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1389:, boiler forced-draft combustion air blowers, and for fuel preparation. It is uneconomical to provide such a large standby capacity at each station, so black-start power must be provided over designated tie lines from another station. Often hydroelectric power plants are designated as the black-start sources to restore network interconnections. A hydroelectric station needs very little initial power to start (just enough to open the intake gates and provide
595:
by receiving power from different sources. For example, one region may be producing cheap hydro power during high water seasons, but in low water seasons, another area may be producing cheaper power through wind, allowing both regions to access cheaper energy sources from one another during different times of the year. Neighboring utilities also help others to maintain the overall system frequency and also help manage tie transfers between utility regions.
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1736:. The frequency was standardised at 50 Hz, and the 225 kV network replaced 110 kV and 120 kV. Since 1956, service voltage has been standardised at 220/380 V, replacing the previous 127/220 V. During the 1970s, the 400 kV network, the new European standard, was implemented. The end user service voltage will progressively change to 230/400 V +/-10% since may 29, 1986.
875:
This tree-like structure grows outward from the substation, but for reliability reasons, usually contains at least one unused backup connection to a nearby substation. This connection can be enabled in case of an emergency, so that a portion of a substation's service territory can be alternatively fed by another substation.
717:, from which is connected to the distribution system. This networked system of connections is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers. Transmission networks are complex with redundant pathways. Redundancy allows line failures to occur and power is simply rerouted while repairs are done.
1731:
in 1919, and 36,528 in 1938. At the same time, these close networks began to interconnect: Paris in 1907 at 12 kV, the Pyrénées in 1923 at 150 kV, and finally almost all of the country interconnected by 1938 at 220 kV. In 1946, the grid was the world's most dense. That year the state nationalised the
1468:
is a grid management technique where retail or wholesale customers are requested or incentivised either electronically or manually to reduce their load. Currently, transmission grid operators use demand response to request load reduction from major energy users such as industrial plants. Technologies
594:
allow for economies of scale, allowing energy to be purchased from large, efficient sources. Utilities can draw power from generator reserves from a different region to ensure continuing, reliable power and diversify their loads. Interconnection also allows regions to have access to cheap bulk energy
1397:
can be configured for black start, providing another option in places without suitable hydroelectric plants. In 2017 a utility in
Southern California has successfully demonstrated the use of a battery energy storage system to provide a black start, firing up a combined cycle gas turbine from an idle
1121:
Failures are usually associated with generators or power transmission lines tripping circuit breakers due to faults leading to a loss of generation capacity for customers, or excess demand. This will often cause the frequency to reduce, and the remaining generators will react and together attempt to
720:
Because the power is often generated far from where it is consumed, the transmission system can cover great distances. For a given amount of power, transmission efficiency is greater at higher voltages and lower currents. Therefore, voltages are stepped up at the generating station, and stepped down
1365:
Normally, the electric power used within the plant is provided from the station's own generators. If all of the plant's main generators are shut down, station service power is provided by drawing power from the grid through the plant's transmission line. However, during a wide-area outage, off-site
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can be used to connect two alternating current interconnection networks which are not synchronized with each other. This provides the benefit of interconnection without the need to synchronize an even wider area. For example, compare the wide area synchronous grid map of Europe with the map of HVDC
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Although the speed is kept largely constant, small deviations from the nominal system frequency are very important in regulating individual generators and are used as a way of assessing the equilibrium of the grid as a whole. When the grid is lightly loaded the grid frequency runs above the nominal
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from which feeders fan out in all directions across the countryside. These feeders carry three-phase power, and tend to follow the major streets near the substation. As the distance from the substation grows, the fanout continues as smaller laterals spread out to cover areas missed by the feeders.
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is an enhancement of the 20th century electrical grid, using two-way communications and distributed so-called intelligent devices. Two-way flows of electricity and information could improve the delivery network. Research is mainly focused on three systems of a smart grid – the infrastructure
84:
to customers. In that last step, voltage is stepped down again to the required service voltage. Power stations are typically built close to energy sources and far from densely populated areas. Electrical grids vary in size and can cover whole countries or continents. From small to large there are
468:
The benefits of synchronous zones include pooling of generation, resulting in lower generation costs; pooling of load, resulting in significant equalizing effects; common provisioning of reserves, resulting in cheaper primary and secondary reserve power costs; opening of the market, resulting in
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Concerns with smart grid technology mostly focus on smart meters, items enabled by them, and general security issues. Roll-out of smart grid technology also implies a fundamental re-engineering of the electricity services industry, although typical usage of the term is focused on the technical
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The smart grid represents the full suite of current and proposed responses to the challenges of electricity supply. Numerous contributions to the overall improvement of the efficiency of energy infrastructure are anticipated from the deployment of smart grid technology, in particular including
456:
Each of the interconnects in North
America are run at a nominal 60 Hz, while those of Europe run at 50 Hz. Neighbouring interconnections with the same frequency and standards can be synchronized and directly connected to form a larger interconnection, or they may share power without
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required transmission line owners to allow electric generation companies open access to their network and led to a restructuring of how the electric industry operated in an effort to create competition in power generation. No longer were electric utilities built as vertical monopolies, where
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A large failure in one part of the grid — unless quickly compensated for — can cause current to re-route itself to flow from the remaining generators to consumers over transmission lines of insufficient capacity, causing further failures. One downside to a widely connected grid is thus the
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In a synchronous grid all the generators must run at the same frequency, and must stay very nearly in phase with each other and the grid. Generation and consumption must be balanced across the entire grid, because energy is consumed as it is produced. For rotating generators, a local
433:(also called an "interconnection" in North America) is an electrical grid at a regional scale or greater that operates at a synchronized frequency and is electrically tied together during normal system conditions. These are also known as synchronous zones, the largest of which is the
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is the maximum load. Historically, baseload was commonly met by equipment that was relatively cheap to run, that ran continuously for weeks or months at a time, but globally this is becoming less common. The extra peak demand requirements are sometimes produced by expensive
1672:, with long-distance power transmission it became possible to interconnect stations to balance the loads and improve load factors. Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries have
598:
Electricity
Interconnection Level (EIL) of a grid is the ratio of the total interconnector power to the grid divided by the installed production capacity of the grid. Within the EU, it has set a target of national grids reaching 10% by 2020, and 15% by 2030.
954:
Developments in battery storage have enabled commercially viable projects to store energy during peak production and release during peak demand, and for use when production unexpectedly falls giving time for slower responding resources to be brought online.
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Distribution is the final stage in the delivery of power; it carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between
728:. Three phase, compared to single phase, can deliver much more power for a given amount of wire, since the neutral and ground wires are shared. Further, three-phase generators and motors are more efficient than their single-phase counterparts.
122:
increases, the number of people with access to grid electricity is growing. About 840 million people (mostly in Africa), which is ca. 11% of the World's population, had no access to grid electricity in 2017, down from 1.2 billion in 2010.
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Substations may perform many different functions but usually transform voltage from low to high (step up) and from high to low (step down). Between the generator and the final consumer, the voltage may be transformed several times.
111:(AC) frequencies synchronized (so that voltage swings occur at almost the same time). This allows transmission of AC power throughout the area, connecting the electricity generators with consumers. Grids can enable more efficient
332:
A microgrid is a local grid that is usually part of the regional wide-area synchronous grid but which can disconnect and operate autonomously. It might do this in times when the main grid is affected by outages. This is known as
792:: typically a set of three conductors, one for each phase of current. The substation is organized around the buses, and they are connected to incoming lines, transformers, protection equipment, switches, and the outgoing lines.
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1091:) to deal with failures as well as variation in demand. In addition generators can be off-line for maintenance or other reasons, such as availability of energy inputs (fuel, water, wind, sun etc.) or pollution constraints.
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For timekeeping purposes, the nominal frequency will be allowed to vary in the short term, but is adjusted to prevent line-operated clocks from gaining or losing significant time over the course of a whole 24 hour period.
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in 1901, and by 1912 had developed into the largest integrated power system in Europe. Merz was appointed head of a parliamentary committee and his findings led to the
Williamson Report of 1918, which in turn created the
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In addition, there's often central control, which can change the parameters of the AGC systems over timescales of a minute or longer to further adjust the regional network flows and the operating frequency of the grid.
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However, for conventional conductors one of the main losses are resistive losses which are a square law on current, and depend on distance. High voltage AC transmission lines can lose 1-4% per hundred miles. However,
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if all countries in the world were to make do with their own resources, there would be even more energy poverty in the world than there is now. Currently, 1.4 billion people are not connected to an electricity grid
1047:
systems across the network that generators should reduce their output. Conversely, when the grid is heavily loaded, the frequency naturally slows, and governors adjust their generators so that more power is output
340:
Compared to larger grids, microgrids typically use a lower voltage distribution network and distributed generators. Microgrids may not only be more resilient, but may be cheaper to implement in isolated areas.
