174:
of the same decision problem should not give rise to different decisions, due to the extensionality principle. If judgments are made on the basis of irrelevant information as described, that is called an extensionality violation. Addressing extensionality violations entails cultivating awareness of how different descriptions of a problem may inadvertently influence decisions, and as a result developing strategies to mitigate such deviations. In doing so, decision-makers can aim to uphold the extensionality principle as a guide in navigating the complexity of choice, focusing on decisions that are more in tune to the inherent properties of the problem rather than its descriptions.
183:
can influence how older individuals perceive and in turn respond to information, potentially leading to less optimal choices that can have lasting consequences. In healthcare, for instance, where decisions profoundly affect well-being, the framing effect can sway older individuals towards or away from certain treatment options based on the way in which the medical information is presented. Likewise, in financial decision-making, the framing of retirement planning or investment risks may have significant impacts on the choices individuals make, potentially impacting their financial security and state in the later stages of their lives.
258:
agree to a treatment when it is positively described than they are to agree to the same treatment when it is described neutrally or negatively. Additionally, framing often leads to inconsistency in choice: a change in description qualities after an initial choice is made can cause older adults to revoke their initial decision in favor of an alternative option. Older adults also remember positively framed statements more accurately than negatively framed statements. This has been demonstrated by evaluating older adults' recall of statements in pamphlets about health care issues.
200:
toward risky choices is that they lack real-world experience with negative consequences, and thus over-rely on conscious evaluation of risks and benefits, focusing on specific information and details or quantitative analysis. This reduces influence of framing effects and leads to greater consistency across frames of a given scenario. Children between the ages of 10 and 12 are more likely to take risks and show framing effects, while younger children only considered the quantitative differences between the two options presented.
31:. Individuals have a tendency to make risk-avoidant choices when options are positively framed, while selecting more loss-avoidant options when presented with a negative frame. In studies of the bias, options are presented in terms of the probability of either losses or gains. While differently expressed, the options described are in effect identical. Gain and loss are defined in the scenario as descriptions of outcomes, for example, lives lost or saved, patients treated or not treated, monetary gains or losses.
217:
as a movie ticket after losing an amount equivalent to the item's cost than after losing the item itself.This susceptibility underscores the importance of considering psychological factors in the context of decision-making. Recognizing this vulnerability emphasizes the need for decision-makers to be aware of cognitive biases when navigating decision-making in which there isn't a clear answer so that they can take a more informed approach.
246:
relevant to making the decision in question. Several studies have shown that younger adults will make less biased decisions than older adults because they base their choices on interpretations of patterns of events and can better employ decision making strategies that require cognitive resources like working-memory skills. Older adults, on the other hand, make choices based on immediate reactions to gains and losses.
195:
Framing effects in decision-making become stronger as children age. This is partially because qualitative reasoning increases with age. While preschoolers are more likely to make decisions based on quantitative properties, such as probability of an outcome, elementary schoolers and adolescents become
253:
The increase in framing effects among older adults has important implications, especially in medical contexts. Older adults are influenced heavily by the inclusion or exclusion of extraneous details, meaning they are likely to make serious medical decisions based on how doctors frame the two options
132:
A recent study was done on the framing effect in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Researchers found that the framing effect was larger in this context than under normal circumstances, indicating that individuals were more influenced by how options were presented during the pandemic. There was a
87:
Participants were asked to choose between two treatments for 600 people affected by a deadly disease. Treatment A was predicted to result in 400 deaths, whereas treatment B had a 33% chance that no one would die but a 66% chance that everyone would die. This choice was then presented to participants
249:
Older adults' lack of cognitive resources, such as flexibility in decision making strategies, may cause older adults to be influenced by emotional frames more so than younger adults or adolescents. In addition, as individuals age, they make decisions more quickly than their younger counterparts. It
216:
Young adults are especially susceptible to framing effects when presented with an ill-defined problem in which there is no correct answer and individuals must arbitrarily determine what information they consider relevant. For example, undergraduate students are more willing to purchase an item such
173:
in a sentence that contains one of these formulas." Put simply, objects that have the same external properties are equal. This principle, applied to decision making, suggests that making a decision in a problem should not be affected by how the problem is described. For example, varied descriptions
257:
When considering cancer treatments, framing can shift older adults' focus from short- to long-term survival under a negative and positive frame, respectively. When presented with treatment descriptions described in positive, negative, or neutral terms, older adults are significantly more likely to
212:
In multiple studies of undergraduate students, researchers have found that students are more likely to prefer options framed positively. This could be attributed to a variety of factors such as an inclination for novelty-seeking, a more optimistic outlook on outcomes, or even a reduced aversion to
182:
The framing effect has consistently been shown to be one of the largest biases in decision making. In general, susceptibility to framing effects increases with age. Age difference factors are particularly important when considering health care and financial decisions. The susceptibility to framing
245:
Another possible cause is that older adults have fewer cognitive resources available to them and are more likely to default to less cognitively demanding strategies when faced with a decision. They tend to rely on easily accessible information, or frames, regardless of whether that information is
199:
However, qualitative reasoning, and thus susceptibility to framing effects, is still not as strong in adolescents as in adults, and adolescents are more likely than adults to choose the risky option under both the gain and loss frames of a given scenario. One explanation for adolescent tendencies
68:
that are framed to encourage a response beneficial to the organization that has commissioned the poll. It has been suggested that the use of the technique is discrediting political polls themselves. The effect is reduced, or even eliminated, if ample credible information is provided to people.
186:
However, the framing effect seems to disappear when encountering it in a foreign (non-native) language. One explanation of this disappearance is that a non-native language provides greater cognitive and emotional distance than one's native tongue. A foreign language is also processed less
196:
progressively more likely to reason qualitatively, opting for a sure option in a gain frame and a risky option in a loss frame regardless of probabilities. The increase in qualitative thinking is related to an increase in "gist based" thinking that occurs over a lifetime.
241:
may also play a role as negative framings evoke less heightened responses, leading to the deployment of the implicit processes. The implicit process is found to be frame-sensitive, and thus may be the reason why framing is pronounced in negative frames for older adults.
153:
may increase a defendant's willingness to accept a plea bargain, since imprisonment, rather than freedom, will be their baseline, and pleading guilty will be viewed as an event that will cause their earlier release rather than as an event that will put them in
232:
In particular, this increased susceptibility to the framing effect manifested itself mainly in response to negative frames. Positive framings were not found to have a significant effect on the framing effect in older adults. This may be due in part to
45:) is favored over a probabilistic gain, and that a probabilistic loss is preferred to a definite loss. One of the dangers of framing effects is that people are often provided with options within the context of only one of the two frames.
133:
positive association between the framing effect and perceived stress and concerns related to coronavirus, indicating that these factors are influential when it comes to decision-making. However, they were not related to risk aversion.
208:
Younger adults are more likely than older adults to be enticed by risk-taking when presented with loss frame trials. This is a noteworthy phenomenon that underscores the complex interplay between age and decision-making tendencies.
877:
213:
risk which is inherent in youth. For example, they are more likely to enjoy meat labeled 75% lean meat as opposed to 25% fat, or use condoms advertised as being 95% effective as opposed to having a 5% risk of failure.
128:
Treatment A was chosen by 72% of participants when it was presented with positive framing ("saves 200 lives") dropping to 22% when the same choice was presented with negative framing ("400 people will die").
237:, where the increased age shifts the focus of adults from risk taking to maximizing their emotional experiences in the present, hence the increased framing in the negative frame. The
140:
93% of PhD students registered early when a penalty fee for late registration was emphasized, but only 67% did so when this was presented as a discount for earlier registration.
1487:
Watanabe, S.; Shibutani, H. (2010). "Aging and decision making: Differences in susceptibility to the risky-choice framing effect between older and younger adults in Japan".
143:
62% of people disagreed with allowing "public condemnation of democracy", but only 46% of people agreed that it was right to "forbid public condemnation of democracy".
187:
automatically than a native tongue. This leads to more deliberation, which can affect decision making, resulting in decisions that are more systematic.
1026:
961:
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672:
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is significant that, when prompted to do so, older adults will often make a less biased decision with reevaluation of their original choice.
146:
More people will support an economic policy if the employment rate is emphasised than when the associated unemployment rates is highlighted.
