:
2446:celestial pole
2441:
2435:
2423:
2415:
2409:
2401:
2389:
2324:
2321:
2289:
2288:
2278:
2277:
2265:
2264:
2250:
2249:
2231:Apollo program
2210:
2209:
2160:
2158:
2151:
2142:Main article:
2139:
2136:
2061:geopositioning
2032:
2031:
1982:
1980:
1973:
1961:
1958:
1918:Geodetic datum
1916:Main article:
1913:
1910:
1863:
1862:
1860:Normal heights
1857:
1852:
1847:
1818:Vertical datum
1809:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1789:
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1583:map projection
1575:
1574:
1544:
1487:Main article:
1484:
1481:
1465:
1464:
1459:observatory's
1445:
1442:vernal equinox
1338:
1337:
1288:
1286:
1279:
1264:Main article:
1261:
1258:
1223:
1147:mean sea level
1076:
1075:
1026:
1024:
1017:
1001:
998:
929:higher geodesy
897:
894:
855:
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787:Main article:
784:
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6709:
6706:
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6703:Ocean physics
6701:
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6638:Modern optics
6636:
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6487:Computational
6485:
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6475:
6474:
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6383:
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6380:
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6357:
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6347:
6346:Volcanologist
6344:
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6204:
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6187:
6184:
6182:
6181:Earth's orbit
6179:
6177:
6174:
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6169:
6165:
6159:
6156:
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6149:
6146:
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6133:
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6128:
6127:Geomorphology
6125:
6123:
6120:
6118:
6115:
6113:
6110:
6109:
6107:
6105:Dynamic Earth
6103:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6078:
6076:
6074:
6070:
6064:
6063:Sedimentology
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6036:
6035:
6033:
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6023:
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6018:
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6012:Geochronology
6010:
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6007:
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5995:
5985:
5982:
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5722:
5719:
5717:
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5712:
5709:
5707:
5704:
5702:
5699:
5697:
5696:Geostatistics
5694:
5692:
5689:
5687:
5684:
5680:
5677:
5675:
5672:
5670:
5667:
5666:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5659:Geochronology
5657:
5653:
5650:
5648:
5645:
5644:
5643:
5640:
5639:
5637:
5635:
5631:
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5526:
5523:
5520:
5516:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5489:
5488:Geomorphology
5486:
5484:
5481:
5477:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5441:
5438:
5437:
5436:
5435:Earth science
5433:
5431:
5427:
5424:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5406:
5405:
5402:
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5387:
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5370:
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5360:
5357:
5356:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5272:
5268:
5265:
5261:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5231:
5228:
5224:
5221:
5214:
5209:
5207:
5202:
5200:
5195:
5194:
5191:
5179:
5178:
5169:
5167:
5166:
5157:
5155:
5154:
5143:
5142:
5139:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5109:
5107:
5103:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5053:
5051:
5045:
5039:
5038:Virtual globe
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4998:Earth's orbit
4996:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4983:
4982:
4979:
4978:
4976:
4972:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4957:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4940:
4935:
4933:
4928:
4926:
4921:
4920:
4917:
4905:
4904:
4895:
4893:
4892:
4887:
4883:
4881:
4880:
4871:
4870:
4867:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4797:
4794:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4779:
4776:
4772:
4771:Earth science
4765:
4760:
4758:
4753:
4751:
4746:
4745:
4742:
4730:
4722:
4721:
4718:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4693:
4691:
4689:
4685:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4673:
4669:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4657:Pacific Ocean
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4634:
4632:
4630:
4626:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4608:
4605:
4604:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4587:Earth science
4585:
4583:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4575:
4571:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4539:Magnetosphere
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4521:
4519:
4517:
4513:
4507:
4506:Virtual globe
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4471:Earth's orbit
4469:
4465:
4462:
4461:
4460:
4457:
4456:
4454:
4452:
4448:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4399:
4395:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4378:World history
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4368:World economy
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4342:
4339:
4338:
4337:
4334:
4333:
4331:
4329:
4325:
4319:
4318:South America
4316:
4314:
4313:North America
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4277:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4242:
4240:
4238:
4234:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4189:
4187:
4185:
4181:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4166:
4163:
4159:
4152:
4147:
4145:
4140:
4138:
4133:
4132:
4129:
4121:
4120:
4114:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4103:
4102:
4100:
4095:
4091:at Wikibooks
4090:
4086:
4071:
4068:
4065:
4062:
4059:
4056:
4053:
4050:
4047:
4044:
4041:
4038:
4037:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4024:
4023:3-11-017072-8
4020:
4016:
4012:
4009:
4005:
4002:
3998:
3995:
3991:
3988:
3984:
3982:
3977:
3974:
3970:
3968:
3963:
3962:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3913:
3904:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3884:
3875:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3843:
3834:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3812:GPS Solutions
3809:
3802:
3793:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3771:GPS Solutions
3768:
3761:
3752:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3720:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3676:
3668:
3661:
3652:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3628:
3619:
3611:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3568:
3553:
3549:
3543:
3536:
3525:
3521:
3515:
3501:
3497:
3491:
3477:
3473:
3466:
3458:
3451:
3450:
3443:
3436:
3427:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3404:
3399:
3398:Vaníček, Petr
3393:
3391:
3376:
3375:
3370:
3364:
3360:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3332:
3327:
3324:
3323:
3319:
3318:
3314:
3311:
3308:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3288:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3251:
3250:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3216:
3212:
3210:
3208:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3198:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3149:
3141:
3135:
3130:
3127:
3116:
3113:
3102:
3094:
3088:
3075:
3072:
3069:
3065:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3045:
3044:laser ranging
3041:
3038:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3013:
3012:
3009:
3006:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2982:Space Geodesy
2963:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2950:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2930:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2917:
2912:
2904:
2899:
2889:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2874:
2873:nautical mile
2869:
2866:
2865:approximately
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2843:Geographical
2836:
2826:
2823:
2815:
2812:February 2024
2805:
2801:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2781:This section
2779:
2775:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2755:
2753:
2750:as gauged by
2749:
2748:time dilation
2744:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2650:
2648:
2642:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2600:
2592:
2586:
2582:
2577:
2567:
2564:
2556:
2553:February 2024
2546:
2542:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2522:This section
2520:
2516:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2477:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2433:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2402:
2399:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2387:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2366:
2361:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
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2334:
2329:
2320:
2318:
2314:
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2306:
2301:
2299:
2294:
2287:
2285:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2271:
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2266:
2263:
2261:
2257:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2216:
2206:
2203:
2195:
2192:February 2024
2185:
2181:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2166:
2161:This section
2159:
2155:
2150:
2149:
2145:
2135:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2089:
2085:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2053:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2028:
2025:
2017:
2014:February 2024
2007:
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1983:This section
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1599:
1595:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1561:-axis points
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1527:
1523:
1516:
1512:
1509:archive with
1508:
1503:
1495:
1490:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1473:length-of-day
1470:
1469:sidereal time
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
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1431:
1427:
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1344:
1334:
1331:
1323:
1320:February 2024
1313:
1309:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1289:This section
1287:
1283:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1267:
1257:
1255:
1251:
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1240:
1236:
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1198:
1194:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1170:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1139:topographical
1136:
1129:
1116:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1072:
1069:
1061:
1058:February 2024
1051:
1047:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1032:
1027:This section
1025:
1021:
1016:
1015:
1011:
1007:
997:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
966:
964:
960:
954:
951:
946:
941:
935:
930:
926:
921:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
893:
891:
887:
886:physical dome
883:
878:
876:
866:
865:Ancient Greek
862:
851:
848:
840:
837:February 2024
830:
826:
822:
816:
815:
811:
806:This section
804:
800:
795:
794:
790:
780:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
761:space geodesy
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
736:
732:
731:earth science
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
670:
665:
663:
658:
656:
651:
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635:
632:
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598:
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584:
580:
578:
575:
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568:
565:
564:
560:
558:
555:
554:
550:
548:
545:
544:
540:
538:
535:
534:
530:
528:
525:
524:
520:
518:
515:
514:
510:
508:
505:
504:
500:
498:
495:
494:
486:
485:
478:
475:
473:
467:
465:
459:
457:
451:
449:
445:BeiDou (BDS)
443:
441:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
424:
418:
417:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
379:
375:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
347:
346:circumference
343:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
324:
318:
317:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
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244:
241:
226:
223:
215:
205:
200:
198:
191:
182:
181:
172:
169:
161:
158:February 2024
150:
147:
143:
140:
136:
133:
129:
126:
122:
119: –
118:
114:
113:Find sources:
107:
103:
97:
96:
91:This article
89:
85:
80:
79:
74:
72:
65:
64:
59:
58:
53:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
6663:Astrophysics
6477:Experimental
6389:
6377:
6358:
6258:Applications
6229:Geomagnetism
6167:
6153:Hydrogeology
6086:Paleontology
6081:Stratigraphy
6048:Geochemistry
5910:
5898:
5886:
5874:
5835:Geo-literacy
5792:Institutions
5674:Internet GIS
5634:Quantitative
5547:
5511:Soil science
5475:
5430:Oceanography
5419:Zoogeography
5404:Biogeography
5279:Agricultural
5175:
5163:
5144:
4945:
4901:
4889:
4877:
4855:Soil science
4840:Oceanography
4809:
4711:Solar System
4662:Oceanography
4652:Indian Ocean
4642:Arctic Ocean
4582:Age of Earth
4534:Geomagnetism
4450:
4217:Thermosphere
4207:Stratosphere
4117:
4082:
4069:
4060:
4051:
4042:
4033:
4029:
4014:
4007:
4000:
3993:
3986:
3980:
3972:
3966:
3923:
3919:
3912:
3893:
3883:
3856:
3852:
3842:
3815:
3811:
3801:
3774:
3770:
3760:
3733:
3729:
3719:
3679:
3673:
3660:
3641:
3637:
3627:
3618:
3581:
3577:
3567:
3556:. Retrieved
3554:. 2020-11-26
3551:
3542:
3533:
3527:. Retrieved
3523:
3514:
3503:. Retrieved
3499:
3490:
3479:. Retrieved
3475:
3465:
3448:
3442:
3429:
3402:
3378:. Retrieved
3372:
3363:
3343:Meridian arc
3213:
3206:
3200:Fundamentals
3010:
3003:
2921:
2918:(VLBI) works
2877:
2870:
2864:
2856:
2852:
2842:
2818:
2809:
2794:Please help
2782:
2745:
2735:, interior,
2722:
2716:
2702:
2693:
2670:
2651:
2643:
2628:
2612:spirit level
2605:
2559:
2550:
2535:Please help
2523:
2483:Measurements
2475:
2466:
2460:
2443:
2437:
2425:
2417:
2411:
2403:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2370:
2302:
2298:great circle
2293:trigonometry
2290:
2281:
2273:
2269:
2253:
2245:
2241:
2235:
2198:
2189:
2174:Please help
2162:
2132:
2122:
2107:
2103:corner prism
2092:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2020:
2011:
1996:Please help
1984:
1947:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1897:
1891:
1885:
1878:
1864:
1831:
1829:
1705:
1624:
1620:
1618:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1591:
1578:
1576:
1566:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1519:
1477:polar motion
1466:
1452:
1437:
1419:
1411:
1380:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1326:
1317:
1302:Please help
1290:
1247:
1232:
1220:
1212:
1204:
1196:
1192:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1174:
1166:
1155:air pressure
1132:
1118:Equatorial (
1064:
1055:
1040:Please help
1028:
967:
963:Solar System
955:
944:
928:
922:
899:
879:
874:
858:
843:
834:
819:Please help
807:
776:
772:
753:polar motion
741:Geodynamical
739:
683:
679:
678:
421:Technologies
376: /
293:
288:Fundamentals
270:
258:measurements
236:
218:
209:
202:Please help
194:
164:
155:
145:
138:
131:
124:
112:
100:Please help
95:verification
92:
68:
61:
55:
54:Please help
51:
6780:Measurement
6775:Cartography
6566:Statistical
6482:Theoretical
6459:Engineering
6329:Occupations
6310:Meteoritics
6176:Cartography
6132:Volcanology
6117:Geodynamics
5912:WikiProject
5764:Ethnography
5756:Qualitative
5716:Map algebra
5711:Hydrography
5652:Web mapping
5642:Cartography