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generation, transmission and distribution were handled by a single company. Now, the three stages could be split among various companies, in an effort to provide fair access to high voltage transmission. The
704:
Network diagram of a high voltage transmission system, showing the interconnection between the different voltage levels. This diagram depicts the electrical structure of the network, rather than its physical
130:. Also as electric grids modernize and introduce computer technology, cyber threats start to become a security risk. Particular concerns relate to the more complex computer systems needed to manage grids.
1113:(i.e. cheapest first) and sometimes their environmental impact. Thus cheap electricity providers tend to be run flat out almost all the time, and the more expensive producers are only run when necessary.
1320:), in order to prevent uncontrolled service disruptions such as power outages (widespread blackouts) or equipment damage. Utilities may impose load shedding on service areas via targeted blackouts,
2852:
2135:
Buevich, Maxim; Schnitzer, Dan; Escalada, Tristan; Jacquiau-Chamski, Arthur; Rowe, Anthony (2014). "Fine-grained remote monitoring, control and pre-paid electrical service in rural microgrids".
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required by all utility customers within a given region. In these situations, overall demand must be lowered, either by turning off service to some devices or cutting back the supply voltage (
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system, the management system, and the protection system. Electronic power conditioning and control of the production and distribution of electricity are important aspects of the smart grid.
1039:
regulates the driving torque, maintaining almost constant rotation speed as loading changes. Energy is stored in the immediate short term by the rotational kinetic energy of the generators.
1771:. From 1958 to 1998, China's electrified railway reached 6,200 miles (10,000 kilometres). As of the end of 2017, this number has reached 54,000 miles (87,000 kilometres). In the current
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capacity), which in turn can be used to start the main power station generators. Generating plants using steam turbines require station service power of up to 10% of their capacity for
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696:; four circuits are shown; two additional circuits are obscured by trees on the right; the entire 7079 MW generation capacity of the dam is accommodated by these six circuits.
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Despite novel institutional arrangements and network designs, power delivery infrastructures is experiencing aging across the developed world. Contributing factors include:
1052:). When generators have identical droop speed control settings it ensures that multiple parallel generators with the same settings share load in proportion to their rating.
560:
is a wide-area transmission network that is intended to make possible the trade of high volumes of electricity across great distances. It is sometimes also referred to as a
1646:. In the industrialized world, cities had networks of piped gas, used for lighting. But gas lamps produced poor light, wasted heat, made rooms hot and smokey, and gave off
1519:. Smart grids could also monitor/control residential devices that are noncritical during periods of peak power consumption, and return their function during nonpeak hours.
465:), or with variable-frequency transformers (VFTs), which permit a controlled flow of energy while also functionally isolating the independent AC frequencies of each side.
2178:
Buevich, Maxim; Zhang, Xiao; Schnitzer, Dan; Escalada, Tristan; Jacquiau-Chamski, Arthur; Thacker, Jon; Rowe, Anthony (1 January 2015). "Short Paper: Microgrid Losses".
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Saleh, M. S.; Althaibani, A.; Esa, Y.; Mhandi, Y.; Mohamed, A. A. (October 2015). "Impact of clustering microgrids on their stability and resilience during blackouts".
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Kirubi, et al. "Community-Based
Electric Micro-Grids Can Contribute to Rural Development: Evidence from Kenya." World Development, vol. 37, no. 7, 2009, pp. 1208–1221.
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Demand response can be achieved at the wholesale level with major energy users such as industrial plants curtailing power use and receiving payment for participating.
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current to the generator field coils), and can put a large block of power on line very quickly to allow start-up of fossil-fuel or nuclear stations. Certain types of
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loads, and even nonlinear loads, with electricity provided by generators and distribution and transmission equipment that are not perfectly reliable. Often grids use
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and other studies foresee widescale grid defection. However grid defection may be less likely in places such as
Germany that have greater power demands in winter.
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gained binding powers in the United States in 2006, and has advisory powers in the applicable parts of Canada and Mexico. The U.S. government has also designated
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can have half the losses of AC. Over very long distances, these efficiencies can offset the additional cost of the required AC/DC converter stations at each end.
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Step-down substation: these transformers lower the voltage coming from the transmission lines which can be used in industry or sent to a distribution substation.
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Early electric energy was produced near the device or service requiring that energy. In the 1880s, electricity competed with steam, hydraulics, and especially
2323:
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1787:—is an important power supplier. In 2019, it completed the power supply project of China's important electrified railways in its operating areas, such as
1440:
planning and engineering are ineffective in addressing current problems of aged equipment, obsolete system layouts, and modern deregulated loading levels.
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Resistance to distributed generation among grid operators may encourage providers to leave the grid and instead distribute power to smaller geographies.
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to raise the voltage coming from the generators and power plants so that power can be transmitted long distances more efficiently, with smaller currents.
587:(HVDC) to transmit electricity long distances. The latest generation of HVDC power lines can transmit energy with losses of only 1.6% per 1000 km.
1451:, operating of system using concepts and procedures that worked in vertically integrated industry exacerbate the problem under a deregulated industry.
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1799:, et cetera, providing power supply guarantee for 110 traction stations, and its cumulative power line construction length reached 6,586 kilometres.
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In the United States in the 1920s, utilities formed joint-operations to share peak load coverage and backup power. In 1934, with the passage of the
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An entire synchronous grid runs at the same frequency, neighbouring grids would not be synchronised even if they run at the same nominal frequency.
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One disadvantage of a wide-area synchronous grid is that problems in one part can have repercussions across the whole grid. For example, in 2018
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Grids are designed to supply electricity to their customers at largely constant voltages. This has to be achieved with varying demand, variable
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system. Intentional brownouts are used for load reduction in an emergency. The reduction lasts for minutes or hours, as opposed to short-term
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Borberly, A. and
Kreider, J. F. (2001). Distributed Generation: The Power Paradigm for the New Millennium. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 400 pgs.
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to connect and monitor the above, with wireless as a backup. Sufficient spare if "dark" capacity to ensure failover, often leased for revenue.
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pilot program: sixty-four solar panels with a peak capacity of 23.7 kW on five houses and a battery with a storage capacity of 15 kWh.
2806:"Power Management Analysis of a Photovoltaic and Battery Energy Storage-Based Smart Electrical Car Park Providing Ancillary Grid Services"
1134:. A central authority is usually designated to facilitate communication and develop protocols to maintain a stable grid. For example, the
308:
1414:, leading to customer interruption rates affecting the economy and society; also, older assets and facilities lead to higher inspection
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3217:
Torriti, Jacopo (2012). "Demand Side
Management for the European Supergrid: Occupancy variances of European single-person households".
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However, in practice, they are never run flat out simultaneously. Typically, some generators are kept running at lower output powers (
506:
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General layout of electricity grids. Voltages and depictions of electrical lines are typical for
Germany and other European systems.
402:, also known as an "interconnection" in North America, directly connects many generators delivering AC power with the same relative
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Philippe CARRIVE, Réseaux de distribution - Structure et planification, volume D4210, collection
Techniques de l'ingénieur, page 6.
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Mazer, A. (2007). Electric Power Planning for Regulated and Deregulated Markets. John, Wiley, and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. 313pgs.
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to take advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation, distribution, and system management. After the
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design. A substation receives its power from the transmission network, the power is stepped down with a transformer and sent to a
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Smart grid policy is organized in Europe as Smart Grid European Technology Platform. Policy in the United States is described in
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Although electrical grids are widespread, as of 2016, 1.4 billion people worldwide were not connected to an electricity grid. As
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Cooper, Christopher; Sovacool, Benjamin K. (February 2013). "Miracle or mirage? The promise and peril of desert energy part 1".
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may be an effect of disruption of an electrical grid, or may occasionally be imposed in an effort to reduce load and prevent a
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is the maximum power output on a grid that is immediately available over a given time period, and is a far more useful figure.
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However, if the demand of electricity exceed the capacity of a local power grid, it will cause safety issue like burning out.
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standardized the nation's electricity supply and established the first synchronized AC grid, running at 132 kilovolts and 50
1507:. The improved flexibility of the smart grid permits greater penetration of highly variable renewable energy sources such as
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such as smart metering can encourage customers to use power when electricity is plentiful by allowing for variable pricing.
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Power failures are particularly critical at sites where the environment and public safety are at risk. Institutions such as
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Fang, Xi; Misra, Satyajayant; Xue, Guoliang; Yang, Dejun (2012). "Smart Grid — the New and Improved Power Grid: A Survey".
