803:
2246:
796:
789:
782:
775:
2801:
923:
the written digit "𐌡" is then meant to depict that hand, with the thumb out to the side. The numbers 6 to 9 then would be signaled by one fully open hand and 1 to 4 long fingers extended in the other; which would be depicted as "𐌡𐌠", "𐌡𐌠𐌠", "𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠", "𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠". Finally 10 would be signaled by two hands with all fingers and thumbs extended; which, in writing, would be represented by the upper and lower halves of the digit "𐌢".
1587:
locations, those from 500 BCE or earlier used only the first pattern, (1-2, 3-4, 5-6), in which the opposite faces differ by 1. Those from 350 BCE and later, on the other hand, used the Roman (1-6, 2-5, 3-4) pattern. Between 500 and 350 BCE, the latter gradually replaced the former at all
Etruscan sites covered.
872:
The same pattern was used for 27, 28, 29, 37, 38, 39, etc. In contrast, the
Etruscans generally wrote "𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠" for 4 (alone and in 14, 24, 34, etc.), "𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌢" for 40, and "𐌡𐌠𐌠", "𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠", "𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠" for 7, 8, and 9 alone. (In that they were unlike the Romans, who would write 4 as "IV", 9
856:
Examples are known of larger numbers, but it is unknown which digit represents which numeral. Most numbers were written with "additive notation", namely by writing digits that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus the number '87', for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 +
922:
In that hypothesis, the early inhabitants of the region counted from 1 to 4 by extending the same number of long fingers (index to little); gestures that were represented in writing by "𐌠", "𐌠𐌠", "𐌠𐌠𐌠", "𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠". The count of 5 was signaled by extending those 4 fingers plus the thumb; and
1586:
For unknown reasons, Roman dice generally used the last pattern, (1-6, 2-5, 3-4), in which every pair of opposite faces adds to 7; a tradition that continued in Europe to the present day, and has become the standard all over the world. However, among the 91 Etruscan dice from many different
860:
However, mirroring the way those numbers were spoken in their language, the
Etruscans would often write 17, 18, and 19 as "𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢", "𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢", and "𐌠𐌢𐌢" – that is, "three from twenty", "two from twenty", and "one from twenty", instead of "𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠", "𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠", and "𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠". (The
1629:
That assignment would imply that the
Tuscany dice follow the pattern (1-6, 2-5, 3-4); that is, they are of the "late" (Roman) type. The researchers claim that this assignment is consistent with the shape of the letters, that indicate a date later than 400 BCE.
1565:
Mathematically, there are 30 ways to place the numbers 1-6 on the faces of a die; or 15 if one counts together numberings that are mirror images of each other. These 15 possibilities are identified by the pairs of numbers that occur on opposite faces:
970:
Nevertheless, except for the identities of 4 and 6, there is general agreement among
Etruscologists about the words for numbers up to 100. The table below gives the transliteration (one letter for each Etruscan letter) and an approximate phonetic pronunciation.
954:
When transposing the final count to writing (or to another stick), it would have been unnecessary to copy each "𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠Λ𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠" before a "𐌢", or each "𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠" before a Λ. So the count of '28' would be written down as simply "𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠".
1710:, A. Carnoy, M. Durante, V. Georgiev, A. Morandi and M. Pittau, have posited a "perfect fit" between the ten Etruscan numerals and words in various Indo-European languages (not always numerical or with any apparent connection), such as
1641:) would make the pattern of the Tuscany dice be (1-4, 2-5, 3-6); that is, with numbers on opposite faces being 3 apart. No other Etruscan die has been found with that pattern (or with words instead of pips, for that matter).
857:
10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = "𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠". (Since the
Etruscan script was usually written from right to left, the number would appear as "𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣" in inscriptions. This caveat holds for all the following examples.)
942:
In that system, each unit counted would be recorded as a notch cut across the stick. Every fifth notch was double cut, i.e. "𐌡" and every tenth was cross cut, "𐌢"; much like
European
891:
The
Etruscan digits for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 ("𐌠", "𐌡", "𐌢", "𐌣", and "𐌟") have been assigned specific codes in the Unicode computer character set, as part of the
974:
Words marked by asterisks are not attested, but are hypothesized based on known numbers. A hyphen indicates that only derivations of the numeral are attested.