5454:Climatology
5444:Meteorology
5299:Development
5127:Mathematics
4991:Web mapping
4981:Cartography
4860:Volcanology
4835:Meteorology
4459:Cartography
4398:Environment
4265:Climatology
4202:Troposphere
3601:10397/75053
3369:"geodetics"
3329: [
3246:Geosciences
3186:Geodynamics
3005:Geodynamics
2943:Postglacial
2935:fault lines
2713:vacuum tube
2699:gravimeters
1960:Positioning
1890:concept to
1880:quasi-geoid
1547:Rectangular
1533:Plano-polar
1511:lithography
1430:fixed stars
1354:, in metres
1217:ellipticity
759:, applying
299:Geodynamics
6785:Navigation
6759:Categories
6683:Geophysics
6673:Biophysics
6517:Analytical
6470:Approaches
6290:Geobiology
6265:Biogeology
6244:Seismology
6221:Geophysics
6148:Glaciology
6053:Mineralogy
5769:Geopoetics
5583:Integrated
5519:Edaphology
5497:Glaciology
5472:Geophysics
5467:Geobiology
5354:Settlement
5344:Population
5314:Historical
5284:Behavioral
5244:Philosophy
5122:Geophysics
5018:Navigation
4965:Geodesists
4825:Glaciology
4820:Geophysics
4564:Tomography
4549:Seismology
4516:Geophysics
4491:Navigation
4383:Time zones
4348:In culture
4293:Antarctica
4280:Continents
4212:Mesosphere
4184:Atmosphere
3999:W. Kaula,
3558:2022-01-28
3529:2024-06-08
3505:2024-06-08
3481:2024-06-09
3380:2024-06-08
3355:References
3091:See also:
3066:Satellite
3062:gravimetry
2896:See also:
2658:geocentric
2635:tachymeter
2631:theodolite
2501:Gravimetry
2451:precessing
2227:Navigation
2110:static GPS
1964:See also:
1434:gyroscopes
1391:geocentric
1376:geocentric
1250:tide gauge
1169:undulation
1122:), polar (
940:Erdmessung
896:Definition
721:, such as
262:satellites
128:newspapers
57:improve it
6633:Molecular
6534:Acoustics
6527:Continuum
6522:Celestial
6512:Newtonian
6499:Classical
6442:Divisions
6336:Geologist
6191:Geomatics
6058:Petrology
5962:Overviews
5823:Education
5741:Surveying
5563:Geomatics
5543:Geodesign
5535:Technical
5506:Limnology
5502:Hydrology
5381:Strategic
5364:Transport
5339:Political
5329:Marketing
5289:Cognitive
5220:Geography
5112:Astronomy
5076:Geodynamo
5049:phenomena
5047:Physical
5008:Geomatics
4974:Subfields
4830:Hydrology
4481:Geomatics
4426:Ecosystem
4411:Biosphere
4373:Etymology
4353:Earth Day
4303:Australia
4222:Exosphere
3948:127408940
3777:(3): 74.
3610:0956-540X
3524:Study.com
3496:"Geodesy"
3348:Surveying
3068:altimetry
2962:petroleum
2857:direction
2849:longitude
2783:does not
2709:free fall
2616:sea level
2524:does not
2505:Levelling
2497:Surveying
2427:Elevation
2381:Plumbline
2373:astronomy
2333:Obliquity
2163:does not
2095:traverses
1985:does not
1775:
1762:α
1687:α
1684:
1661:α
1658:
1522:surveying
1457:Greenwich
1395:plumbline
1360:cartesian
1291:does not
1104:Ellipsoid
1029:does not
982:volcanism
918:surveying
914:geomatics
875:geodaisia
870:γεωδαισία
861:antiquity
808:does not
773:geodesist
684:geodetics
378:Longitude
304:Geomatics
212:June 2024
117:"Geodesy"
63:talk page
5876:Category
5515:Pedology
5396:Physical
5359:Regional
5349:Religion
5334:Military
5324:Language
5319:Internet
5304:Economic
5294:Cultural
5263:Branches
5234:Glossary
5165:Category
4953:Overview
4879:Category
4729:Category
3983:, Part 2
3969:, Part 1
3818:(1): 1.
3736:(1): 3.
3708:Archived
3704:56017067
3408:Elsevier
3098:See also
2845:latitude
2733:rotation
2468:Meridian
2455:nutating
2386:vertical
2345:ecliptic
2313:geodesic
2311:for the
2305:geodesic
2284:geodesic
2268:Second (
2260:distance
2229:device,
2112:, using
2099:polygons
2059:General
1935:choosing
1565:and the
1461:meridian
1426:inertial
1211:, where
1167:geoidal
1151:currents
1143:seawater
970:rotation
912:, while
747:motion,
692:geometry
557:ISO 6709
455:(Europe)
453:Galileo
439:(Russia)
437:GLONASS
374:Latitude
363:Geodesic
321:Concepts
32:Geodesic
6765:Geodesy
6717:Related
6601:General
6596:Special
6454:Applied
6391:Geology
6379:Geology
6168:Geodesy
5955:Geology
5900:Commons
5679:Web GIS
5548:Geodesy
5492:Geology
5476:Geodesy
5409:Ecology
5386:Tourism
5254:Outline
5239:History
5177:Commons
5132:Physics
5117:Geology
4960:History
4946:Geodesy
4903:Commons
4815:Geology
4810:Geodesy
4782:Outline
4574:Geology
4486:Gravity
4451:Geodesy
4421:Ecology
4237:Climate
4227:Weather
4174:History
4169:Outline
4099:Geodesy
4089:Geodesy
4015:Geodesy
3928:Bibcode
3861:Bibcode
3820:Bibcode
3779:Bibcode
3738:Bibcode
3684:Bibcode
3241:Physics
3207:Geodesy
3154:Geodesy
3025:Galileo
3021:GLONASS
2804:removed
2789:sources
2737:oceanic
2695:Gravity
2677:quasars
2583:, from
2545:removed
2530:sources
2419:Azimuth
2363:Global
2274:reverse
2270:inverse
2256:azimuth
2246:forward
2240:First (
2184:removed
2169:sources
2006:removed
1991:sources
1833:heights
1808:Heights
1526:mapping
1515:Bavaria
1436:. The
1312:removed
1297:sources
1209:
1189:
1163:surface
1050:removed
1035:sources
988:), and
961:in our
906:science
902:English
890:Polaris
829:removed
814:sources
783:History
745:crustal
723:planets
702:of the
696:gravity
688:science
686:is the
680:Geodesy
617:Geo URI
587:NAVD 88
497:NGVD 29
471:(Japan)
463:(India)
447:(China)
309:History
294:Geodesy
271:Geodesy
142:scholar
6628:Atomic
6583:Modern
6433:Major
5888:Portal
5376:Social
5309:Health
5223:topics
4891:Portal
4629:Oceans
4597:Future
4441:Nature
4363:Symbol
4308:Europe
4288:Africa
4030:height
4021:
3946:
3702:
3608:
3432:
3422:
3315:(IGSO)
3297:(IUGG)
3209:(book)
3036:(VLBI)
3029:BeiDou
3027:, and
2996:, and
2853:angles
2839:plane.