3039:"Distributed finite-time consensus control for heterogeneous battery energy storage systems in droop-controlled microgrids"
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allowed incentives and loan guarantees for alternative energy production and advance innovative technologies that avoided
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2456:. (2001). Glover J. D., Sarma M. S., Overbye T. J. (2010) Power System and Analysis 5th Edition. Cengage Learning. Pg 10.
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or by agreements with specific high-use industrial consumers to turn off equipment at times of system-wide peak demand.
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In China, electrification began in the 1950s. In August 1961, the electrification of the Baoji-Fengzhou section of the
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940:) or when demand is low, and later returned to the grid when demand is high, and electricity prices tend to be higher.
856:. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the
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possibility of long-term contracts and short term power exchanges; and mutual assistance in the event of disturbances.
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power from the grid is not available. In the absence of grid power, a so-called black start needs to be performed to
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Stone Edge Farm Winery: micro-turbine, fuel-cell, multiple battery, hydrogen electrolyzer, and PV enabled winery in
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1654:. They also posed a fire hazard. In the 1880s electric lighting soon became advantageous compared to gas lighting.
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48:
Diagram of an electrical grid (generation system in red, transmission system in blue, distribution system in green)
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3307:"free open access Emerging economic viability of grid defection in a northern climate using solar hybrid systems"
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in ways that have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business.
1187:(or dip). The term brownout comes from the dimming experienced by incandescent lighting when the voltage sags. A
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The demand, or load on an electrical grid is the total electrical power being removed by the users of the grid.
544:
One conceptual plan of a super grid linking renewable sources across North Africa, the Middle East and Europe. (
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Proceedings of the 2nd ACM International Conference on Embedded Systems for Energy-Efficient Built Environments
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lagging behind what it should have been. The frequency dropped to 49.996 Hz. This caused certain kinds of
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trading across wide areas. In the ENTSO-E in 2008, over 350,000 megawatt hours were sold per day on the
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The sum of the power outputs of generators on the grid is the production of the grid, typically measured in
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Sayed, K.; Gabbar, H. A. (1 January 2017). "Chapter 18 – SCADA and smart energy grid control automation".
920:. Electrical energy is stored during times when electricity is plentiful and inexpensive (especially from
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Electric utilities between regions are many times interconnected for improved economy and reliability.
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system serving countries of the former Soviet Union. Synchronous grids with ample capacity facilitate
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2976:"California battery's black start capability hailed as 'major accomplishment in the energy industry'"
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of importance and were given outlined restrictions and regulatory oversight of their operations. The
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IPSN-14 Proceedings of the 13th International Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Networks
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are a generic name for any utility side device even if it is more capable e.g. a fiber optic router)
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that cannot be obtained in the current area and are forced to use existing, insufficient facilities.
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1283:, which will automatically start up when electrical power is lost. Other critical systems, such as
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Distribution substation: these transform the voltage lower again for the distribution to end users.
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97:. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of electricity delivery, known as the
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Power failures can be caused by faults at power stations, damage to electric transmission lines,
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3636:. Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Joint Publications Research Service. 1984. p. 54.
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Simplified grid energy flow with and without idealized energy storage for the course of one day
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located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the
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1900:"Closing Sub-Saharan Africa's Electricity Access Gap: Why Cities Must Be Part of the Solution"
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and transmission systems may not always meet peak demand requirements— the greatest amount of
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on transformers near to the consumers to adjust the voltage and keep it within specification.
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that are generators optimised to come on-line quickly but these too are becoming less common.
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3481:"A Primer on Electric Utilities, Deregulation, and Restructuring of U.S. Electricity Markets"
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3154:"Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Assessment of Demand Response & Advanced Metering"
3104:"Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Assessment of Demand Response & Advanced Metering"
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Cuffe, Paul; Keane, Andrew (2017). "Visualizing the Electrical Structure of Power Systems".
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to many consumers. For example, there are four major interconnections in North America (the
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for backup and also a socket for connecting a generator during extended periods of outage.
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stabilize above the minimum. If that is not possible then a number of scenarios can occur.
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Electrical grids can be prone to malicious intrusion or attack; thus, there is a need for
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Khalilpour, R.; Vassallo, A. (2015). "Leaving the grid: An ambition or a real choice?".
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1925:"As Cyber Threats To The Electric Grid Rise, Utilities And Regulators Seek Solutions"
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Obsolete system layout – older areas require serious additional substation sites and
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Aside from transformers, other major components or functions of substations include:
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150:
3392:
3203:
2557:
4718:
4351:
4292:
3996:
3991:
3968:
3877:
3817:
3380:
3353:
3318:
3305:
Kantamneni, Abhilash; Winkler, Richelle; Gauchia, Lucia; Pearce, Joshua M. (2016).
3234:
3181:
3125:
3089:
3085:
3050:
2817:
2535:
2527:
2490:
2471:"Assessment of the EU 10% interconnection target in the context of CO2 mitigation†"
2410:
2205:
2183:
2164:
2142:
1980:
1970:
1870:
1860:
1788:
1764:
1657:
1579:
1575:
1374:
1321:
1272:
1088:
944:
693:
684:
660:
282:
4501:
3177:
2015 International Conference on Smart Grid and Clean Energy Technologies (ICSGCE)
2495:
2470:
4744:
4734:
4652:
4606:
4596:
4555:
4382:
4341:
4319:
4200:
4135:
4095:
3897:
3631:
3615:
3440:
2414:
1784:
1724:
1651:
1563:
1549:
1541:
1486:
1465:
1304:
1261:
963:
857:
776:
622:
234:
119:
104:
Grids are nearly always synchronous, meaning all distribution areas operate with
3411:
3357:
3322:
3238:
3185:
361:
4693:
4407:
4397:
4195:
3807:
3384:
3038:
3003:"Industry Cross-Section Develops Action Plans at PJM Demand Response Symposium"
2531:
2059:"UNDP Yemen wins acclaimed international Ashden Awards for Humanitarian Energy"
1975:
1950:
1865:
1583:
1567:
1516:
1437:
1013:
913:
652:
633:
629:
580:
262:
252:
229:
196:
2934:
Power Systems in Emergencies - From Contingency Planning to Crisis Management
2648:"The basic things about substations you MUST know in the middle of the night!"
2146:
4813:
4793:
4739:
4427:
4215:
4100:
4080:
4011:
4001:
3958:
3842:
3797:
3731:
3652:
3175:
3054:
2831:
2549:
2364:(See "Operation of Power Systems" link for title page and table of contents.)
1994:
1792:
1355:
1249:
1110:
998:
656:
637:
219:
65:
3472:
2187:
1704:. The bill was the first step towards an integrated electricity system. The
1638:. Coal gas was first produced on customer's premises but later evolved into
1490:
Characteristics of a traditional system (left) versus the smart grid (right)
4698:
4447:
4422:
4287:
4256:
4070:
3872:
1684:
1639:
1545:
1411:
1338:
1288:
1208:
1196:
1192:
1180:
1131:
897:
866:
In cities and towns of North America, the grid tends to follow the classic
804:
573:
3673:"After initial questions, government clears 100% Railways electrification"
3434:
Net metering changes could drive people off grid, Michigan researchers say
1105:
Most grid codes specify that the load is shared between the generators in
779:: used to automatically break a circuit and isolate a fault in the system.
4657:
4621:
4272:
4240:
4033:
4021:
3941:
3867:
3857:
3787:
2085:"Harmon'Yeu, première communauté énergétique à l'Île d'Yeu, signée Engie"
1985:
1875:
1530:
1508:
1448:
1333:
1313:
1184:
1161:
1106:
1017:
993:
937:
933:
759:
648:
569:
367:
105:
2134:
1582:) batteries or larger arrays of batteries recycled from these, or other
4672:
4616:
4563:
4235:
4230:
4043:
4026:
3882:
3737:
2822:
2805:
2255:"Stone Edge Farm — A Sandbox For Microgrid Development | CleanTechnica"
1512:
1495:
1479:
1423:
1279:, shelters and the like will usually have backup power sources such as
929:
535:
344:
A design goal is that a local area produces all of the energy it uses.
94:
38:
2540:
2432:
1354:
is the process of restoring an electric power station or a part of an
1156:
889:
3951:
3946:
3832:
3792:
1808:
1596:
863:
Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network.
