Desegregation busing

1603:. At that time, the proportion of white students in those schools reflected the proportion of whites in the community, 54 percent and 53 percent, respectively. After the desegregation process began, large numbers of whites in the upper and middle classes who could afford it pulled their children from the integrated public school system and placed them into private schools instead. As a result, by 2004 Pasadena became home to 63 private schools, which educated one-third of all school-aged children in the city, and the proportion of white students in the public schools had fallen to 16 percent. In the meantime, the proportion of whites in the community has declined somewhat as well, to 37 percent in 2006. The superintendent of Pasadena's public schools characterized them as being to whites "like the bogey-man", and mounted policy changes, including a curtailment of busing, and a publicity drive to induce affluent whites to put their children back into public schools. 1743:

Appeals on June 6, 1972, barring forced busing schemes that made students cross county/city boundaries. (Note: Since 1871, Virginia has had independent cities which are not politically located within counties, although some are completely surrounded geographically by a single county. This distinctive and unusual arrangement was pivotal in the Court of Appeals decision overturning Merhige's ruling). The percentage of white students in Richmond city schools declined from 45 to 21 percent between 1960 and 1975 and continued to decline over the next several decades. By 2010 white students accounted for less than 9 percent of student enrollment in Richmond. This so-called "white flight" prevented Richmond schools from ever becoming truly integrated. A number of assignment plans were tried to address the non-racial concerns, and eventually, most elementary schools were "unpaired".

1377:. The NAACP won the Swann case by producing evidence that Charlotte schools placed over 10,000 white and black students in schools that were not the closest to their homes. Importantly, the Swann v. Mecklenburg case illustrated that segregation was the product of local policies and legislation rather than a natural outcome. In response, an anti-busing organization titled Concerned Parents Association (CPA) was formed in Charlotte. Ultimately, the CPA failed to prevent busing. In 1974, West Charlotte High school even hosted students from Boston to demonstrate the benefits of peaceful integration. Since Capacchione v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools in 1999, however, Charlotte has once again become segregated. A report in 2019 shows that Charlotte-Mecklenburg schools are as segregated as they were before the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954. 1365:'s decision to desegregate the city's public schools in 1974, Springfield quietly enacted its own desegregation busing plans. Although not as well-documented as Boston's crisis, Springfield's situation centered on the city's elementary schools. Much of the primary evidence for Springfield's busing plans stemmed from a March 1976 report by a committee for the Massachusetts Commission on Civil Rights (MCCR). According to the report, 30 of the city's 36 elementary schools were grouped into six separate districts during the 1974–75 school year, and each district contained at least one racially imbalanced school. The basic idea behind the "six-district" plan was to preserve a neighborhood feeling for school children while busing them locally to improve not only racial imbalances, but also educational opportunities in the school system. 1779:, ordered that the school districts of New Castle County all be combined into a single district governed by the New Castle County Board of Education. The District Court ordered the Board to implement a desegregation plan in which the students from the predominantly black Wilmington and De La Warr districts were required to attend school in the predominantly white suburb districts, while students from the predominantly white districts were required to attend school in Wilmington or De La Warr districts for three years (usually 4th through 6th grade). In many cases, this required students to be bused a considerable distance (12–18 miles in the 38: 828:(1974), imposed limits on busing. The key issue was whether a district court could order a metropolitan-wide desegregation plan between urban Detroit and suburban school districts. Busing would play a key role in the implementation phase. The Court essentially declared that federal courts did not have the authority to order inter-district desegregation unless it could be proven that suburban school districts intentionally mandated segregation policies. The implication of the decision was that suburban school districts in the North were not affected by the principles established by 1048:. From 1972 to 1980, despite busing, the percentage of blacks attending mostly-minority schools barely changed, moving from 63.6 percent to 63.3 percent. Forced busing was implemented starting in the 1971 school year, and from 1970 to 1980 the percentage of blacks attending mostly-minority schools decreased from 66.9 percent to 62.9 percent. The South saw the largest percentage change from 1968 to 1980 with a 23.8 percent decrease in blacks attending mostly-minority schools and a 54.8 percent decrease in blacks attending 90%–100% minority schools. 906:(PICS). The decision prohibited the use of racial classifications in student assignment plans to maintain racial balance. Whereas the Brown case ruled that racial segregation violated the Constitution, now the use of racial classifications violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment. Writing for the minority, Justice Breyer said the "ruling contradicted previous decisions upholding race-conscious pupil assignments and would hamper local school boards' efforts to prevent 'resegregation' in individual schools". 988:)—contained many controversial findings. One conclusion from the study was that, while black schools in the South were not significantly underfunded as compared to white schools, and while per-pupil funding did not contribute significantly to differences in educational outcomes, socially disadvantaged black children still benefited significantly from learning in mixed-race classrooms. Thus, it was argued that busing (as opposed to simply increasing funding to segregated schools) was necessary for achieving racial equality. 502: 1734:, Virginia. When the massive busing program began in the fall of 1971, parents of all races complained about the long rides, hardships with transportation for extracurricular activities, and the separation of siblings when elementary schools at opposite sides of the city were "paired", (i.e., splitting lower and upper elementary grades into separate schools). The result was further white flight to private schools and to suburbs in the neighboring counties of 4326: 1572:

began pulling their children out of the public schools and enrolling them in the numerous private schools that began to spring up almost overnight in Nashville in the 1960s and 1970s. Many of these schools continued to be segregated through the 1970s. Other white parents moved outside of the city limits and eventually outside the Davidson County line so as not to be part of the Metropolitan District and thus not part of the busing plan.

