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affected Native children but also Native adults who would be identified as prisoners of war or broadly termed as vagrants by the courts. It included a shift to supervisory powers from township justice of the peace to higher levels of government and law, such as county and district court judges. Section 3's revelation mandated that employers offer forms of training to Native supervisees as apprentices in various forms of trade and employment. It granted employers authority to train Native
American minors beyond the age cap. It was followed by an implementation that if individuals were indentured servants before reaching fourteen, their term of service would automatically be extended till the ages of twenty-five for males and twenty-one for females. Native indentured servants between the ages of fourteen to twenty would be extended even to further to the ages of twenty-five and thirty. Adults entering indentured servitude, or an apprenticeship would face a fixed term of ten years. Employers would retain control over all earnings of those under their control, also not being obligated to give compensation after the completion of the services conducted by Native Americans.
367:"Any person could go before a Justice of Peace to obtain Indian children for indenture. The Justice determined whether or not compulsory means were used to obtain the child. If the Justice was satisfied that no coercion occurred, the person obtains a certificate that authorized him to have the care, custody, control and earnings of an Indian until their age of majority (for males, eighteen years, for females, fifteen years)." In actual practice this section lead to a trade system of kidnapped Indian children, either stolen from their parents or taken from the results of militia attacks during the 1850s and 1860s. Frontier whites often eagerly paid $ 50–$ 100 for Indian children to apprentice and so groups of kidnappers would often raid isolated Indian villages, snatching up children in the chaos of battle.
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note of interest is both congress members were involved in businesses that were labor intensive ( such as owning gold mines or ranches) and The Act for the
Government and Protection of Indians would help expand the labor supply for those industries. So commonplace were these kidnappings that William H. Brewer a member conducting the California Geological Survey on behalf of the state credited that most of "The Indian wars now going on, and those which have been for the last three years in the counties of Klamath, Humboldt, and Mendocino, have most of their origin in this. It has for years been a regular business to steal Indian children and bring them down to the civilized parts of the state, even to San Francisco, and sell them – not as slaves, but as servants to be kept as long as possible. ".
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formal institution of agriculture for the indentured indigenous families led to an increase in famines, then saw an increase in dependency-based prostitution among indigenous women trying to provide for their families. This informal system prevailed into the
Mexican-American war annexation of California as new incursions of migrant male workers entered from all sides of California, exposing and dragging new tribes into the demand of the American West sex trade. American notions of ethnic and racial values placed indigenous women at the lowest stratification under Chinese and Mexican women, making them prime candidates for physical abuse, economic exploitation, and trafficking for male sexual gratification.
345:, also known as the Indian Indenture Act, which was primarily used to overlay governance on Native Americans rather than implementing protection over them. In turn, this allowed White settlers to hire Native Americans for their labor. The Act was created to help employers deal with the high cost of labor and the mobility of free labor since the beginning of the Gold Rush. The Act was created to maintain and prolong the established workforce of Native Americans that was previously being used during the years of the Mexican government's reign. Both Mexico and the state of California, by the time of its establishment as a state in the United States, had officially outlawed slavery within their territories.
133:
Californian uprising was violent. An example of this can be seen in
September 1795, when over two hundred natives deserted San Francisco in droves, citing their poor treatment at the hands of Spanish soldiers and priests as their reason for abandoning the area. Regardless of the nature of the uprisings conducted by Native Californians, they were met with harsh punishments at the hands of the Spanish. Even natives who conducted nonviolent forms of resistance such as deserting missions were punished by being hunted down and forced to return to where they were attempting to flee from. Other punishments for instances of resistance include execution or imprisonment while subjected to harsh labor.
487:, the first Chinese Prostitute in California, were able to claim an active role in the self-management of her sex work, like later Anglo prostitutes, but racially motivated retaliation forced her to return to China. Yet upon her return, she was relegated to racial stratification as Anglo Women and prostitutes' presence in San Francisco stratified Chinese women into similar denigration of low value-high demand forced labor. At the same time Chinese triads began to facilitate the growth of the sex industry in California through the trafficking of Chinese and other Asian women.