800:
667:
438:
373:
334:
327:
191:
86:
3306:
2452:
2450:
2037:
1951:"The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths"
1179:
is an intentional or unintentional drop in voltage in an electrical
4749:
4065:
3730:
is a view of the world's hidden power infrastructure mapped in the
1669:
1647:
1635:
1444:
1382:
1268:
989:
618:
545:
441:(GW) of generation, and the widest region served being that of the
277:
272:
2229:"Microgrid at Stone Edge Farm Wins California Environmental Honor"
1767:
was completed and delivered for operation, becoming China's first
1592:
Electric surplus distribution by power lines and auto-smart switch
1522:
A smart grid includes a variety of operation and energy measures:
3986:
3976:
3007:
2447:
2289:
1566:, often financed by efficiency gains on municipal programs (e.g.
1381:(BSDG), which can be used to start larger generators (of several
713:
from a generating site, via a web of interconnected lines, to an
442:
73:
2892:
Electric power system basics: for the nonelectrical professional
2342:: Institute for Electrical Equipment and Power Plants (IAEW) at
848:. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to
3981:
2704:
Infrastructure : a field guide to the industrial landscape
2339:
1276:
871:
789:
782:
512:
The two major and three minor interconnections of North America
477:
473:
462:
351:
267:
3304:
2038:"A Survey of Techniques for Designing and Managing Microgrids"
943:
As of 2020, the largest form of grid energy storage is dammed
540:
27:
Interconnected network for delivering electricity to consumers
2177:
1713:
1169:
1165:
1142:, where it believes transmission bottlenecks have developed.
947:, with both conventional hydroelectric generation as well as
576:. In this context they are considered as a key technology to
485:
355:
3260:
785:: to control the flow of electricity, and isolate equipment.
376:, Kenya: a community-based diesel-powered micro-grid system.
3936:
3727:
3405:
The Economics of Grid Defection - Rocky Mountain Institute
3371:
Kumagai, J (2014). "The rise of the personal power plant".
840:
2988:
Willis, H. L., Welch, G. V., and Schrieber, R. R. (2001).
1776:
3465:
3463:
2322:
Haubrich, Hans-Jürgen; Denzel, Dieter (23 October 2008).
1373:
To provide a black start, some power stations have small
64:
from producers to consumers. Electrical grids consist of
3173:
2431:. Global Energy Interconnection (GEIDCO). Archived from
1237:) is a loss of the electric power to a particular area.
476:
used more power than it generated due to a dispute with
3599:
2469:
Mezősi, András; Pató, Zsuzsanna; Szabó, László (2016).
1346:, which required black-starting of generating stations.
992:
is the minimum load on the grid over any given period,
754:
The three main types of substations, by function, are:
3460:
2376:"Serbia, Kosovo power grid row delays European clocks"
2036:
Khaitan, Siddhartha Kumar; Venkatraman, Ramakrishnan.
337:, and it might run indefinitely on its own resources.
655:
of water or wind. Other energy sources include solar
37:"Power grid" redirects here. For the board game, see
1578:
resources, including the capacity to charge parked (
721:
at local substations for distribution to customers.
709:
Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of
628:
Electricity generation is the process of generating
4531:
2779:Sallam, Abdelhay A. & Malik, Om P. (May 2011).
1716:. This started operating as a national system, the
3670:
3335:
3161:United States Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
424:one large grid connects most of continental Europe
2804:Wang, Yingcheng; Gladwin, Daniel (January 2021).
1287:, are also required to have emergency power. The
1140:National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors
1043:frequency, and this is taken as an indication by
4811:
3075:
1708:led to the setting up of the National Grid. The
982:The graph of the demand over time is called the
958:Two alternatives to grid storage are the use of
457:synchronization via high-voltage direct current
80:to carry power over long distances, and finally
2468:
1891:
1136:North American Electric Reliability Corporation
3648:"Hong Kong Express Rail Link officially opens"
3030:
2503:
2392:
2321:
2035:
1811:: a specification for grid-connected equipment
1732:industry, by uniting the private companies as
1291:of a telephone exchange usually has arrays of
893:Simplified electrical grid with energy storage
817:
813:for power factor correction and grid stability
4517:
3753:
3693:"Beijing–Zhangjiakou intercity railway opens"
3620:. Xinhua Publishing House. 1989. p. 190.
3539:. North Northumberland Online. Archived from
2324:"Characteristics of interconnected operation"
2111:"A L'Île-d'Yeu, soleil pour tous… ou presque"
1743:(USA), electric utilities were recognized as
1436:Outdated engineering – traditional tools for
1410:Aging equipment – older equipment has higher
1362:to recover from a total or partial shutdown.
1358:to operation without relying on the external
1075:
387:
302:
3510:
2296:. 30 October 2008. p. 4. Archived from
2006:
2004:
3119:
3078:IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials
2803:
2783:. IEEE Computer Society Press. p. 21.
2778:
1841:"Energy: The missing link in globalization"
4524:
4510:
3760:
3746:
3698:National Development and Reform Commission
3253:"Smart Grids European Technology Platform"
2509:
2292:: Market Surveillance (HÜSt) group of the
358:, Yemen: community-owned solar microgrids.
309:
295:
133:
3454:"Grid defection and why we don't want it"
3282:"42 U.S. Code Subchapter IX - SMART GRID"
2821:
2539:
2494:
2332:Operation of Interconnected Power Systems
2001:
1984:
1974:
1874:
1864:
370:, Haiti: includes energy theft detection.
3767:
3671:Avishek G Dastidar (13 September 2018).
3036:
2992:. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. 551 pgs.
2926:
2915:, The Book Press Limited, Toronto, 1986
2697:
2695:
1948:
1838:
1485:
1337:
1155:
896:
888:
827:
699:
683:
617:
539:
480:, leading to the phase across the whole
43:
3513:"Kelvin to Weir, and on to GB SYS 2005"
3478:
3370:
3216:
2944:section 7.5 The 'Black Start' Situation
2706:(1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton.
2464:
2462:
2029:
14:
4812:
2876:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2632:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1897:
1883:from the original on 5 February 2018.
1815:North American power transmission grid
1116:
1080:The sum of the maximum power outputs (
912:) is a collection of methods used for
482:synchronous grid of Continental Europe
435:synchronous grid of Continental Europe
4505:
3741:
2913:Electric Power Challenges and Choices
2726:
2720:
2701:
2692:
2108:
2082:
3617:People's Republic of China Year Book
3593:"Journal Officiel n°0146, page 7895"
2990:Aging Power Delivery Infrastructures
2666:
2459:
1955:Energy Research & Social Science
1845:Energy Research & Social Science
1797:Zhengzhou–Wanzhou high-speed railway
4830:Electric power transmission systems
2746:
2652:EEP - Electrical Engineering Portal
2640:
1360:electric power transmission network
568:by smoothing local fluctuations of
564:. Super grids can support a global
60:) is an interconnected network for
24:
4755:Renewable energy commercialization
4438:Renewable energy commercialization
3525:from the original on 4 March 2009.
3511:Mr Alan Shaw (29 September 2005).
3488:United States Department of Energy
3130:10.1016/B978-0-12-805343-0.00018-8
2573:"Why Do We Use Three-Phase Power?"
1922:
1741:Public Utility Holding Company Act
1691:consulting partnership, built the
1608:Title 42 of the United States Code
1460:
969:
25:
4841:
4765:United States energy independence
3721:
3491:Federal Energy Management Program
3408:"The Economics of Grid Defection"
3286:LII / Legal Information Institute
2570:
2109:Wakim, Nabil (16 December 2020).
1614:
347:Example implementations include:
244:Electric power systems components
4486:
4485:
3906:
3701:. 6 January 2020. Archived from
3656:. 3 October 2018. Archived from
3011:. 13 August 2008. Archived from
2182:. BuildSys '15. pp. 95–98.
1949:Overland, Indra (1 March 2019).
1839:Overland, Indra (1 April 2016).
1527:Advanced metering infrastructure
1478:This section is an excerpt from
1298:
517:
505:
493:
4638:Flexible AC transmission system
3685:
3664:
3640:
3624:
3608:
3585:
3576:
3554:
3529:
3504:
3446:
3426:
3399:
3364:
3329:
3298:
3274:
3245:
3210:
3167:
3146:
3113:
3096:
3069:
3043:IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid
2995:
2982:
2968:
2953:Philip P. Walsh, Paul Fletcher
2947:
2905:
2884:
2858:from the original on 8 May 2018
2838:
2797:
2772:
2590:
2564:
2421:
2386:
2368:
2315:
2275:
2247:
2221:
2212:
2171:
2128:
1777:State Grid Corporation of China
1595:Sufficient utility grade fiber
1515:, even without the addition of
1401:
1370:the power grid into operation.
1069:variable-frequency transformers
949:pumped storage hydroelectricity
673:
500:The synchronous grids of Europe
4551:Smartgrids Technology Platform
3633:China Report: Economic affairs
3518:. Royal Society of Edinburgh.