963:
The paucity of material severely limits current knowledge about the
Etruscan words for numbers, and their grammar. For example, the assumed word for 9,
1703:
L. Bonfante (1990) claimed that what the numerals "show, beyond any shadow of a doubt, is the non-Indo-European nature of the
Etruscan language".
2220:
2083:
939:
shepherds into the 19th century. Unfortunately, being made of perishable wood, no tally sticks would have survived from that period.
915:
An old hypothesis, advanced by Th. Mommsen in 1887 and echoed by A. Hooper, is that the digits for 1, 5, and 10 were iconic for hand
710:
2547:
1798:
2301:
1543:("the fourth Charon"). In the same necropolis, in the Tomb of the Anina, which contains six burial places, an inscription reads:
430:
931:
Another hypothesis, which seems to be more accepted today, is that the Etrusco-Roman numerals actually derive from notches on
2346:
1966:
2125:
737:
1500:
There has been a longstanding controversy about the assignment of 4 and 6. All Etruscologists agree that the words are
263:
1922:
Artioli, G.; Nociti, V.; Angelini, I. (October 2011). "Gambling with Etruscan Dice: A tale of numbers and letters".
2500:
2049:
54:
2461:
497:
1707:
1554:, from many different ages and locations, with numbers marked by dots ("pips"); and a lone pair of dice (the "
888:. However, it should be kept in mind that there is in fact very little surviving evidence of these numerals.
2296:
2073:
1614:). In both the "old" and "new" patterns, however, the values 3 and 4 lie on opposite faces. Thus, since
703:
278:
2383:
2291:
2093:
1697:
623:
2451:
2063:
450:
1900:
Pallottino, M. (1964). "Un gruppo di nuove iscrizioni tarquiniesi e il problema dei numerali etruschi".
633:
2823:
2446:
2372:
2215:
892:
510:
2413:
2393:
2254:
2235:
2200:
606:
375:
1550:
However, that assignment was challenged in 2011 by a thorough analysis of 91 Etruscan gambling
2590:
1539:
are represented, each one accompanied by an inscription: Next to the fourth Charon, the text reads
696:
23:
2084:
https://web.archive.org/web/20050405165439/http://users.tpg.com.au/etr/etrusk/tex/grammar.html#num
2610:
2118:
733:
727:
686:
470:
67:
1810:
331:
2431:
2426:
370:
286:
876:
These digits were used throughout the Etruscan zone of influence, from the plains of northern
2436:
2341:
2271:
2134:
1755:
1528:
916:
488:
2245:
2673:
2015:
583:
444:
437:
318:
1872:. Translated by David Bellos, E. F. Harding, Sophie Wood, Ian Monk. John Wiley & Sons.
861:
Romans occasionally did the same for 18 and 19, matching the way they said those numbers:
8:
2542:
2471:
2466:
2028:
Maras, Daniele. "Numbers and reckoning: A whole civilization founded upon divisions." In
1765:
1735:
1451:
665:
655:
530:
481:
293:
225:
80:
41:
2098:
2068:
1799:
Nombre, chiffre, lettre : Formes et réformes. Des notations chiffrées de l'étrusque
1519:
Until recently, it was generally accepted, based on archaeological evidence, that 4 was
1457:
Note that the numbers 17 to 19 are written as three, two and one from twenty. Similarly
120:
2585:
2536:
2155:
2111:
1536:
578:
168:
163:
110:
115:
2828:
2800:
2633:
2580:
2489:
2481:
2366:
2331:
2281:
1935:
1806:
1760:
749:
660:
650:
638:
618:
568:
504:
336:
308:
215:
148:
138:
125:
90:
85:
553:
2523:
2494:
2421:
2321:
2258:
2165:
2160:
2150:
2142:
2088:
1931:
1830:
1826:
1682:
1465:
853:(With the proper Unicode font installed, the first two rows should look the same.)
563:
457:
210:
198:
143:
133:
100:
75:
1870:
The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer
1801:" ("Between Numbers and Letters: About Etruscan Notations of Numeral Sequences").