370:"If a convicted Indian was punished by paying a fine, any white person, with the consent of the Justice, could give bond for the Indian's fine and costs. In return, the Indian was "compelled to work until his fine was discharged or cancelled." The person bailing was supposed to "treat the Indian humanely and clothe and feed him properly." The Court decided "the allowance given for such labor."" Local authorities were often required to hire out the "convicts" within the next 24 hours to the highest bidder essentially creating a system of selling slaves out of jail.
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resided near or on these missions. While this act did state that around half of the mission's land was to be given to the natives who resided and worked there, very few natives actually received this compensation. Instead, many civil authorities confiscated most of the land for themselves as a majority of the natives were ill-equipped to accept the land that they were promised. Rather, the natives who lived on these missions were further exploited by the rancheros who took over, being forced to work for virtually nothing.
422:, Spanish soldiers who accompanied the missionaries and their supply lines were stationed near tribe settlements. Routinely assault or sexual extortion was compensated with food and money to avoid repercussions for soldiers to avoid punishment from the local mission authorities by claiming it was a trade of prostitution instead. These incidents were common through the Mission period leading to several altercations of Native Tribes and Spanish soldiers due to the assault of indigenous women.
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eighteen and females till the age of fifteen. This would broadly need the consent of parents and/or friends. First needing to bring themselves and the child to the justice of peace, who had the authority to grant the certificate of custody. Following this, section 4 of the law would further expand on the certificate holder to feed, clothe, and care for their person. It would also extend to inhuman treatments punishable by a fine and ultimately the loss of the child.
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them to harsh working conditions in various industries including mining, agriculture, and ranching. The arrival of these settlers also affected the lives of the indigenous population by introducing new diseases that they had not encountered before. This would further deplete the Native
American population within California, making them more vulnerable to exploitation and manipulation as their communities became weakened.
319:
the states high demand for domestic servants and agricultural laborers". Kidnapping raids became commonplace; these raids were done to acquire
Indigenous people that settlers could press into servitude. Although technically an illegal practice, law enforcement rarely intervened. The well-being of those in forced labor was often easily disregarded since laborers could be acquired for prices as cheap as 35 dollars.
349:
White-wage workers. This led a majority of
Natives to engage in different forms of labor were women and children, who were usually from neighboring or distant Californian counties. Their legal restrictions led towards intensive labor that would be based on child custody and apprenticeship provisions that were outlined in section 3 of the Indian Indenture Act.
388:
benefit those in power who were white men. It is revealed in the wording and the structure of the act itself. A white man could not be convicted by the very people they are taking to court. If a native attempted to defend themselves, once a
Justice of the peace made a decision that was it, there was no process to file for an appeal on behalf of a native.
27:
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meant that the public eye saw all
Chinese women as prostitutes. Chinese women who migrated to the United States often found themselves forced into prostitution, known as "yellow slavery" which in turn created a large stigma associated with Chinese women being lewd and prostitutes whether they found themselves in the industry or not.
242:—to negotiate treaties with Native Californians. At the time, native tribes were recognized as foreign nations, making treaties the legal form of negotiation. However, the commissioners that were appointed knew nothing about Native Californians or their culture, making the process extremely difficult.