2378:
1751:
KĂĽhberger, Anton; Tanner, Carmen (2010). "Risky choice framing: Task versions and a comparison of prospect theory and fuzzy-trace theory".
1644:
Gächter, S.; Orzen, H.; Renner, E.; Stamer, C. (2009). "Are experimental economists prone to framing effects? A natural field experiment".
225:
The framing effect is claimed to be greater in older adults than in younger adults or adolescents. This claim may be a result of enhanced
497:
909:
Keysar, B.; Hayakawa, S. L.; An, S. G. (2012). "The
Foreign-Language Effect: Thinking in a Foreign Tongue Reduces Decision Biases".
613:
Thomas, A. K.; Millar, P. R. (2011). "Reducing the
Framing Effect in Older and Younger Adults by Encouraging Analytic Processing".
408:"Replicating the Disease framing problem during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic: A study of stress, worry, trust, and choice under risk"
2408:
84:
explored how different phrasing affected participants' responses to a choice in a hypothetical life and death situation in 1981.
278:
1688:
736:
682:
1294:
Schlottmann, A.; Tring, J. (2005). "How
Children Reason about Gains and Losses: Framing Effects in Judgement and Choice".
1152:
254:
rather than the qualitative differences between the options, causing older adults to inappropriately form their choices.
88:
either with positive framing, i.e. how many people would live, or with negative framing, i.e. how many people would die.
1391:"Advanced age predicts increased susceptibility to attribute, goal, and risky-choice framing in negative frame valences"
1364:
897:
886:
234:
1805:
549:
2480:
2398:
2208:
167:
requires "two formulas which have the same truth-value under any truth-assignments to be mutually substitutable
2327:
406:
Rachev, Nikolay R.; Han, Hyemin; Lacko, David; GelpĂ, Rebekah; Yamada, Yuki; Lieberoth, Andreas (2021-09-10).
2213:
1867:
27:
in which people decide between options based on whether the options are presented with positive or negative
1862:
1099:"Risk and Rationality in Adolescent Decision Making: Implications for Theory, Practice, and Public Policy"
1065:
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1975:
1953:
49:
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2035:
2015:
1911:
283:
1432:"Time to Pay Attention? Information Search Explains Amplified Framing Effects Under Time Pressure"
1698:
Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel (1981). "The
Framing of decisions and the psychology of choice".
688:
318:
61:
28:
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42:
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293:
878:
Revivalistics: From the
Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond
721:
8:
2348:
2265:
2165:
2100:
2040:
2030:
2025:
1889:
1027:"The Foreign-Language Effect : Thinking in a Foreign Tongue Reduces Decision Biases"
962:"The Foreign-Language Effect : Thinking in a Foreign Tongue Reduces Decision Biases"
298:
268:
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38:
37:
posits that a loss is more significant than the equivalent gain, that a sure gain (
1778:
722:"The Bearable Lightness of Aging: Judgment and Decision Processes in Older Adults"
229:, though some sources claim that the negativity bias actually decreases with age.
2393:
2383:
2160:
2140:
2055:
1958:
1933:
1928:
1901:
1879:
1791:
432:
313:
308:
226:
81:
53:
34:
1321:
Boyer, T. (2006). "The development of risk-taking: A multi-perspective review".
615:
The
Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences
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2430:
2420:
2343:
2260:
2220:
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2115:
2105:
2090:
2085:
2050:
2005:
1970:
1874:
1823:
1667:
1522:"Age, time, and decision making: From processing speed to global time horizons"
1407:
1307:
757:"Can Limiting Choice Increase Social Welfare? The Elderly and Health Insurance"
303:
169:
164:
122:"A 33% chance that no people will die, 66% probability that all 600 will die."
24:
1615:
Druckman, J. N. (2001b). "Using credible advice to overcome framing effects".
1447:
568:
2495:
2373:
2353:
2316:
2290:
2275:
2255:
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2198:
2110:
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1938:
1842:
1455:
1416:
1334:
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922:
576:
441:
1719:
626:
2333:
2095:
2080:
1628:
1563:
1473:
1277:
1228:
1124:
1053:
988:
938:
858:
798:
644:
459:
111:"A 33% chance of saving all 600 people, 66% possibility of saving no one."