2625:
2518:
2441:
2311:
2306:
2210:
2190:
753:
675:
645:
588:
558:
543:
303:
271:
243:
220:
203:
62:
158:
2648:
2529:
2456:
2286:
2266:
2230:
1995:
1555:
904:
869:. This habit has been attributed to Etruscan influence in the Latin language.)
764:
The Etruscan numerical system included the following digits with known values:
670:
613:
593:
548:
421:
153:
105:
31:
2817:
2743:
2605:
2513:
2507:
2388:
2185:
476:
365:
298:
238:
173:
95:
1887:
2804:
2723:
2615:
2595:
2276:
2225:
628:
1622:
must be 4; and since there is no dissent about the words for 1, 2, and 5,
2600:
2575:
2175:
1952:, University of California Press (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1990), p. 22.
943:
932:
598:
463:
415:
405:
2103:
2094:
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2011.00596.x
2557:
1559:
802:
400:
795:
788:
2768:
2753:
2728:
2698:
2668:
2336:
2170:
1532:
781:
774:
410:
2643:
2035:
Woudhuizen, F. C. "Etruscan numerals in indo-european perspective."
2032:, edited by Jean MacIntosh Turfa, 478–91. Abingdon: Routledge, 2013.
2783:
2778:
2773:
2758:
2738:
2570:
2565:
2356:
2316:
2205:
2099:
Arjan Verweij – Gallery of Ancient Dice – Ivory and Bone Cubic Dice
936:
1547:, which has been translated as: "he built six tombs/sepulchres".
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2693:
2688:
2678:
2653:
2351:
2180:
1921:
1527:. For instance, in the frescos of the Tomb of the Charons in the
810:
395:
380:
2398:
2326:
1669:
meant '10'. According to his interpretation, the attested form
1454:, which in Etruscan are distinguished from non-aspirated , , .
881:
385:
16:
Words, phrases and symbols for numbers of the Etruscan language
2788:
2748:
2733:
2683:
2658:
2638:
2403:
2378:
2361:
2195:
1696:
There is a debate that has been carried out about a possible
877:
390:
352:
313:
2763:
2663:
1803:
Revue de philologie, de littérature et d'histoire anciennes
1551:
885:
946:
today. For example, a count of '28' would then look like
1590:
On the Tuscany dice, the opposite faces carry the words (
1681:
would therefore be '60', and is presumably cognate with
950:𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠
1475:
1469:
1821:
Giuliano Bonfante (1985): "Etruscan Words in Latin".
903:
The Etruscan digits may have been based on the Greek
1888:
Etruscan numerals: problems and results of research
1649:In 2006, S. A. Yatsemirsky presented evidence that
2010:Agostiniani, Luciano. "The Etruscan language." In
1994:, vol. XXXV–XXXVI, 1994/1995 (1996), pp. 95–105. (
1618:was known to be 3, the researchers concluded that
1579:(1-5, 2-3, 4-6), (1-5, 2-4, 3-6), (1-5, 2-6, 3-4),
1576:(1-4, 2-3, 5-6), (1-4, 2-5, 3-6), (1-4, 2-6, 3-5),
1573:(1-3, 2-4, 5-6), (1-3, 2-5, 4-6), (1-3, 2-6, 4-5),
1570:(1-2, 3-4, 5-6), (1-2, 3-5, 4-6), (1-2, 3-6, 4-5),
1450:The phonetic notation (φ), (θ) and (ψ) denotes
1582:(1-6, 2-3, 4-5), (1-6, 2-4, 3-5), (1-6, 2-5, 3-4)
907:. However, other hypotheses have been advanced.
2815:
2089:http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/language.html
1961:Carnoy A., La langue étrusque et ses origines,
1899:
1854:Th. Mommsen (1887): "Zahl- und Bruchzeichen".
2119:
1805:, volume LXXXIII (83), issue 1, pp. 103–130.
1738:*tréyes, which is not a match to Etruscan ),
1516:). The disagreement is about which is which.
748:are the words and phrases for numbers of the
704:
2221:Arruns Tarquinius (son of Tarquin the Proud)
935:, which continued to be used by Italian and
1691:
2126:
2112:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1883:
1881:
1879:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1562:") with the numbers written out as words.