429:
During the Gold Rush era in
California, a surge in immigration to the state led to a shortage of white women and children, which gave rise to a market of trafficked labor from Native American women and girls. This phenomenon, which thrived during the 1850s and 1860s, predates the California Gold Rush
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The assault on indigenous women worsened as greater autonomy over California was given to the loyalists during the Mexican independence movement, with large sums of authority and land given to Californios rather than returned to the tribes upon the mission's dissolution. The resulting collapse of the
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After the Mexican-American War, the population of California began to grow, with predominantly new arrivals from states within the United States like Missouri, Kentucky, and other parts of Southern states where slavery was legal. The first Californian state legislature took place in April 1850, about
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and other forms of forced labor united as the Union Party and began to slowly dismantle forced labor systems in California. Republicans had decried the kidnapping and forced apprenticeship of Native Americans but still viewed the arrests and leasing of Native Americans as a necessary evil to civilize
222:
American settlers who came to California during the Gold Rush often found themselves at odds with the native population in the area. The confrontation between Americans and natives was often brutal, resulting in the enslavement, murder, and rape of Native Californian men, women, and children. As more
203:
The influx of settlers coming into California during this time resulted in further displacement of Native Californians from their land. Settlers seeking gold and agricultural opportunities in California would exploit the Native Americans they encountered for labor and economic gains, often subjecting
181:
Throughout the settlement of California, the indigenous population of the state dropped from 300,000 during Spanish rule in 1769 to 250,000 in 1834. This significant population drop is widely attributed to increased contact with new diseases brought by settlers coming into California from other parts
479:
Many of the women who were not concubines for wealthy merchants found themselves in Chinatown brothels, forced to service the men of San Francisco. Many of these brothels saw a large influx of women, resulting in the older, less "desirable" women being forced into small rooms with windows facing the
467:
In San Francisco, the division of ethnicity along social disreputable stratification associated with Anglo-Americans that women of other ethnicities in these places as inherently immoral and made the generalization of all present ethnic and racial women participated in prostitution or were available
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in an effort to transfer the land in which the missions were built from the Catholic Church to private individuals. In doing so, the Mexican government hoped to promote private enterprise and settlement throughout California, however, this would prove to be detrimental to the Native Californians who
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Many of the women who were brought to California in the 19th century experienced this form of "yellow slavery" by being brought to California with the idea of becoming brides of the Chinese male labor force or the white Americans already there. Upon their arrival to the state, they found themselves
441:
In the decade following the California Gold Rush, the capture and exchange of Native American women and girls would become an integral part of the social fabric of Northwestern California. Legal frameworks in the region, especially wardship and apprenticeship laws, only partially covered the market
318:
In general, Californians interpreted these 1850 laws in a way that all Indians could face indentured servitude through arrests and "hiring out". Once the Indians had entered into this servitude, the term limit was often ignored, thus resulting in slavery; this was what Californians used to "satisfy
207:
The establishment of reservation systems within the United States was promoted as a way to concentrate and protect Native American populations; However, it too became a mechanism for further labor control of the natives. Under the reservation system, life for the indigenous population was harsh and
199:
The acquisition of California by the United States in 1848 drastically impacted the Native American population in the area. As settlers began flooding into the state during the subsequent Gold Rush in 1849, Native Californians found themselves once again drastically impacted by the ensuing societal
383:
The reality of the purpose of "The Act for the Government and Protection of Indians " is revealed through the initial name given to the bill "An Act relative to the Protection, Punishment and Government of Indians " proposed by Senator E. Kirby Chamberlain at the request of Senator John Bidwell. A
348:
Unfree Native American labor can predominantly be seen in certain counties within California such as the county of Colusa. Between 1850 and 1865 the practice had great impacts on economic developments within the county. Native workers essentially filled the important gaps that were not met by free
156:
which granted large sections of unoccupied land to individuals in an effort to promote agriculture and economic development in California. While this act can be seen as a negative for natives during this time as it created and enforced a large class division between Native Californians and the new
495:
While heavily focused on indigenous and Chinese Women, other affected groups in the forced sexual labor market of California, such as Hawaiian, Polynesian, and Latina women, were trafficked into prostitution because of the gender imbalance in California. Women of color made up the majority of the
400:
brought many American migrants to California. As a result, this rapid population increase required an increase in food production. Many bound laborers are thought to have been used in California's new agricultural economy. A majority of the laborers leased were Native women and children, who were
328:
reported that, "over half the miners in California were Indians". The enforcement of the Act of 1850 was left with the local justices of peace, meaning they became crucial links in all interracial interactions. Many justices took advantage of the vague language and the power bestowed upon them to
103:
in the area at the time, saw them solely as manpower to be exploited. These soldiers would often force the Native Californians to perform most of the manual labor needed in their fortresses and would hunt down any natives who refused or tried to escape. These fortresses consisted of four military