2503:, and
2444:North
2393:Zenith
2258:) and
2242:direct
2128:survey
1931:datums
1867:metres
1772:arctan
1569:-axis
1507:Munich
1463:plane.
1407:geoids
1403:NAD 27
1370:, and
1235:GRS 80
1145:, the
965:also.
925:German
765:datums
751:, and
698:, and
607:GCJ-02
597:ETRS89
577:WGS 84
567:NAD 83
547:GRS 80
507:OSGB36
461:NAVIC
342:radius
260:using
144:
137:
130:
123:
115:
6141:Water
5369:Urban
5271:Human
5249:Index
4787:Index
4406:Biome
4388:World
4158:Earth
4070:SaLIS
4061:SaLIS
4052:SaLIS
4043:SaLIS
3944:S2CID
3711:(PDF)
3700:S2CID
3670:(PDF)
3453:(PDF)
3333:]
3320:Other
3309:(IFS)
3303:(IAG)
3050:DORIS
3046:(LLR)
2998:DORIS
2880:metre
2729:tides
2662:WGS84
2624:GRS80
2620:geoid
2470:plane
2405:Nadir
2349:Earth
2337:orbit
2045:Earth
1873:, an
1871:geoid
1836:are "
1610:local
1563:North
1399:ED 50
1387:datum
1352:NAD83
1348:NAD27
1135:geoid
1108:Earth
1089:Earth
1085:Geoid
1006:Geoid
867:word
749:tides
704:Earth
537:SAD69
517:SK-42
332:Geoid
149:JSTOR
135:books
6554:Wave
6449:Pure
5096:Tide
4678:Moon
4358:Flag
4298:Asia
4019:ISBN
3606:ISSN
3420:ISBN
2986:VLBI
2914:How
2847:and
2787:any
2785:cite
2666:IERS
2629:The
2585:NASA
2581:Moon
2528:any
2526:cite
2453:and
2343:and
2167:any
2165:cite
2118:IERS
2081:GNSS
1989:any
1987:cite
1816:and
1623:and
1600:and
1571:East
1553:and
1524:and
1449:ECEF
1424:The
1350:and
1295:any
1293:cite
1239:IUGG
1153:and
1133:The
1033:any
1031:cite
1008:and
882:flat
812:any
810:cite
775:and
767:and
527:ED50
344:and
121:news
6549:Ray
4036:.)
3936:doi
3898:doi
3869:doi
3828:doi
3787:doi
3746:doi
3692:doi
3646:doi
3642:209
3596:hdl
3586:doi
3582:210
3430:...
3412:doi
3017:GPS
2994:SLR
2990:LLR
2885:ppm
2798:by
2654:GPS
2539:by
2384:or
2353:Sun
2272:or
2244:or
2178:by
2086:or
2071:or
2041:GPS
2000:by
1950:ISO
1939:one
1681:sin
1655:cos
1606:map
1414:GPS
1306:by
1044:by
937:or
923:In
900:In
873:or
823:by
725:or
706:in
682:or
104:by
6761::
5504:/
5490:/
5474:/
5460:/
5456:/
5442:/
5428:/
4116:.
3942:.
3934:.
3924:93
3922:.
3896:.
3892:.
3867:.
3857:93
3855:.
3851:.
3826:.
3816:25
3814:.
3810:.
3785:.
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