711:
697:
2133:
1992:Atti del Sodalizio Glottologico Milanese
1861:
1644:
1468:. For example, in the Etruscan sentence
967:, is known from a single inscription.
1908:
1876:
1848:
1778:
738:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
2816:
1706:Conversely, other scholars, including
1700:origin of the Etruscan number words.
1495:
2107:
2021:Gluhak, Alemko. "Etruscan Numerals."
1981:, Erre Emme (Roma, 1991), chapter IV.
1867:
1677:must therefore mean 'four'. The form
2018:, 457–77. Abingdon: Routledge, 2013.
1990:Pittau, M., "I numerali Etruschi",
1825:, volume 36, issue 3, pp. 203–210.
1815:
1464:The numbers could be inflected for
13:
2004:
1979:Nuovi lineamenti di lingua etrusca
1858:, volume 22, issue 4, pp. 596–614.
14:
2840:
2043:
2799:
2548:English words of Etruscan origin
2422:Battle of Alalia (540 BC–535 BC)
2244:
1936:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2011.00596.x
801:
794:
787:
780:
773:
2501:Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum
2302:Etruscan names for Greek heroes
1984:
1971:
1955:
1673:could only mean 'sixteen', and
958:
910:
2462:Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC)
2437:Battle of the Cremera (477 BC)
1942:
1893:
1835:
1831:10.1080/00437956.1985.11435872
1461:"three from thirty" (27) etc.
926:
1:
1797:Gilles Van Heems (2009)> "
1771:
1633:The opposite assignment (4 =
2467:Battle of Populonia (282 BC)
2292:Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum
2074:Resources in other libraries
1476:
1470:
7:
2452:Capture of Fidenae (435 BC)
1749:
1474:"has died of two eighty",
1471:lupu avils esals cezpalψals
10:
2845:
2457:Battle of Veii (c. 396 BC)
2447:Battle of Fidenae (437 BC)
2373:Sarcophagus of the Spouses
2216:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
1845:(New York, H. Holt, 1945).
898:
431:Non-standard radices/bases
2797:
2624:
2556:
2480:
2412:
2394:Tomb of the Roaring Lions
2253:
2242:
2236:Titus Vestricius Spurinna
2201:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
2141:
2069:Resources in your library
1432:
1421:
1410:
1399:
1366:
1333:
1322:
1311:
1300:
1289:
1147:
1137:
1127:
1082:
1032:
1022:
1000:
759:
2591:National Etruscan Museum
2442:Battle of Cumae (474 BC)
2025:17, no. 1 (1978): 25–32.
1890:(PDF), S. A. Yatsemirsky
1692:Indo-European hypothesis
880:to the region of modern
2611:Tumulus of Montefortini
1868:Ifrah, Georges (2000).
687:List of numeral systems
2432:Siege of Rome (508 BC)
2427:Siege of Rome (509 BC)
1965:, 21 (1952), p. 326. (
873:as "IX", 40 as "XL".)
726:This article contains
2342:Monterozzi necropolis
2135:Etruscan civilization
1963:L'Antiquité Classique
1843:The River Mathematics
1756:Etruscan civilization
1645:Duodecimal hypothesis
1529:Monterozzi necropolis
917:gestures for counting
55:Hindu–Arabic numerals
2674:Civita di Bagnoregio
2347:Mythological figures
2016:Jean MacIntosh Turfa
1730:'three' and Iranian
1545:sa suthi cherichunce
1531:, on a hill east of
1293:"three from twenty"
756:used to write them.
584:Prehistoric counting
360:Common radices/bases
42:Place-value notation
2543:Tyrsenian languages
2472:Roman-Etruscan Wars
2384:Terracotta warriors
1766:Old Italic alphabet
1736:proto-Indo-European
1714:'one' and Sanskrit
1496:The 4 vs. 6 dispute
1488:is the genitive of
1480:is the genitive of
979:
531:Sign-value notation
2586:Monteleone Chariot
2537:Tabula Cortonensis
2317:Haruspex/Extispicy
2156:Villanovan culture
2030:The Etruscan World
2012:The Etruscan World
1315:"one from twenty"
1304:"two from twenty"
978:Etruscan numerals
977:
728:special characters
187:East Asian systems
2824:Etruscan language
2811:
2810:
2581:Impasto (pottery)
2332:Liver of Piacenza
2282:Chimera of Arezzo
2055:Etruscan numerals
2050:Library resources
2039:, 20 (1988): 109.