3090:10.1109/SURV.2011.101911.00087
2894:. John Wiley & Sons, 2007
2102:
2076:
2051:
1942:
1916:
1832:
1773:railway electrification system
1327:
966:to shift load to other times.
758:Step-up substation: these use
739:
13:
1:
4704:Renewable Energy Certificates
4433:Renewable Energy Certificates
4393:Cost of electricity by source
4315:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
4191:High-voltage shore connection
3122:Smart Energy Grid Engineering
2781:Electric Distribution Systems
2496:10.1080/14693062.2016.1160864
1825:
1727:began in the 1900s, with 700
1706:Electricity (Supply) Act 1926
1702:Electricity (Supply) Act 1919
1472:
1100:
607:
602:
529:
206:Electric power infrastructure
4612:Nonintrusive load monitoring
4448:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
4246:Transmission system operator
4206:Mains electricity by country
3783:Automatic generation control
2957:, John Wiley and Sons, 2004
2415:10.1016/j.renene.2012.07.027
2283:"EEX Market Monitor Q3/2008"
1556:from a utility perspective)
1379:black start diesel generator
1264:operation, and human error.
1045:Automatic Generation Control
1023:
640:. Usually this is done with
583:. Super grids typically use
524:Major WASGs around the world
488:to become six minutes slow.
321:
7:
4825:Electric power distribution
4631:Other technologies/concepts
4473:List of electricity sectors
4468:Electric energy consumption
4186:High-voltage direct current
4161:Electric power transmission
4151:Electric power distribution
3828:Energy return on investment
3358:10.1016/j.enpol.2015.03.005
3323:10.1016/j.enpol.2016.05.013
3239:10.1016/j.enpol.2012.01.039
3186:10.1109/ICSGCE.2015.7454295
3124:. Academic Press: 481–514.
3037:Hu, J.; Lanzon, A. (2019).
2936:John Wiley & Sons 2001
2346:. p. 3. Archived from
2083:Spaes, Joel (3 July 2020).
1898:Odarno, Lily (2019-08-14).
1802:
1202:
1145:
1065:High-voltage direct current
962:to fill in supply gaps and
916:on a large scale within an
824:Electric power distribution
818:Electric power distribution
734:high-voltage direct current
680:Electric power transmission
585:High-voltage direct current
91:wide area synchronous grids
82:electric power distribution
78:electric power transmission
10:
4846:
4689:Carbon capture and storage
4388:Carbon offsets and credits
4106:Three-phase electric power
3595:(in French). 25 June 1986.
3479:Warwick, W.M. (May 2002).
3385:10.1109/mspec.2014.6821622
2729:"How Do Substations Work?"
2532:10.1109/JSYST.2015.2427994
1976:10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018
1866:10.1016/j.erss.2016.01.009
1693:Neptune Bank Power Station
1629:
1589:Energy efficient resources
1477:
1344:Northeast blackout of 2003
1331:
1302:
1206:
1149:
1076:Capacity and firm capacity
1027:
1007:
910:large-scale energy storage
882:
878:
821:
743:
690:Three-phase electric power
677:
611:
592:Electrical interconnectors
533:
431:wide area synchronous grid
400:wide area synchronous grid
394:Wide area synchronous grid
391:
388:Wide area synchronous grid
325:
36:
29:
4773:
4727:
4709:Renewable Energy Payments
4681:
4630:
4582:
4540:
4481:
4456:
4443:Renewable Energy Payments
4366:
4303:
4265:
4119:
4056:
3967:
3932:Fossil fuel power station
3922:
3915:
3904:
3775:
3562:"Lighting by electricity"
2147:10.1109/IPSN.2014.6846736
1904:World Resources Institute
1754:Energy Policy Act of 2005
1749:Energy Policy Act of 1992
1710:Central Electricity Board
1455:
974:
850:distribution transformers
172:Electric power conversion
158:Electric power conversion
4668:Power-line communication
4226:Single-wire earth return
4166:Electrical busbar system
3823:Energy demand management
3537:"Survey of Belford 1995"
3055:10.1109/TSG.2018.2868112
2294:European Energy Exchange
1668:was settled in favor of
1624:Rocky Mountain Institute
459:power transmission lines
451:European Energy Exchange
437:(ENTSO-E) with 667
4714:Renewable energy policy
4663:Phasor measurement unit
4569:Pickens Plan super grid
4357:Residual-current device
4347:Power system protection
4337:Generator interlock kit
3728:Open Infrastructure Map
2955:Gas turbine performance
2680:. University of Calgary
2674:"Electrical substation"
2188:10.1145/2821650.2821676
1683:In the United Kingdom,
412:Eastern Interconnection
408:Western Interconnection
134:Types (grouped by size)
4643:HVDC bulk transmission
4141:Distributed generation
3813:Electric power quality
3259:. 2011. Archived from
2754:"How Power Grids Work"
2344:RWTH Aachen University
1676:the regulation of the
1660:companies established
1505:demand-side management
1491:
1387:boiler feedwater pumps
1377:, normally called the
1347:
1244:or other parts of the
1172:
1152:Brownout (electricity)
902:
894:
833:
811:Synchronous condensers
706:
697:
692:Transmission Lines at
625:
614:Electricity generation
549:
416:Quebec Interconnection
177:HVDC converter station
128:electric grid security
70:electrical substations
49:
4781:Electricity economics
4760:Rural electrification
4413:Fossil fuel phase-out
4181:Electricity retailing
4176:Electrical substation
4156:Electric power system
3443:- MidWest Energy News
2733:Practical Engineering
2702:Hayes, Brian (2005).
2012:"How Microgrids Work"
1734:Électricité de France
1560:Load control switches
1489:
1443:Old cultural value –
1341:
1310:Electrical generation
1159:
926:renewable electricity
918:electrical power grid
900:
892:
831:
746:Electrical substation
724:Most transmission is
715:electrical substation
703:
687:
621:
543:
420:Texas Interconnection
215:Electric power system
47:
32:Grid (disambiguation)
4584:Efficient energy use
3769:Electricity delivery
3439:15 June 2016 at the
3180:. pp. 195–200.
2890:Steven Warren Blume
2577:www.ny-engineers.com
2512:IEEE Systems Journal
1758:greenhouse emissions
1642:plants that enjoyed
960:peaking power plants
62:electricity delivery
30:For other uses, see
4378:Availability factor
4330:Sulfur hexafluoride
4211:Overhead power line
4111:Virtual power plant
4086:Induction generator
4039:Sustainable biofuel
3848:Home energy storage
3838:Grid energy storage
3803:Droop speed control
3660:on 18 October 2018.
3350:2015EnPol..82..207K
3231:2012EnPol..44..199T
3015:on 19 February 2009
2524:2017ISysJ..11.1810C
2487:2016CliPo..16..658M
2407:2013REne...50..628C
2233:Microgrid Knowledge
1967:2019ERSS...49...36O
1923:Douris, Constance.
1857:2016ERSS...14..122O
1769:electrified railway
1697:Newcastle upon Tyne
1689:Merz & McLellan
1666:war of the currents
1538:distribution boards
1342:Toronto during the
1293:lead–acid batteries
1117:Failures and issues
1109:according to their
1050:droop speed control
906:Grid energy storage
885:Grid energy storage
854:utilization voltage
796:Lightning arresters
113:electricity markets
109:alternating current
58:electricity network
4574:Unified Smart Grid
4252:Transmission tower
3863:Nameplate capacity
3678:The Indian Express
3566:The National Trust
2823:10.3390/en14248433
2727:Hillhouse, Grady.
2678:energyeducation.ca
2435:on 1 February 2020
2263:. 24 November 2017
2089:www.pv-magazine.fr
1820:Sustainable energy
1783:2021-12-21 at the
1678:electricity market
1644:economies of scale
1492:
1418:costs and further
1395:combustion turbine
1348:
1281:standby generators
1173:
1082:nameplate capacity
922:intermittent power
903:
895:
834:
707:
698:
626:
550:
447:electricity market
381:Sonoma, California
187:DC-to-DC converter
182:AC-to-AC converter
50:
4807:
4806:
4592:Demand management
4499:
4498:
4403:Environmental tax
4283:Cascading failure
4052:
4051:
3888:Utility frequency
3432:Andy Balaskovitz
3414:on 12 August 2016
3195:978-1-4673-8732-3
2942:978-0-471-49016-6
2260:cleantechnica.com
2235:. 18 January 2018
2156:978-1-4799-3146-0
2141:. pp. 1–11.