471:
In the year 1880 there were 27 Chinese men for every one Chinese woman in the United States. With this low percentage of the population, the stigma of Chinese women being prostitutes, as the total number of Chinese women in the state was low, and the number of prostitutes in this low demographic
352:
In section 3 of the law, authority was given to the employers to gain child custody of Native Americans until the age of maturity. Which was measured differently on the basis of gender, which would be the root of many provisions. Males would not reach the freedom of child custody till the age of
132:
organized around 800 Native Californians from nine different villages to destroy the mission, killing three Spaniards in the process. The Tipai-Ipai were successful in their goal, burning the original mission down prior to the reconstruction of it in 1769. Despite this instance, not every Native
463:
The rapid influx of Chinese migrants to California in the 19th century led to further diversification of the region's population. Many Chinese migrants were male workers, often working jobs to send money to their families back home. This rapid influx of male Chinese workers to California saw an
387:
Another aspect of the Act that in practice was executed poorly was the role of the Justice of Peace. They essentially had complete control over the outcome of the trial and it is written in the act that no "white man" could be convicted due to testimony from an "Indian". The Act was designed to
356:
Adjustments were made towards Section 3 of the act of 1860, which led to bound labor by transforming caretaker agreements for Native minors into a system on similar grounds to indentured servitude. After this adjustment, the section connected itself to apprenticeship, a broad term that not only
437:
communities crept further and further into the state's interior to capture Native American women and girls. These abducted individuals would go on to fulfill a variety of purposes, including sex, domestic labor, marriage, and even childbearing for their captors. Over time, this exchange grew
445:
Regardless of the status of their captivity, either legal or illegal, Native American women and girls trapped in the traffics of their labor faced dual forms of exploitation as they were bought and sold to satisfy the needs for labor and sexual lust. Once ripped away from their families and
208:
labor was often a condition for receiving rations and other forms of support from the government. This would prove to be detrimental for Native Americans as it effectively destroyed native autonomy and created a cycle of dependency within their community on the United States government.
147:
After Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, California became a Mexican territory. In 1824, the Mexican constitution guaranteed citizenship to "all persons", which provided Native Californians with the right to continue occupying their villages. However, the same year, the
455:, a newspaper with ties to the northern branch of the Democratic Party, which officially declared that a new form of slavery was occurring in California at the hands of the white men who dominated the trade by the mid-1850s and that it degraded the free-state status of the state.
271:, it was noted that the rapid advancement of American settlements had greatly depleted sources of fish, wild fowl, game, nuts, and roots. By 1870, the population of Native Californians had declined from 40,000 at the time of the United States acquisition of California to 20,000.
127:
Due to the conditions that the natives were forced into, there were several recorded uprisings where Native Californians resisted Spanish rule. One of the earliest instances of these uprisings was the attack on the Mission San Diego de Alcalá on November 4, 1775. The
185:
In the wake of American settlers streaming into California during the 1820s, it was officially acquired by the United States in 1848. Under U.S. sovereignty, the Native American population plummeted from an estimated 150,000 to 30,000, reaching a low of 16,000 in 1900.
373:
Indians could not testify for or against whites. It was illegal to sell or administer alcohol to Indians and if Indians were convicted of stealing any valuable or livestock, they could receive any number of lashes (as long as it was less than 25) and a fine of up to $
446:
communities, these women and girls suffered differing fates. Captive females often experienced control over both their labor and their sexuality as their captors would exchange them in the trafficking market to serve as domestic laborers and coerced sexual partners.
496:
prostitution in California, and their limited economic opportunity in an increasingly anglicized California society exacerbated their conditions and vulnerability, making them susceptible to sexual violence and trafficking into the late 19th century.
246:
were drafted, allocating 7.5% of the state of California to Native Californians residing in reservations. However, in June 1852, all of the treaties were rejected by the Senate and marked as classified documents; they were not seen again until 1905.
301:, the California legislature abolished all forms of legal indenture and apprenticeship for Native Americans. Illegal slave raiding and holding continued afterwards but died out around 1870. The end came due to the increase in European and
401:
leased in response to California's population shortage of white women and children. Many would serve as domestic workers while others would be forced into prostitution by the often role outside of the auxiliary of the household needs.
182:
of the world. Additionally, after gaining independence from Spain in 1821 and the secularization of the coastal missions by the Mexican government in 1834, the indigenous population suffered a much more drastic decrease in population.
83:
Pre-European contact, the estimated population of Indigenous persons native to California varies with accounts ranging from 300,000 to nearly one million. Spaniards first arrived in California when explorer
263:
as a form of forced labor. These systems were supported by the legal authorization of corporal punishment for Native Americans and stripped them of numerous legal rights. In 1860, the
322:
1359:
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was amended to allow any Native Californians who were not already indentured to be kidnapped under the guise of apprenticeship. In an 1867 analysis done for the
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influx in the male population without a proportional increase of women, leading to the commodification and exporting of Chinese women to the United States.