1761:Etruscan language
1742:'four' and Latin
1722:'two' and German
1445:
1444:
851:
850:
750:Etruscan language
746:Etruscan numerals
734:rendering support
721:
720:
520:
519:
2836:
2803:
2524:Lemnian language
2495:Cippus Perusinus
2414:Military history
2248:
2166:Founding of Rome
2161:Padanian Etruria
2128:
2121:
2114:
2105:
2104:
1998:
1988:
1982:
1975:
1969:
1959:
1953:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1930:(5): 1031–1043.
1919:
1906:
1905:
1897:
1891:
1885:
1874:
1873:
1865:
1859:
1852:
1846:
1839:
1833:
1819:
1813:
1795:
1657:meant '12' (cf.
1479:
1473:
980:
976:
893:Old Italic block
805:
798:
791:
784:
777:
767:
766:
754:numerical digits
713:
706:
699:
502:
486:
468:
458:balanced ternary
455:
442:
48:
47:
19:
18:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2814:
2813:
2812:
2807:
2793:
2620:
2552:
2519:Raetic language
2476:
2408:
2312:Fanum Voltumnae
2307:Tiburtine Sibyl
2297:Etruscan League
2249:
2240:
2211:Servius Tullius
2191:Caelius Vibenna
2137:
2132:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2046:
2007:
2005:Further reading
2002:
2001:
1989:
1985:
1976:
1972:
1960:
1956:
1947:
1943:
1920:
1909:
1898:
1894:
1886:
1877:
1866:
1862:
1853:
1849:
1841:Alfred Hooper.
1840:
1836:
1820:
1816:
1796:
1779:
1774:
1752:
1694:
1647:
1498:
1452:aspirated stops
1447:
1437:
1414:"eight-ty/ten"
1403:"seven-ty/ten"
1382:
1349:
1337:"three-ty/ten"
1272:
1260:"three-twelve"
1233:
993:interpretation
992:
988:interpretation
987:
961:
929:
913:
901:
762:
743:
742:
741:
732:Without proper
717:
681:
680:
603:
589:Proto-cuneiform
534:
533:
522:
521:
516:
515:
500:
484:
466:
453:
440:
427:
356:
355:
343:
342:
323:
283:
268:
259:
258:
249:
248:
230:
189:
188:
179:
178:
130:
72:
58:
57:
45:
44:
32:Numeral systems
17:
12:
11:
5:
2842:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2809:
2808:
2798:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2630:
2628:
2622:
2621:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2562:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2533:
2530:Tabula Capuana
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2504:
2497:
2492:
2486:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2267:Apollo of Veii
2263:
2261:
2251:
2250:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2231:Lars Tolumnius
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2147:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2131:
2130:
2123:
2116:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2044:External links
2042:
2041:
2040:
2033:
2026:
2019:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1983:
1970:
1954:
1941:
1907:
1902:Studi Etruschi
1892:
1875:
1860:
1847:
1834:
1814:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1751:
1748:
1734:'three' (from
1693:
1690:
1646:
1643:
1584:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1571:
1558:" or "dice of
1556:Tuscanian dice
1497:
1494:
1443:
1442:
1441:"one hundred"
1431:
1427:
1426:
1425:"nine-ty/ten"
1420:
1416:
1415:
1409:
1405:
1404:
1398:
1394:
1393:
1387:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1370:"five-ty/ten"
1365:
1361:
1360:
1354:
1343:
1339:
1338:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1321:
1317:
1316:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1299:
1295:
1294:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1282:"four-twelve"
1277:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1245:
1244:
1238:
1227:
1223:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1206:
1205:
1195:
1189:
1185:
1184:
1181:
1175:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1156:
1152:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1131:
1126:
1122:
1121:
1112:
1095:
1091:
1090:
1081:
1077:
1076:
1067:
1050:
1046:
1045:
1031:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1017:
1016:
999:
995:
994:
989:
984:
960:
957:
952:
951:
928:
925:
912:
909:
905:Attic numerals
900:
897:
849:
848:
845:
842:
839:
836:
833:
829:
828:
825:
822:
819:
816:
813:
807:
806:
799:
792:
785:
778:
771:
761:
758:
736:, you may see
724:
723:
722:
719:
718:
716:
715:
708:
701:
693:
690:
689:
683:
682:
679:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
642:
641:
636:
631:
621:
616:
610:
609:
602:
601:
596:
591:
586:
581:
576:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
546:
540:
539:
538:Non-alphabetic
535:
529:
528:
527:
524:
523:
518:
517:
514:
513:
508:
495:
479:
474:
461:
448:
434:
433:
426:
425:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
362:
361:
357:
350:
349:
348:
345:
344:
341:
340:
334:
328:
327:
322:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
290:
289:
287:Post-classical
282:
281:
275:
274:
267:
266:
260:
256:
255:
254:
251:
250:
247:
246:
241:
235:
234:
229:
228:
223:
218:
213:
208:
207:
206:
195:
194:
190:
186:
185:
184:
181:
180:
177:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
129:
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
71:
70:
68:Eastern Arabic
65:
63:Western Arabic
59:
53:
52:
51:
46:
40:
39:
38:
35:
34:
28:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2841:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2806:
2802:
2796:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2744:San Giovenale
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2606:Tomb of Orcus
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2555:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2538:
2534:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2514:Pyrgi Tablets
2512:
2510:
2509:
2508:Liber Linteus
2505:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2487:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2389:Titus Larcius
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2374:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2247:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2186:Aulus Vibenna
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2129:
2124:
2122:
2117:
2115:
2110:
2109:
2106:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2038:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2008:
1996:
1993:
1987:
1980:
1977:Morandi, A.,
1974:
1967:
1964:
1958:
1951:
1948:Bonfante, L.,
1945:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1903:
1896:
1889:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1871:
1864:
1857:
1851:
1844:
1838:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1777:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1747:
1746:'four', etc.
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1698:Indo-European
1689:
1687:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1626:had to be 6.
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1460:
1455:
1453:
1448:
1440:
1435:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1388:
1385:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1340:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1089:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1075:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1025:
1019:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
997:
996:
990:
985:
982:
981:
975:
972:
968:
966:
956:
949:
948:
947:
945:
940:
938:
934:
924:
920:
918:
908:
906:
896:
894:
889:
887:
883:
879:
874:
870:
868:
864:
858:
854:
846:
843:
840:
837:
834:
831:
830:
826:
823:
820:
817:
814:
812:
809:
808:
804:
800:
797:
793:
790:
786:
783:
779:
776:
772:
769:
768:
765:
757:
755:
751:
747:
739:
735:
731:
729:
714:
709:
707:
702:
700:
695:
694:
692:
691:
688:
685:
684:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
640:
637:
635:
632:
630:
627:
626:
625:
624:Alphasyllabic
622:
620:
617:
615:
612:
611:
608:
605:
604:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
562:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
541:
537:
536:
532:
526:
525:
512:
509:
506:
499:
496:
493:
492:
483:
480:
478:
475:
472:
465:
462:
459:
452:
449:
446:
439:
436:
435:
432:
429:
428:
423:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