1375:diesel generators
1322:rolling blackouts
1285:telecommunication
1254:cascading failure
1189:voltage reduction
1128:cascading failure
1030:Utility frequency
711:electrical energy
642:electromechanical
566:energy transition
319:
318:
258:Grid-tie inverter
167:Voltage converter
151:Power engineering
16:(Redirected from
4837:
4799:Renewable energy
4719:Soft energy path
4532:Modernizing the
4526:
4519:
4512:
4503:
4502:
4489:
4488:
4398:Energy subsidies
4352:Protective relay
4293:Rolling blackout
3920:
3919:
3910:
3878:Power-flow study
3818:Electrical fault
3762:
3755:
3748:
3739:
3738:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3644:
3638:
3637:
3628:
3622:
3621:
3612:
3606:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3589:
3583:
3580:
3574:
3573:
3572:on 29 June 2011.
3568:. Archived from
3558:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3533:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3517:
3508:
3502:
3501:
3499:
3498:
3485:
3476:
3470:
3467:
3458:
3457:
3450:
3444:
3430:
3424:
3423:
3421:
3419:
3410:. Archived from
3403:
3397:
3396:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3292:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3171:
3165:
3164:
3158:
3150:
3144:
3143:
3117:
3111:
3110:
3108:
3100:
3094:
3093:
3073:
3067:
3066:
3049:(5): 4751–4761.
3034:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3020:
2999:
2993:
2986:
2980:
2979:
2972:
2966:
2951:
2945:
2930:
2924:
2909:
2903:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2875:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2857:
2850:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2825:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2776:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2765:
2750:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2699:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2670:
2664:
2663:
2661:
2659:
2654:. 9 January 2019
2644:
2638:
2637:
2631:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2613:
2607:. Archived from
2602:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2571:Sajip, Jahnavi.
2568:
2562:
2561:
2543:
2518:(3): 1810–1821.
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2466:
2457:
2454:
2445:
2444:
2442:
2440:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2395:Renewable Energy
2390:
2384:
2383:
2372:
2366:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2352:
2337:
2328:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2302:
2287:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2251:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2225:
2219:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2070:
2061:. Archived from
2055:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2008:
1999:
1998:
1988:
1978:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1878:
1868:
1836:
1789:Jingtong Railway
1765:Baocheng Railway
1662:central stations
1658:Electric utility
1604:infrastructure.
1580:electric vehicle
1576:Renewable energy
1564:smart appliances
1554:behind the meter
1544:integrated with
1542:circuit breakers
1273:sewage treatment
1160:A brownout near
1089:spinning reserve
945:hydroelectricity
924:sources such as
847:
843:
777:Circuit breakers
694:Grand Coulee Dam
661:geothermal power
632:from sources of
521:
509:
497:
311:
304:
297:
283:Protective relay
138:
137:
21:
4845:
4844:
4840:
4839:
4838:
4836:
4835:
4834:
4820:Electrical grid
4810:
4809:
4808:
4803:
4769:
4745:Energy security
4735:Electrification
4723:
4677:
4653:Load management
4626:
4597:Demand response
4578:
4556:SuperSmart Grid
4536:
4534:electrical grid
4530:
4500:
4495:
4477:
4461:
4459:
4452:
4383:Capacity factor
4371:
4369:
4362:
4342:Numerical relay
4320:Circuit breaker
4308:
4306:
4299:
4261:
4201:Load management
4171:Electrical grid
4136:Demand response
4129:
4124:
4115:
4096:Microgeneration
4048:
3963:
3911:
3902:
3898:Vehicle-to-grid
3771:
3766:
3724:
3719:
3718:
3708:
3706:
3705:on 3 March 2021
3691:
3690:
3686:
3669:
3665:
3646:
3645:
3641:
3630:
3629:
3625:
3614:
3613:
3609:
3604:
3600:
3591:
3590:
3586:
3581:
3577:
3560:
3559:
3555:
3546:
3544:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3522:
3515:
3509:
3505:
3496:
3494:
3483:
3477:
3473:
3468:
3461:
3456:. 16 June 2015.
3452:
3451:
3447:
3441:Wayback Machine
3431:
3427:
3417:
3415:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3369:
3365:
3334:
3330:
3303:
3299:
3290:
3288:
3280:
3279:
3275:
3266:
3264:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3215:
3211:
3196:
3172:
3168:
3156:
3152:
3151:
3147:
3140:
3118:
3114:
3106:
3102:
3101:
3097:
3074:
3070:
3035:
3031:
3018:
3016:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2987:
2983:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2952:
2948:
2931:
2927:
2910:
2906:
2889:
2885:
2869:
2868:
2861:
2859:
2855:
2848:
2846:"Archived copy"
2844:
2843:
2839:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2777:
2773:
2763:
2761:
2752:
2751:
2747:
2737:
2735:
2725:
2721:
2714:
2700:
2693:
2683:
2681:
2672:
2671:
2667:
2657:
2655:
2646:
2645:
2641:
2625:
2624:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2600:
2598:"Archived copy"
2596:
2595:
2591:
2581:
2579:
2569:
2565:
2508:
2504:
2467:
2460:
2455:
2448:
2438:
2436:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2391:
2387:
2382:. 7 March 2018.
2374:
2373:
2369:
2356:
2354:
2353:on 19 July 2011
2350:
2335:
2326:
2320:
2316:
2306:
2304:
2303:on 10 July 2011
2300:
2285:
2281:
2280:
2276:
2266:
2264:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2238:
2236:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2217:
2213:
2198:
2176:
2172:
2157:
2133:
2129:
2119:
2117:
2107:
2103:
2093:
2091:
2081:
2077:
2068:
2066:
2057:
2056:
2052:
2042:
2040:
2034:
2030:
2020:
2018:
2010:
2009:
2002:
1947:
1943:
1933:
1931:
1921:
1917:
1908:
1906:
1896:
1892:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1805:
1785:Wayback Machine
1725:electrification
1652:carbon monoxide
1632:
1617:
1612:
1611:
1550:demand response
1483:
1475:
1466:Demand response
1463:
1461:Demand response
1458:
1404:
1336:
1330:
1307:
1305:Demand response
1301:
1262:circuit breaker
1217:(also called a
1211:
1205:
1154:
1148:
1130:and widespread
1126:possibility of
1119:
1103:
1078:
1032:
1026:
1010:
977:
972:
970:Functionalities
964:demand response
887:
881:
858:subtransmission
845:
838:
826:
820:
788:The substation
748:
742:
682:
676:
623:Turbo generator
616:
610:
605:
538:
532:
525:
522:
513:
510:
501:
498:
396:
390:
330:
324:
315:
235:Demand response
225:Electrical grid
136:
120:electrification
54:electrical grid
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4843:
4833:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4774:
4771:
4770:
4768:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4731:
4729:
4728:Related issues
4725:
4724:
4722:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4694:Feed-in tariff
4691:
4685:
4683:
4679:
4678:
4676:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4648:Load following
4645:
4640:
4634:
4632:
4628:
4627:
4625:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4602:Dynamic demand
4599:
4594:
4588:
4586:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4544:
4542:
4538:
4537:
4529:
4528:
4521:
4514:
4506:
4497:
4496:
4494:
4493:
4482:
4479:
4478:
4476:
4475:
4470:
4464:
4462:
4458:Statistics and
4457:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4408:Feed-in tariff
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4374:
4372:
4367:
4364:
4363:
4361:
4360:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4317:
4311:
4309:
4304:
4301:
4300:
4298:
4297:
4296:
4295:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4269:
4267:
4263:
4262:
4260:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4196:Interconnector
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4146:Dynamic demand
4143:
4138:
4132:
4130:
4120:
4117:
4116:
4114:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4076:Combined cycle
4073:
4068:
4062:
4060:
4054:
4053:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4030:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3973:
3971:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3961:
3956:
3955:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3928:
3926:
3917:
3913:
3912:
3905:
3903:
3901:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3853:Load-following
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3808:Electric power
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3779:
3777:
3773:
3772:
3765:
3764:
3757:
3750:
3742:
3736:
3735:
3723:
3722:External links
3720:
3717:
3716:
3684:
3663:
3639:
3623:
3607:
3598:
3584:
3575:
3553:
3528:
3503:
3471:
3459:
3445:
3425:
3398:
3363:
3328:
3297:
3273:
3244:
3209:
3194:
3166:
3145:
3139:978-0128053430
3138:
3112:
3095:
3084:(4): 944–980.
3068:
3029:
2994:
2981:
2978:. 17 May 2017.
2967:
2946:
2932:Knight, U.G.
2925:
2904:
2883:
2837:
2796:
2789:
2771:
2745:
2719:
2712:
2691:
2665:
2639:
2614:on 4 June 2011
2589:
2563:
2502:
2481:(5): 658–672.