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five months before becoming the 31st state to be implemented as a free state in the United States. During this time the legislatures had enacted the
342:
264:
256:
1369:
1329:
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An illegal trade of kidnapped slaves existed and was rarely stopped; it was only policed after the abolition of the forced labor systems.
1379:
364:"White persons or proprietors could apply to the Justice of Peace for the removal of Indians from lands in the white person's possession"
243:
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allowed for the indenture of Native Californians. This act introduced a system of custodianship for indigenous children and established
1354:
449:
By 1860, the involuntary market of captive Native American women and girls had become so widespread that it drew the attention of the
1364:
1324:
602:
Exterminate Them: Written Accounts of the Murder, Rape and Enslavement of Native Americans During the California Gold Rush, 1848–1868
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Between 1851 and 1852, the federal government appointed three Native American commissioners—Redick McKee, George W. Barbour, and
1334:
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rancheros in the area, it also allowed for many natives to learn how to grow crops which would prove to be an essential skill.
99:
While Native Californians were treated with differing levels of respect from the padres who oversaw them, many of the Spanish
1297:
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124:. The soldiers occupying these fortresses would treat the natives poorly, often raping the native women of the villages.
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landed in San Diego Bay in 1542, however, the Spanish didn't successfully settle the region until 1769 when Padre
1222:"Sexual Slavery in San Francisco's Chinatown: "Yellow Peril" and "White Slavery" in Frank Norris's Early Fiction"
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78:
45:
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of bound and trafficked women, with a significant portion being forced and bound illegally through captivity.
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increasingly lucrative and highly profitable, attracting the attention of white entrepreneurs in the state.
1344:
1257:"Free State Slavery: Bound Indian Labor and Slave Trafficking in California's Sacramento Valley, 1850–1864"
1374:
360:
The Act for the Government and Protection of Indians was passed in California in 1850, It provided that:
232:
672:
By Stacey L. Smith (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 2013) 324 pp. $ 34.95". Reviews.
533:
Madley, Benjamin (2023-06-23). "'A War of Extermination': The California Indian Genocide, 1846–1873".
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Driven by the demand for labor because of the Gold Rush, specifically in the field of domestic work,
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121:
117:
670:
Freedom's Frontier: California and the Struggle over Unfree Labor, Emancipation, and Reconstruction.
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Freedom's Frontier: California and the Struggle over Unfree Labor, Emancipation, and Reconstruction
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85:
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that served as cheap laborers, and the massive reduction of California's indigenous population.
224:
57:
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hostile interactions began to take place between Americans and natives, incidents such as the
836:
707:
Lindsay, Brendan C. (2014). "Humor and Dissonance in California's Native American Genocide".
580:
149:
142:
113:
1307:
451:
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49:
35:
8:
1280:
217:
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An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873
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in rural areas and has historical roots in Indigenous and Spanish-Mexican communities.
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for denigration with the intent of sexual gratification through coercion or violence.
1293:
1233:
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1082:
933:
910:
871:
828:
788:
747:
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689:
645:
605:
546:
418:, the informal mechanism of forced labor for women was present in California. In the
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93:
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In August 1833, the Mexican government passed the Mexican Secularization Act, which
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Despite being admitted to the Union as a free state on September 9, 1850, the 1850
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of 1849 began to take place. During the Gold Rush, the native population of the
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street with the job of attracting men from off the street to their location.
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1182:
930:
Racial fault lines: the historical origins of white supremacy in California
890:
641:
100:
61:
31:
906:
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and adjacent hills and mountains decreased from around 150,000 to 50,000.
685:
434:
1221:
604:. East Lansing, MI, US: Michigan State University Press. pp. 1–30.
129:
854:
Eckstein, Barbara (March 2008). "Review Essay: Specters of the City".
768:
784:
415:
194:
19:
For the specific history of legal chattel slavery in California, see
746:. Lincoln, NE, US: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 125–223.
1129:. Albuquerque, New Mexico: New Mexico University. pp. 13–92.