363:
359:
358:
354:
347:
346:
338:
335:
333:
330:
329:
325:
324:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
291:
288:
285:
284:
280:
277:
276:
273:
270:
269:
265:
262:
261:
257:Other systems
253:
252:
245:
242:
240:
239:Counting rods
237:
236:
232:
231:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
212:
209:
205:
202:
201:
200:
197:
196:
192:
191:
183:
182:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
131:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
73:
69:
66:
64:
61:
60:
56:
50:
49:
43:
37:
36:
33:
30:
29:
25:
21:
20:
2724:Poggio Colla
2616:Vicus Tuscus
2596:Negau helmet
2535:
2528:
2506:
2499:
2371:
2272:Architecture
2226:Lars Porsena
2064:Online books
2054:
2036:
2029:
2022:
2014:, edited by
2011:
1991:
1986:
1978:
1973:
1962:
1957:
1949:
1944:
1927:
1924:Archaeometry
1923:
1901:
1895:
1869:
1863:
1855:
1850:
1842:
1837:
1822:
1817:
1802:
1743:
1739:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1705:
1702:
1695:
1685:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1665:'20') while
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1648:
1638:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1564:
1549:
1544:
1541:charun huths
1540:
1524:
1520:
1518:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1499:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1463:
1458:
1456:
1449:
1446:
1438:
1433:
1422:
1411:
1400:
1389:
1383:
1378:
1367:
1356:
1350:
1345:
1334:
1323:
1313:θunem zaθrum
1312:
1302:eslem zaθrum
1301:
1290:
1279:
1273:
1268:
1257:
1251:
1240:
1234:
1229:
1218:
1215:"three-ten"
1212:
1201:
1197:
1191:
1177:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1148:
1138:
1128:
1118:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1087:
1083:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1023:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
973:
969:
964:
962:
959:Number words
953:
941:
933:tally sticks
930:
921:
914:
911:Hand signals
902:
890:
875:
871:
866:
863:duodeviginti
862:
859:
855:
852:
763:
745:
744:
725:
573:
490:
451:Signed-digit
326:Contemporary
193:Contemporary
2601:Portonaccio
2576:Etruscology
2176:Tyrrhenians
2023:Linguistica
1359:"four-ten"
1291:ciem zaθrum
1254:"five-ten"
1237:"four-ten"
944:tally marks
927:Tally marks
884:, south of
867:undeviginti
629:Akṣarapallī
599:Tally marks
498:Non-integer
2818:Categories
2634:Acquarossa
2558:Archeology
1904:: 121–122.
1772:References
1708:F. Adrados
1686:sialψv-eiś
1560:Toscanella
1523:and 6 was
1486:cezpalψals
1459:ciem cealψ
1392:"six-ten"
1353:"four-ty"
1276:"six-ten"
1194:"two-ten"
1180:"one-ten"
991:Duodecimal
752:, and the
666:Glagolitic
639:Kaṭapayādi
607:Alphabetic
511:Asymmetric
353:radix/base
294:Cistercian
279:Babylonian
226:Vietnamese
81:Devanagari
2769:Vetulonia
2754:Tarquinia
2729:Populonia
2699:Fescennia
2669:Cerveteri
2626:Key sites
2337:Mezentius
2171:Tyrrhenus
1811:0035-1652
1533:Tarquinia
1386:"six-ty"
1204:"twelve"
937:Dalmatian
634:Āryabhaṭa
579:Kharosthi
471:factorial
438:Bijective
339:(Iñupiaq)
169:Sundanese
164:Mongolian
111:Malayalam
2829:Numerals
2784:Volterra
2779:Volsinii
2774:Vie Cave
2759:Tuscania
2739:Rusellae
2571:Cuniculi
2566:Bucchero
2490:Alphabet
2482:Language
2367:Religion
2357:Poppilia
2206:Tanaquil
1950:Etruscan
1750:See also
1744:quattuor
1718:'thou',
1661:'2' and
1484:(2) and
1423:*nurφalψ
1357:*huθalψ-
1258:ci- śar-
1213:ci- śar-
661:Georgian
651:Cyrillic
619:Armenian
574:Etruscan
569:Egyptian
477:Negative
337:Kaktovik
332:Cherokee
309:Pentadic
233:Historic
216:Japanese
149:Javanese
139:Balinese
126:Dzongkha
91:Gurmukhi
86:Gujarati
24:a series
22:Part of
2719:Perusia
2714:Orvieto
2709:Norchia
2704:Fidenae
2694:Falerii
2689:Etruria
2679:Clusium
2654:Bologna
2649:Baratti
2352:Persius
2322:Jewelry
2259:society
2255:Culture
2181:Tarchon
2151:Origins
2143:History
2037:Talanta
1726:'two',
1683:Lemnian
1537:Charons
1535:, four
1490:cezpalψ
1412:cezpalψ
1401:śemφalψ
1379:*huθalψ
1351:*huθalψ
1326:"tw-?"