2475:Climate Policy
2458:
2446:
2420:
2385:
2367:
2314:
2274:
2246:
2220:
2211:
2196:
2170:
2155:
2127:
2115:www.lemonde.fr
2101:
2075:
2050:
2028:
2000:
1941:
1915:
1890:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1804:
1801:
1631:
1628:
1616:
1615:Grid defection
1613:
1601:
1600:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:energy storage
1573:
1572:
1571:
1568:PACE financing
1534:
1517:energy storage
1484:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1453:
1452:
1441:
1438:power delivery
1434:
1427:
1403:
1400:
1332:Main article:
1329:
1326:
1303:Main article:
1300:
1297:
1227:power blackout
1207:Main article:
1204:
1201:
1150:Main article:
1147:
1144:
1118:
1115:
1102:
1099:
1077:
1074:
1028:Main article:
1025:
1022:
1009:
1006:
999:peaking plants
976:
973:
971:
968:
914:energy storage
883:Main article:
880:
877:
822:Main article:
819:
816:
815:
814:
808:
798:
793:
786:
780:
770:
769:
766:
763:
744:Main article:
741:
738:
678:Main article:
675:
672:
653:kinetic energy
638:power stations
634:primary energy
630:electric power
612:Main article:
609:
606:
604:
601:
581:global warming
534:Main article:
531:
528:
527:
526:
523:
516:
514:
511:
504:
502:
499:
492:
392:Main article:
389:
386:
385:
384:
377:
371:
365:
359:
326:Main article:
323:
320:
317:
316:
314:
313:
306:
299:
291:
288:
287:
286:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
263:Energy storage
260:
255:
253:Ring main unit
247:
246:
240:
239:
238:
237:
232:
230:Interconnector
227:
222:
217:
209:
208:
202:
201:
200:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
161:
160:
154:
153:
147:
146:
135:
132:
66:power stations
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4842:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4817:
4815:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4786:Energy policy
4784:
4782:
4779:
4776:
4775:
4772:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4740:Energy crisis
4738:
4736:
4733:
4732:
4730:
4726:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4680:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4635:
4633:
4629:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4589:
4587:
4585:
4581:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4546:
4545:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4527:
4522:
4520:
4515:
4513:
4508:
4507:
4504:
4492:
4484:
4483:
4480:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4455:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4428:Pigouvian tax
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4375:
4373:
4365:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4325:Earth-leakage
4323:
4322:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4312:
4310:
4302:
4294:
4291:
4290:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4266:Failure modes
4264:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4216:Power station
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4101:Rankine cycle
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4081:Cooling tower
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4059:
4055:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4004:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3974:
3972:
3970:
3966:
3960:
3957:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3925:
3924:Non-renewable
3921:
3918:
3914:
3909:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3843:Grid strength
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3798:Demand factor
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3780:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3763:
3758:
3756:
3751:
3749:
3744:
3743:
3740:
3733:
3732:OpenStreetMap
3729:
3726:
3725:
3704:
3700:
3699:
3694:
3688:
3680:
3679:
3674:
3667:
3659:
3655:
3654:
3653:Xinhuanet.com
3649:
3643:
3635:
3634:
3627:
3619:
3618:
3611:
3602:
3594:
3588:
3579:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3557:
3543:on 2016-04-12
3542:
3538:
3532:
3521:
3514:
3507:
3492:
3489:
3482:
3475:
3466:
3464:
3455:
3449:
3442:
3438:
3435:
3429:
3413:
3409:
3402:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3373:IEEE Spectrum
3367:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3338:Energy Policy
3332:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3311:Energy Policy
3308:
3301:
3287:
3283:
3277:
3263:on 2011-10-03
3262:
3258:
3254:
3248:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3219:Energy Policy
3213:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3178:
3170:
3162:
3155:
3149:
3141:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3116:
3105:
3099:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3033:
3026:
3014:
3010:
3009:
3004:
2998:
2991:
2985:
2977:
2971:
2964:
2963:0-632-06434-X
2960:
2956:
2950:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2929:
2922:
2921:0-920650-00-7
2918:
2914:
2908:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2887:
2879:
2873:
2854:
2847:
2841:
2833:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2800:
2792:
2790:9780470276822
2786:
2782:
2775:
2759:
2758:HowStuffWorks
2755:
2749:
2734:
2730:
2723:
2715:
2713:0-393-05997-9
2709:
2705:
2698:
2696:
2679:
2675:
2669:
2653:
2649:
2643:
2635:
2629:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2593:
2578:
2574:
2567:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2497:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2463:
2453:
2451:
2434:
2430:
2424:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2389:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2365:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2334:
2333:
2325:
2318:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2284:
2278:
2262:
2261:
2256:
2250:
2234:
2230:
2224:
2215:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2197:9781450339810
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2174:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2139:
2131:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2090:
2086:
2079:
2065:on 2021-05-04
2064:
2060:
2054:
2039:
2032:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2005:
1996:
1992:
1987:
1986:11250/2579292
1982:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1905:
1901:
1894:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1876:11250/2442076
1872:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1831:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1800:
1798:
1794:
1793:Haoji Railway
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1761:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1735:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1719:
1718:National Grid
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1627:
1625:
1620:
1609:
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1577:
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1547:
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1525:
1524:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1488:
1481:
1470:
1467:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1439:
1435:
1432:
1431:rights-of-way
1428:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1412:failure rates
1409:
1408:
1407:
1399:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1369:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1356:electric grid
1353:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1306:
1299:Load shedding
1296:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1250:short circuit
1247:
1243:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1231:power failure
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1210:
1200:
1198:
1195:, known as a
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1123:
1114:
1112:
1111:marginal cost
1108:
1098:
1096:
1095:Firm capacity
1092:
1090:
1085:
1083:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1051:
1046:
1040:
1038:
1031:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1005:
1002:
1000:
995:
991:
987:
985:
980:
967:
965:
961:
956:
952:
950:
946:
941:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
908:(also called
907:
899:
891:
886:
876:
873:
869:
864:
861:
859:
855:
851:
842:
830:
825:
812:
809:
806:
802:
799:
797:
794:
791:
787:
784:
781:
778:
775:
774:
773:
767:
764:
761:
757:
756:
755:
752:
747:
737:
735:
729:
727:
722:
718:
716:
712:
702:
695:
691:
686:
681:
671:
669:
664:
662:
658:
657:photovoltaics
654:
650:
646:
643:
639:
636:typically at
635:
631:
624:
620:
615:
600:
596:
593:
588:
586:
582:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
547:
542:
537:
520:
515:
508:
503:
496:
491:
490:
489:
487:
483:
479:
475:
470:
466:
464:
460:
454:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
427:
425:
422:). In Europe
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
395:
382:
378:
375:
372:
369:
366:
363:
360:
357:
353:
350:
349:
348:
345:
342:
338:
336:
329:
312:
307:
305:
300:
298:
293:
292:
290:
289:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
250:
249:
248:
245:
242:
241:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
220:Power station
218:
216:
213:
212:
211:
210:
207:
204:
203:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
164:
163:
162:
159:
156:
155:
152:
149:
148:
144:
140:
139:
131:
129:
124:
121:
116:
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110:
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102:
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92:
88:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
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40:
33:
19:
18:Firm capacity
4699:Net metering
4533:
4423:Net metering
4370:and policies
4288:Power outage
4257:Utility pole
4221:Pumped hydro
4170:
4127:distribution
4122:Transmission
4071:Cogeneration
3873:Power factor
3707:. Retrieved
3703:the original
3696:
3687:
3676:
3666:
3658:the original
3651:
3642:
3632:
3626:
3616:
3610:
3601:
3587:
3578:
3570:the original
3556:
3545:. Retrieved
3541:the original
3531:
3506:
3495:. Retrieved
3474:
3448:
3428:
3416:. Retrieved
3412:the original
3401:
3379:(6): 54–59.
3376:
3372:
3366:
3341:
3337:
3331:
3314:
3310:
3300:
3289:. Retrieved
3285:
3276:
3265:. Retrieved
3261:the original
3256:
3247:
3222:
3218:
3212:
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3169:
3160:
3148:
3121:
3115:
3098:
3081:
3077:
3071:
3046:
3042:
3032:
3024:
3017:. Retrieved
3013:the original
3006:
2997:
2989:
2984:
2970:
2954:
2949:
2933:
2928:
2912:
2911:Alan Wyatt,
2907:
2891:
2886:
2860:. Retrieved
2840:
2816:(24): 8433.