77:
65:
1727:
720:
Peters, Ellen; Finucane, Melissa; MacGregor, Donald; Slovic, Paul (2000).
2250:
2020:
2010:
2000:
1896:
1680:
780:
2368:
2363:
2338:
523:
1430:
Roberts, Ian D.; Teoh, Yi Yang; Hutcherson, Cendri A. (January 2022).
2456:
1943:
1764:
1244:"A Theory of Medical Decision Making and Health: Fuzzy Trace Theory"
515:
2415:
2300:
16:
Bias in which choices are influenced by the options' connotations
1779:
The
Framing Effect - It's not what you say but how you say it
719:
1187:"Decision-making heuristics and biases across the life span"
1814:
1783:
1643:
1355:
Revlin, Russell (2012). "Chapter 11: Solving
Problems".
472:
1750:
1184:
871:
547:
1429:
1025:
Keysar, Boaz; Hayakawa, Sayuri; An, Sun Gyu (2012).
960:
Keysar, Boaz; Hayakawa, Sayuri; An, Sun Gyu (2012).
1185:Strough, J.; Karns, T. E.; Schlosnagle, L. (2011).
729:
The aging mind: opportunities in cognitive research
405:
677:(3 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 218.
548:Bourgeois-Gironde, Sacha; Giraud, Raphaël (2009).
1486:
754:
550:"Framing effects as violations of extensionality"
48:The concept helps to develop an understanding of
2493:
1293:
1024:
959:
908:
727:. In Paul C. Stern; Laura L. Carstensen (eds.).
1697:
1646:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
1150:
390:
388:
386:
356:
1677:The psychology of judgment and decision making
136:This effect has been shown in other contexts:
1799:
1395:Humanities and Social Sciences Communications
1153:"Judgment and Decision Making in Adolescence"
814:
498:"Plea Bargaining outside the Shadow of Trial"
1103:Psychological Science in the Public Interest
810:
808:
731:. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
612:
383:
190:
1617:Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization
1096:
158:
2462:Heuristics in judgment and decision-making
1806:
1792:
1526:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1516:
1191:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1180:
1178:
821:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1657:
1614:
1590:
1553:
1463:
1406:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1267:
1218:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1114:
848:
805:
788:
715:
713:
711:
709:
707:
705:
634:
608:
606:
604:
602:
600:
598:
596:
594:
449:
431:
394:
378:
1359:. New York, New York: Worth Publishers.
1289:
1287:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1086:
666:
664:
662:
660:
658:
656:
654:
177:
1594:(2001a). "Evaluating framing effects".
1175:
750:
748:
543:
541:
352:
350:
348:
346:
2494:
1354:
1341:
1139:
702:
591:
1787:
1753:Journal of Behavioral Decision Making
1674:
1581:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1320:
1314:
1284:
1241:
1083:
881:. New York: Oxford University Press.
670:
651:
495:
484:
367:
338:
279:Is the glass half empty or half full?
1512:
1510:
817:"Aging and consumer decision making"
745:
538:
343:
815:Carpenter, S. M.; Yoon, C. (2011).
755:Hanoch, Yaniv; Thomas Rice (2006).
13:
1744:
1388:
1373:
1157:Journal of Research on Adolescence
1151:Albert, D.; Steinberg, L. (2011).
220:
203:
14:
2518:
1772:
1507:
1097:Reyna, V. F.; Farley, F. (2006).
235:socioemotional selectivity theory
1546:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06209.x
1501:10.1111/j.1468-5884.2010.00432.x
1211:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06208.x
1169:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00724.x
1116:10.1111/j.1529-1006.2006.00026.x
841:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06390.x
773:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2006.00438.x
1489:Japanese Psychological Research
1480:
1423:
1235:
1018:
953:
902:
865:
56:, and also in the formation of
1596:Journal of Economic Psychology
1357:Cognition: Theory and Practice
489:
477:
466:
399:
372:
361:
332:
1:
1608:10.1016/S0167-4870(00)00032-5
325:
433:10.1371/journal.pone.0257151
7:
2328:DĂ©formation professionnelle
1296:Swiss Journal of Psychology
357:Tversky & Kahneman 1981
261:
72:
10:
2523:
2322:Basking in reflected glory
1813:
1668:10.1016/j.jebo.2007.11.003
1574:
1408:10.1057/s41599-024-02658-6
1308:10.1024/1421-0185.64.3.153
2470:
2452:Cognitive bias mitigation
2444:
2309:
2184:
1821:
1448:10.1177/09567976211026983
674:Aging and Older Adulthood
569:10.1007/s11238-009-9133-7
496:Bibas, Stephanos (2004).