1030:"Early California Laws and Policies Related to California Indians"
1183:"The Story of Kate Camden: Native American in a Gold Rush Family"
510:
104:
installations, primarily in place to reinforce Spanish claims to
1079:
Early California Laws and Policies Related to California Indians
1157:"The Enslaved Native Americans Who Made The Gold Rush Possible"
484:
1127:
Intimate Frontiers: Sex, Gender, and Culture in Old California
975:
973:
744:
Murder State: California's Native American Genocide, 1846–1873
636:. The Lamar Series in Western History. Yale University Press.
537:. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 412–433.
1095:
1043:
970:
404:
1175:
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continue the kidnapping of Indian children through 1860.
946:
571:
Madley, Benjamin L. (2021-02-23), "California Indians",
1009:
985:
958:
811:
Magliari, M. (August 2004). "Free Soil, Unfree Labor".
1072:
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1066:
1064:
1062:
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1058:
997:
490:
769:"Redick McKee and the Humboldt Bay Region, 1851–1852"
177:
Native California Population, according to Cook 1978.
168:
1055:
891:"William Clark: Indian Diplomat by Jay H. Buckley"
409:
195:U.S. acquisition and consequences of the Gold Rush
1201:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1316:
573:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History
343:Act for the Government and Protection of Indians
257:Act for the Government and Protection of Indians
1360:Imprisonment and detention in the United States
1120:
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1110:
806:
804:
802:
663:
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476:forced into concubines or in worse conditions.
458:
1143:
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1027:
819:(3). University of California Press: 349–390.
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42:Forced labor of Native Americans in California
1081:. California Research Bureau. pp. 5–13.
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623:
621:
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1107:
799:
658:
297:In April 1863, after the declaration of the
1077:Johnston-Dodds, Kimberly (September 2002).
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110:el Presidio Real de San Carlos de Monterey
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674:The Journal of Interdisciplinary History
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405:Prostitution as a system of forced labor
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25:
1124:
932:. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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706:
599:
535:The Cambridge World History of Genocide
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1292:. University of North Carolina Press.
888:
766:
631:
581:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.117
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532:
211:
30:1850 depiction of an indigenous woman
1370:Race legislation in the United States
1330:Native American history of California
1287:
1219:
1207:
952:
668:Magliari, Michael F. (Summer 2014). "
136:
72:
313:
491:Trafficking of other women of color
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250:
96:, located in modern-day San Diego.
92:founded the first Spanish mission,
13:
1380:Labor history of the United States
14:
1391:
1355:Unfree labor in the United States
1028:Johnston-Dodds, Kimberly (2002).
632:Madley, Benjamin (May 24, 2016).
169:Population of Native Californians
122:el Presidio Real de Santa Bárbara
118:el Presidio Real de San Francisco
1365:Penal labor in the United States
1325:History of slavery in California
21:History of slavery in California
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1213:
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921:
882:
847:
410:Trafficking of indigenous women
308:
16:Labor laws in the United States
1226:Studies in American Naturalism
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735:
700:
391:
289:various political factions in
79:Spanish missions in California
1:
1335:Labor relations in California
709:American Behavioral Scientist
600:Trafzer, Clifford E. (1999).
516:
114:el Presidio Real de San Diego
94:el Misión San Diego de Alcalá
67:
52:era of the mid-19th century.
767:Hoopes, C. L. (1970-09-01).
742:Lindsay, Brendan C. (2012).
459:Trafficking of Chinese Women
274:
7:
1340:Slavery of Native Americans
1308:10.5149/9781469607696_smith
895:Oregon Historical Quarterly
575:, Oxford University Press,
499:
64:, and cultural disruption.
48:of the 18th century to the
10:
1396:
1255:Magliari, Michael (2012).
1037:California Research Bureau
278:
215:
140:
76:
18:
1288:Smith, Stacey L. (2013).
1281:10.1525/phr.2012.81.2.155
1273:10.1525/phr.2012.81.2.155
1261:Pacific Historical Review
825:10.1525/phr.2004.73.3.349
813:Pacific Historical Review
543:10.1017/9781108765480.018
299:Emancipation Proclamation
150:Mexican National Congress
1350:Native American genocide
1220:Keely, Karen A. (2007).