1280:huθzar-
1269:huθzar-
1252:*maψśar
1241:*zalśar
1192:*zalśar
986:Decimal
899:Origins
811:Unicode
564:Chuvash
482:Complex
272:Ancient
264:History
211:Hokkien
199:Chinese
144:Burmese
134:Tibetan
121:Kannada
101:Sinhala
76:Bengali
2805:Portal
2644:Aleria
2399:Vegoia
2327:Lausus
2052:about
1856:Hermes
1809:
1688:'60'.
1671:huθzar
1663:zaθrum
1637:, 6 =
1508:) and
1492:(80).
1434:chimth
1368:muvalψ
1324:zaθrum
1274:*śaśar
1235:huθzar
1230:*śaśar
1219:*θuśar
1178:*θuśar
1088:*maψv-
983:Value
882:Naples
832:Value
770:Digit
760:Digits
676:Hebrew
646:Coptic
559:Brahmi
544:Aegean
501:
485:
467:
454:
441:
304:Muisca
244:Tangut
221:Korean
204:Suzhou
116:Telugu
2789:Vulci
2749:Spina
2734:Pyrgi
2684:Cumae
2659:Caere
2639:Adria
2404:Vulca
2379:Tages
2362:Raeti
2287:Coins
2196:Capys
1679:śealψ
1477:esals
1439:ximth
1390:śealψ
1384:śealψ
1346:śealψ
1335:cealψ
1149:nurφ-
1139:*cezp
878:Italy
671:Greek
656:Geʽez
614:Abjad
594:Roman
554:Aztec
549:Attic
464:Mixed
422:table
314:Quipu
299:Mayan
154:Khmer
106:Tamil
2764:Veii
2664:Ceri
2257:and
1823:Word
1807:ISSN
1724:zwei
1716:tvad
1667:halψ
1552:dice
1466:case
1430:100
1168:halψ
1129:śemφ
965:nurφ
886:Rome
865:and
847:100
319:Rumi
174:Thai
96:Odia
2277:Art
1932:doi
1827:doi
1740:huθ
1732:sih
1720:zal
1675:huθ
1659:zal
1655:śar
1653:or
1651:zar
1635:huθ
1624:huθ
1604:maψ
1600:zal
1596:huθ
1521:huθ
1514:sha
1506:hut
1502:huθ
1482:zal
1436:or
1419:90
1408:80
1397:70
1381:or
1375:60
1364:50
1348:or
1342:40
1331:30
1320:20
1309:19
1298:18
1287:17
1271:or
1265:16
1248:15
1232:or
1226:14
1209:13
1202:zar
1198:śar
1188:12
1174:11
1163:zar
1159:śar
1155:10
1104:or
1102:hut
1098:huθ
1084:maψ
1074:hut
1070:huθ
1065:hut
1061:huθ
1059:or
1044:?)
1040:(~
1024:zal
1014:tun
1006:θun
844:50
841:10
827:𐌟
824:𐌣
821:𐌢
818:𐌡
815:𐌠
351:By
159:Lao
2820::
1928:53
1926:.
1910:^
1878:^
1780:^
1728:ci
1712:θu
1639:śa
1620:śa
1616:ci
1612:śa
1608:ci
1606:,
1598:,
1592:θu
1525:śa
1510:śa
1243:?
1221:?
1200:~
1183:?
1161:~
1145:9
1135:8
1125:7
1119:sa
1117:~
1115:śa
1110:sa
1108:~
1106:śa
1100:~
1094:6
1086:~
1080:5
1072:~
1063:~
1057:sa
1055:~
1053:śa
1049:4
1042:ψi
1038:ki
1036:~
1034:ci
1030:3
1020:2
1012:~
1010:tu
1008:~
1004:~
1002:θu
998:1
919:.
895:.
838:5
835:1
416:60
411:20
406:16
401:12
396:10
26:on
2127:e
2120:t
2113:v
1997:)
1968:)
1938:.
1934::
1829::
1610:-
1602:–
1594:–
1512:(
1504:(
740:.
730:.
712:e
705:t
698:v
507:)
505:φ
503:(
494:)
491:i
489:2
487:(
473:)
469:(
460:)
456:(
447:)
445:1
443:(
424:)
420:(
391:8
386:6
381:5
376:4
371:3
366:2
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