191:Childhood and adolescence
2036:Illusion of transparency
1389:Xu, Lance (2024-02-06).
1335:10.1016/j.dr.2006.05.002
1260:10.1177/0272989X08327066
1046:10.1177/0956797611432178
981:10.1177/0956797611432178
923:10.1177/0956797611432178
284:List of cognitive biases
159:Extensionality violation
149:It has been argued that
1720:10.1126/science.7455683
1584:Framing effects exposed
1248:Medical Decision Making
319:Thinking, Fast and Slow
66:political opinion polls
119:"400 people will die"
64:plays a large role in
43:pseudocertainty effect
2404:Arab–Israeli conflict
2131:Social influence bias
2076:Out-group homogeneity
1675:Plous, Scott (1993).
1436:Psychological Science
1242:Reyna, V. F. (2008).
1034:Psychological Science
969:Psychological Science
911:Psychological Science
761:The Milbank Quarterly
636:10.1093/geronb/gbr076
627:10.1093/geronb/gbr076
178:Developmental factors
2046:Mere-exposure effect
1976:Extrinsic incentives
1922:Selective perception
1629:10.1093/jleo/17.1.62
1586:. Pearson Education.
1323:Developmental Review
671:Erber, Joan (2013).
294:Metaphorical framing
2271:Social desirability
2166:von Restorff effect
2041:Mean world syndrome
2016:Hostile attribution
1712:1981Sci...211..453T
1538:2011NYASA1235...44L
1203:2011NYASA1235...57S
1071:on 23 November 2015
1006:on 23 November 2015
873:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
833:2011NYASA1235E...1C
557:Theory and Decision
473:Gächter et al. 2009
424:2021PLoSO..1657151R
299:Motivated reasoning
269:Choice architecture
239:dual process theory
2186:Statistical biases
1964:Curse of knowledge
503:Harvard Law Review
483:Rugg, as cited in
274:Fuzzy-trace theory
151:pretrial detention
108:"Saves 200 lives"
2489:
2488:
2126:Social comparison
1907:Choice-supportive
1690:978-0-07-050477-6
1582:Clark, D (2009).
1518:Löckenhoff, C. E.
738:978-0-309-06940-3
684:978-0-470-67341-6
289:Mental accounting
126:
125:
58:political opinion
2514:
2502:Cognitive biases
2286:Systematic error
2241:Omitted-variable
2156:Trait ascription
1996:Frog pond effect
1824:Cognitive biases
1808:
1801:
1794:
1785:
1784:
1768:
1739:
1706:(4481): 453–58.
1694:
1671:
1661:
1640:
1611:
1587:
1568:
1567:
1557:
1514:
1505:
1504:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1467:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1410:
1386:
1371:
1370:
1352:
1339:
1338:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1291:
1282:
1281:
1271:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1222:
1182:
1173:
1172:
1148:
1137:
1136:
1118:
1094:
1081:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1070:
1064:. Archived from
1031:
1022:
1016:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1005:
999:. Archived from
966:
957:
951:
950:
906:
900:
892:
869:
863:
862:
852:
812:
803:
802:
792:
752:
743:
742:
726:
717:
700:
699:
697:
696:
687:. Archived from
668:
649:
648:
638:
610:
589:
588:
554:
545:
536:
535:
493:
487:
481:
475:
470:
464:
463:
453:
435:
403:
397:
392:
381:
376:
370:
365:
359:
354:
341:
336:
91:
90:
54:social movements
39:certainty effect
2522:
2521:
2517:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2507:Prospect theory
2492:
2491:
2490:
2485:
2466:
2440:
2305:
2180:
2161:Turkey illusion
1929:Compassion fade
1826:
1817:
1812:
1775:
1765:10.1002/bdm.656
1747:
1745:Further reading
1742:
1691:
1659:10.1.1.180.1674
1592:Druckman, J. N.