1125:Hurtado, Albert (2003).
928:Almaguer, Tomás (2009).
889:Whaley, Gray H. (2009).
868:10.1177/0096144207311204
856:Journal of Urban History
721:10.1177/0002764213495034
190:Settlement of California
154:Colonization Act of 1824
1189:. National Park Service
335:
86:Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo
58:systematic exploitation
642:10.12987/9780300182170
452:Sacramento Daily Union
420:Spanish Mission period
225:Bloody Island massacre
178:
38:
1187:National Park Service
907:10.1353/ohq.2009.0027
291:opposition to slavery
279:Further information:
176:
143:Ranchos of California
141:Further information:
108:. They were known as
77:Further information:
29:
686:10.1162/jinh_r_00670
162:secularized missions
36:California gold rush
1345:California genocide
1104:, pp. 160–168.
1052:, pp. 168–169.
982:, pp. 190–191.
955:, pp. 175–207.
218:California Genocide
212:California Genocide
54:Native Californians
1375:Reconstruction Era
773:California History
303:Chinese immigrants
287:American Civil War
281:Reconstruction era
179:
137:Mexican California
73:Spanish California
39:
1299:978-1-4696-0768-9
1155:Blakemore, Erin.
939:978-0-520-25786-3
753:978-0-8032-2480-3
552:978-1-108-76548-0
314:Illegal practices
44:spanned from the
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414:Even before the
379:Laws in practice
326:Richard B. Mason
269:Secretary of War
251:U.S. Legislature
240:O. M. Wozencraft
56:were subject to
46:Spanish missions
32:panning for gold
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506:Convict leasing
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323:Acting Governor
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261:convict leasing
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106:Alta California
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1267:(2): 155–192.
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1232:(2): 129–149.
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1200:
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1136:978-0826319548
1135:
1106:
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1018:, p. 156.
1008:
996:
994:, p. 161.
984:
969:
967:, p. 190.
957:
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901:(1): 145–148.
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862:(3): 541–551.
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779:(3): 195–219.
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233:Central Valley
216:Main article:
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90:JunĂpero Serra
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1102:Magliari 2012
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1088:1-58703-163-9
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1050:Magliari 2012
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1016:Magliari 2012
1012:
1006:, p. 62.
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1004:Magliari 2012
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980:Magliari 2012
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965:Magliari 2012
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715:(1): 97–123.
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651:9780300182170
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1191:. Retrieved
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1165:. Retrieved
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680:(1): 94–96.
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309:Labor system
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62:forced labor
41:
40:
483:Women like
392:Labor roles
285:During the
244:18 treaties
152:passed the
34:during the
1319:Categories
1208:Smith 2013
953:Smith 2013
517:References
435:Californio
229:Clear Lake
200:upheaval.
130:Tipai-Ipai
68:Background
1238:1931-2555
1163:. History
915:2329-3780
876:0096-1442
841:212441173
833:0030-8684
793:0162-2897
729:0002-7642
694:0022-1953
416:Gold rush
398:Gold Rush
275:Abolition
50:gold rush
1193:16 April
1167:16 April
837:ProQuest
500:See also
101:soldiers
1161:History
511:Peonage
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485:Ah Toy
294:them.
120:, and
1304:JSTOR
1277:JSTOR
1039:: 10.
1033:(PDF)
227:near
1294:ISBN
1234:ISSN
1195:2024
1169:2024
1131:ISBN
1083:ISBN
934:ISBN
911:ISSN
872:ISSN
829:ISSN
789:ISSN
748:ISBN
725:ISSN
690:ISSN
646:ISBN
606:ISBN
547:ISBN
396:The
374:200.
336:Laws
1269:doi
903:doi
899:110
864:doi
821:doi
781:doi
717:doi
682:doi
638:doi
577:doi
539:doi
265:Act
1321::
1302:.
1275:.
1265:81
1263:.
1259:.
1228:.
1224:.
1185:.
1159:.
1145:^
1109:^
1057:^
1035:.
972:^
909:.
897:.
893:.
870:.
860:34
858:.
835:.
827:.
817:73
815:.
801:^
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771:.
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711:.
688:.
678:45
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660:^
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620:^
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541::
23:.
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