2813:
2809:
2799:
2780:
2774:
2762:. Retrieved
2760:. April 2000
2757:
2748:
2736:. Retrieved
2732:
2722:
2703:
2682:. Retrieved
2677:
2668:
2656:. Retrieved
2651:
2642:
2616:. Retrieved
2609:the original
2604:
2592:
2580:. Retrieved
2576:
2566:
2515:
2511:
2505:
2478:
2474:
2437:. Retrieved
2433:the original
2423:
2398:
2394:
2388:
2379:
2370:
2363:
2355:. Retrieved
2348:the original
2331:
2317:
2305:. Retrieved
2298:the original
2277:
2265:. Retrieved
2258:
2249:
2237:. Retrieved
2232:
2223:
2214:
2179:
2173:
2137:
2130:
2118:. Retrieved
2114:
2104:
2092:. Retrieved
2088:
2078:
2067:. Retrieved
2063:the original
2053:
2041:. Retrieved
2031:
2019:. Retrieved
2015:
1958:
1954:
1944:
1934:27 September
1932:. Retrieved
1928:
1918:
1907:. Retrieved
1903:
1893:
1884:
1848:
1844:
1834:
1762:
1745:public goods
1738:
1722:
1685:Charles Merz
1682:
1656:
1640:gasification
1633:
1621:
1618:
1602:
1553:
1546:home control
1531:smart meters
1521:
1501:
1493:
1464:
1405:
1402:Obsolescence
1378:
1372:
1364:
1351:
1349:
1308:
1289:battery room
1266:
1246:distribution
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1215:power outage
1214:
1212:
1209:Power outage
1193:power outage
1181:power supply
1176:
1174:
1132:power outage
1124:
1120:
1104:
1094:
1093:
1086:
1079:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1041:
1033:
1018:tap changers
1011:
1003:
988:
984:demand curve
983:
981:
978:
957:
953:
942:
909:
905:
904:
868:radially fed
867:
865:
862:
835:
805:power factor
771:
760:transformers
753:
749:
730:
723:
719:
708:
674:Transmission
665:
649:heat engines
627:
597:
589:
574:solar energy
561:
557:
553:
551:
471:
467:
455:
430:
428:
403:
397:
346:
343:
339:
331:
224:
125:
117:
103:
98:
76:up or down,
57:
53:
51:
4658:Peak demand
4622:Smart meter
4418:Load factor
4273:Black start
4241:Transformer
3942:Natural gas
3893:Variability
3868:Peak demand
3858:Merit order
3788:Backfeeding
3344:: 207–221.
3317:: 378–389.
3225:: 199–206.
3019:22 November
2605:www.aep.com
2401:: 628–636.
1851:: 122–130.
1723:In France,
1720:, in 1938.
1674:liberalized
1509:solar power
1449:engineering
1424:restoration
1416:maintenance
1352:black start
1334:Black start
1328:Black start
1314:electricity
1242:substations
1185:voltage sag
1162:Tokyo Tower
1107:merit order
994:peak demand
938:solar power
934:tidal power
740:Substations
726:three-phase
570:wind energy
368:Les Anglais
106:three phase
95:super grids
4814:Categories
4777:Categories
4673:Power-to-X
4617:Smart grid
4564:Electranet
4460:production
4305:Protective
4236:Super grid
4231:Smart grid
4058:Generation
3992:Geothermal
3883:Repowering
3547:2013-10-06
3497:2023-12-13
3291:2024-08-05
3267:2011-10-11
3257:SmartGrids
2965:, page 486
2900:0470129875
2618:11 January
2541:10197/7108
2439:26 January
2429:"UHV Grid"
2357:6 December
2307:6 December
2120:27 January
2094:27 January
2069:2021-04-19
2016:Energy.gov
1909:2023-12-13
1826:References
1775:of China,
1529:(of which
1513:wind power
1496:smart grid
1480:Smart grid
1473:Smart grid
1391:excitation
1248:system, a
1101:Production
930:wind power
846:35 kV
807:correction
801:Capacitors
705:geography.
647:driven by
645:generators
608:Generation
603:Components
554:super grid
536:Super grid
530:Super grid
99:power grid
87:microgrids
39:Power Grid
4607:Negawatts
4541:Proposals
4368:Economics
4091:Micro CHP
3969:Renewable
3952:Petroleum
3947:Oil shale
3833:Grid code
3793:Base load
3734:database.
3418:13 August
3063:117469364
2862:28 August
2832:1996-1073
2550:1932-8184
1995:2214-6296
1961:: 36–40.
1809:Grid code
1687:, of the
1597:broadband
1383:megawatts
1368:bootstrap
1318:brownouts
1269:hospitals
1223:power out
1219:power cut
1067:lines or
1024:Frequency
668:gigawatts
562:mega grid
558:supergrid
439:gigawatts
404:frequency
374:Mpeketoni
362:Île d'Yeu
335:islanding
328:Microgrid
322:Microgrid
192:Rectifier
4750:Peak oil
4682:Policies
4491:Category
4278:Brownout
4066:AC power
3776:Concepts
3520:Archived
3437:Archived
3393:36554641
3204:25664994
2872:cite web
2853:Archived
2810:Energies
2764:18 March
2738:23 April
2684:23 April
2658:23 April
2628:cite web
2582:22 April
2558:10085130
2043:19 April
2021:19 April
1881:Archived
1803:See also
1781:Archived
1729:communes
1670:AC power
1648:hydrogen
1636:coal gas
1445:planning
1275:plants,
1235:blackout
1203:Blackout
1197:blackout
1177:brownout
1146:Brownout
1037:governor
1014:reactive
990:Baseload
783:Switches
578:mitigate
546:DESERTEC
418:and the
278:Recloser
273:Bus duct
197:Inverter
143:a series
141:Part of
72:to step
4790:Portals
4307:devices
4017:Thermal
4012:Osmotic
4007:Current
3987:Biomass
3977:Biofuel
3959:Nuclear
3916:Sources
3709:24 June
3346:Bibcode
3227:Bibcode
3008:Reuters
2923:page 63
2520:Bibcode
2483:Bibcode
2403:Bibcode
2380:Reuters
2290:Leipzig
2267:28 June
2239:28 June
2206:2742485
2165:8593041
1963:Bibcode
1853:Bibcode
1630:History
1398:state.
1072:lines.
1008:Voltage
879:Storage
860:level.
839:2
688:500 kV
651:or the
463:DC ties
453:(EEX).
443:IPS/UPS
74:voltage
4794:Energy
4002:Marine
3982:Biogas
3493:(FEMP)
3391:
3202:
3192:
3136:
3061:
2961:
2940:
2919:
2902:p. 199
2898:
2830:
2787:
2710:
2556:
2548:
2340:Aachen
2204:
2194:
2163:
2153:
1993:
1929:Forbes
1536:Smart
1456:Trends
1426:costs.
1420:repair
975:Demand
790:busbar
670:(GW).
486:clocks
478:Serbia
474:Kosovo
414:, the
410:, the
352:Hajjah
268:Busbar
93:, and
4359:(GFI)
4248:(TSO)
4034:Solar
4022:Tidal
3997:Hydro
3523:(PDF)
3516:(PDF)
3484:(PDF)
3389:S2CID
3200:S2CID
3157:(PDF)
3107:(PDF)
3059:S2CID
2856:(PDF)
2849:(PDF)
2612:(PDF)
2601:(PDF)
2554:S2CID
2351:(PDF)
2336:(PDF)
2327:(PDF)
2301:(PDF)
2286:(PDF)
2202:S2CID
2161:S2CID
1714:hertz
1695:near
1277:mines
1233:or a
1170:Japan
1166:Tokyo
928:from
4125:and
4044:Wind
4027:Wave
3937:Coal
3711:2020
3420:2016
3190:ISBN
3134:ISBN
3021:2008
2959:ISBN
2938:ISBN
2917:ISBN
2896:ISBN
2878:link
2864:2017
2828:ISSN
2785:ISBN
2766:2016
2740:2021
2708:ISBN
2686:2021
2660:2021
2634:link
2620:2022
2584:2021
2546:ISSN
2441:2020
2359:2008
2309:2008
2269:2018
2241:2018
2192:ISBN
2151:ISBN
2122:2021
2096:2021
2045:2021
2023:2021
1991:ISSN
1936:2018
1650:and
1622:The
1562:and
1548:and
1540:and
1511:and
1494:The
1422:and
1258:fuse
1225:, a
1221:, a
936:and
844:and
803:for
659:and
572:and
356:Lahj
354:and
56:(or
4560:USA
3381:doi
3354:doi
3319:doi
3235:doi
3182:doi
3126:doi
3086:doi
3051:doi
2818:doi
2536:hdl
2528:doi
2491:doi
2411:doi
2184:doi
2143:doi
1981:hdl
1971:doi
1871:hdl
1861:doi
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