1577:
1572:
1571:
1515:
1508:
1485:
1481:
1428:
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1183:
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964:
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314:Status quo bias
309:Prospect theory
264:
227:negativity bias
223:
221:Older adulthood
206:
204:Young adulthood
193:
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82:Daniel Kahneman
75:
35:Prospect theory
17:
12:
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2445:Bias reduction
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2421:Political bias
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2101:Pro-innovation
2098:
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2086:Overton window
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1899:
1894:
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1868:Correspondence
1865:
1863:Actor–observer
1855:
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1829:
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50:frame analysis
25:cognitive bias
21:framing effect
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1981:Fading affect
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1442:(1): 90–104.
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917:(6): 661–68.
916:
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898:9780199812776
895:
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888:9780199812790
884:
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691:on 2017-08-10
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621:(2): 139–49.
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44:
40:
36:
32:
30:
26:
22:
2359:In education
2326:
2310:Other biases
2296:Verification
2281:Survivorship
2231:Non-response
2204:Healthy user
2146:Substitution
2121:Self-serving
1985:
1917:Confirmation
1885:Availability
1833:Acquiescence
1756:
1752:
1703:
1699:
1676:
1649:
1645:
1620:
1616:
1599:
1595:
1583:
1532:(1): 44–56.
1529:
1525:
1492:
1488:
1482:
1439:
1435:
1425:
1398:
1394:
1356:
1326:
1322:
1316:
1299:
1295:
1251:
1247:
1237:
1197:(1): 57–74.
1194:
1190:
1160:
1156:
1106:
1102:
1073:. Retrieved
1066:the original
1040:(6): 661–8.
1037:
1033:
1020:
1008:. Retrieved
1001:the original
975:(6): 661–8.
972:
968:
955:
914:
910:
904:
876:
867:
827:(1): E1–12.
824:
820:
767:(1): 37–73.
764:
760:
728:
693:. Retrieved
689:the original
673:
618:
614:
560:
556:
507:
501:
491:
479:
468:
415:
411:
401:
374:
363:
334:
256:
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244:
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224:
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207:
198:
194:
185:
181:
168:
162:
135:
131:
127:
100:Treatment B
97:Treatment A
86:
78:Amos Tversky
76:
47:
33:
29:connotations
20:
18:
2426:Publication
2379:Vietnam War
2226:Length time
2209:Information
2151:Time-saving
2011:Horn effect
2001:Halo effect
1949:Distinction
1858:Attribution
1853:Attentional
1681:McGraw-Hill
1401:(1): 1–10.
1109:(1): 1–44.
2496:Categories
2389:South Asia
2364:Liking gap
2176:In animals
2141:Status quo
2056:Negativity
1959:Egocentric
1934:Congruence
1912:Commitment
1902:Blind spot
1890:Mean world
1880:Automation
1602:: 96–101.
1495:(3): 163.
1302:(3): 153.
1075:3 December
1010:3 December
695:2014-11-03
485:Plous 1993
368:Clark 2009
339:Plous 1993
326:References
163:In logic,
2457:Debiasing
2436:White hat
2431:Reporting
2344:Inductive
2261:Selection
2221:Lead time
2194:Estimator
2171:Zero-risk
2136:Spotlight
2116:Restraint
2106:Proximity
2091:Precision
2051:Narrative
2006:Hindsight
1991:Frequency
1971:Emotional
1944:Declinism
1875:Authority
1848:Anchoring
1838:Ambiguity
1654:CiteSeerX
1623:: 62–82.
1456:0956-7976
1417:2662-9992
931:0956-7976
577:0040-5833
442:1932-6203
116:Negative
105:Positive
2354:Inherent
2317:Academic
2291:Systemic
2276:Spectrum
2256:Sampling
2236:Observer
2199:Forecast
2111:Response
2071:Optimism
2066:Omission
2061:Normalcy
2031:In-group
2026:Implicit
1939:Cultural
1843:Affinity
1564:22023567
1520:(2011).
1474:34860637
1278:19015287
1229:22023568
1133:16591695
1125:26158695
1054:22517192
989:22517192
939:22517192
875:(2020).
859:22360794
799:16529568
781:25098107
645:21964668
585:17963795
460:34506543
412:PLOS ONE
262:See also
94:Framing
73:Research
2476:General
2474:Lists:
2409:Ukraine
2334:Funding
2096:Present
2081:Outcome
1986:Framing
1736:5643902
1728:7455683
1708:Bibcode
1700:Science
1637:1640037
1575:Sources
1555:3757097
1534:Bibcode
1465:8985223
1269:2617718
1220:3755606
1199:Bibcode
1163:: 211.
1062:1397617
997:1397617
947:1397617
850:3799963
829:Bibcode
790:2690155
524:4093404
451:8432807
420:Bibcode
154:prison.
52:within
2481:Memory
2394:Sweden
2384:Norway
2251:Recall
2021:Impact
1897:Belief
1815:Biases
1734:
1726:
1687:
1656:
1635:
1562:
1552:
1472:
1462:
1454:
1415:
1363:
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1123:
1060:
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987:
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779:
735:
681:
643:
583:
575:
532:464880
530:
522:
458:
448:
440:
60:where
2369:Media
2339:FUTON
1732:S2CID
1633:S2CID
1129:S2CID
1069:(PDF)
1058:S2CID
1030:(PDF)
1004:(PDF)
993:S2CID
965:(PDF)
943:S2CID
777:JSTOR
725:(PDF)
581:S2CID
553:(PDF)
520:JSTOR
23:is a
1724:PMID
1685:ISBN
1560:PMID
1530:1235
1470:PMID
1452:ISSN
1413:ISSN
1361:ISBN
1274:PMID
1225:PMID
1195:1235
1121:PMID
1077:2014
1050:PMID
1012:2014
985:PMID
935:PMID
927:ISSN
894:ISBN
883:ISBN
855:PMID
825:1235
795:PMID
733:ISBN
679:ISBN
641:PMID
573:ISSN
528:SSRN
456:PMID
438:ISSN
80:and
62:spin
41:and
19:The
2416:Net
2301:Wet
1761:doi
1716:doi
1704:211
1664:doi
1625:doi
1604:doi
1550:PMC
1542:doi
1497:doi
1460:PMC
1444:doi
1403:doi
1331:doi
1304:doi
1264:PMC
1256:doi
1215:PMC
1207:doi
1165:doi
1111:doi
1042:doi
977:doi
919:doi
845:PMC
837:doi
785:PMC
769:doi
631:hdl
623:doi
619:67B
565:doi
512:doi
508:117
446:PMC
428:doi
2498::
1757:23
1755:.
1730:.
1722:.
1714:.
1702:.
1683:.
1679:.
1662:.
1650:70
1648:.
1631:.
1621:17
1619:.
1600:22
1598:.
1558:.
1548:.
1540:.
1528:.
1524:.
1509:^
1493:52
1491:.
1468:.
1458:.
1450:.
1440:33
1438:.
1434:.
1411:.
1399:11
1397:.
1393:.
1375:^
1343:^
1327:26
1325:.
1300:64
1298:.
1286:^
1272:.
1262:.
1252:28
1250:.
1246:.
1223:.
1213:.
1205:.
1193:.
1189:.
1177:^
1161:21
1159:.
1155:.
1141:^
1127:.
1119:.
1105:.
1101:.
1085:^
1056:.
1048:.
1038:23
1036:.
1032:.
991:.
983:.
973:23
971:.
967:.
941:.
933:.
925:.
915:23
913:.
853:.
843:.
835:.
823:.
819:.
807:^
793:.
783:.
775:.
765:84
763:.
759:.
747:^
704:^
653:^
639:.
629:.
617:.
593:^
579:.
571:.
561:67
559:.
555:.
540:^
526:.
518:.
506:.
500:.
454:.
444:.
436:.
426:.
416:16
414:.
410:.
385:^
345:^
1807:e
1800:t
1793:v
1767:.
1763::
1738:.
1718::
1710::
1693:.
1670:.
1666::
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