1568:

closure of neighborhood schools such as Pearl High School, which brought the community together. Parents from both sides did not like the plan because they had no control over where their children were going to be sent to school, a problem that many other cities had during the 1970s when busing was mandated across the country. Despite the judge's decision and the subsequent implementation of the new busing plan, the city stood divided.

1617: 2860:'When Chief Justice Warren said that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," he was within walking distance of an all-black public high school that sent a higher percentage of its graduates on to college than any white public high school in Washington. As far back as 1899, that school's students scored higher on tests than two of the city's three white academic public high schools.'Thomas Sowell (June 30, 2015) 1143:. The law put a premium on student testing, not integration, to measure academic progress. Financial penalties were incurred on schools if students did not demonstrate adequate academic performance. While initially supported by Democrats, critics say the law has failed to adequately address the achievement gap between whites and minorities and that there are problems with implementation and inflexible provisions. 491: 4355: 1166:

busing, 60 percent of Boston parents, both black and white, reported more discipline problems in schools. Black children were more likely to be bused than whites, and some black parents saw it as discrimination that uprooted their children from their communities. Politicians and judges who supported busing were seen as hypocrites, as many sent their own children to private school. In the

1702:

school sports teams' seasons and other typical school activities were disrupted. Life in general for families in the county was disrupted by things such as the changes in daily times to get children ready and receive them after school, transportation logistics for extracurricular activities, and parental participation activities such as volunteer work in the schools and

1075:, many teenagers, rallied at the district's high schools and fought with police trying to break up the crowds. Police cars were vandalized, 200 were arrested, and people were hurt in the melee, but despite further rallies being banned the next day by Louisville's mayor, demonstrators showed up to the schools the following day. Kentucky Governor 1772:

Castle-Gunning Bedford, Newark, Stanton, and Wilmington school districts). However, this reorganization did little to address the issue of segregation, since the Wilmington schools (Wilmington and De La Warr districts) remained predominantly black, while the suburban schools in the county outside the city limits remained predominantly white.

1161:

areas. However, a longitudinal study has shown that support for desegregation busing among black respondents has only dropped below 50% once from 1972 to 1976 while support among white respondents has steadily increased. This increased support may be due to the diminished impact of desegregation policies over time. A 1978 study by the

875:) that federal judges could ease their supervision of school districts "once legally enforced segregation had been eliminated to the extent practicable". With these decisions, the Rehnquist Court opened the door for school districts throughout the country to get away from judicial supervision once they had achieved unitary status. 1938:

admissions. Teachers and principals cite other issues, such as economic and cultural barriers in schools with high rates of poverty, as well as teachers' choices to work closer to home or in higher-performing schools. In some areas black teachers are also leaving the profession, resulting in teacher shortages.

1131:

students were attending majority white schools. By restricting the tools by which schools can address school segregation, many fear that the PICS decision will continue to accelerate this trend. The ruling reflects the culmination of the conservatives' central message on education, as alleged by the liberal

1281:

forced-integrated schools had worse relations with those of the opposite race than those in non-integrated schools. Researcher David Armour, also looking for hopeful signs, found that busing "heightens racial identity" and "reduces opportunities for actual contact between the races". A 1992 study led by

1130:

lawsuits in court. Wherever the courts have backed away from mandating school districts to implement desegregation plans, resegregation of Blacks and Latinos has increased dramatically. In 1988, 44 percent of southern black students were attending majority-white schools. In 2005, 27 percent of black

1125:

of the Roberts court as the inevitable consequence of gradual court decisions dating back to the early 1970s to ease judicial supervision and limit important tools to achieve integrated schools. Even those school districts that voluntarily created race-conscious programs are under pressure to abandon

1102:

said "I don't feel responsible for the sins of my father and grandfather," and that busing was "a liberal train wreck." In 1977, senators William Roth and Biden proposed the "Biden-Roth" amendment. This amendment "prevented judges from ordering wider busing to achieve actually-integrated districts."

796:

still attended all-black schools. Evidence of such de facto segregation motivated early proponents of plans to engage in conscious "integration" of public schools, by busing schoolchildren to schools other than their neighborhood schools, with an objective to equalize racial imbalances. Proponents of

791:

segregated in many cities because of demographic patterns, school district lines being intentionally drawn to segregate the schools racially, and, in some cases, due to conscious efforts to send black children to inferior schools. Thus, for example, by 1969, more than nine of every ten black students

736:

that the school districts desegregate "with all deliberate speed". Public school administrators had to begin the process of desegregating the schools through the development of policies that would promote racial mixing. A backlash of resistance and violence ensued. Even members of Congress refused to

1913:

has found that as of 2005, the proportion of black students at majority-white schools was at "a level lower than in any year since 1968". Changing population patterns, with dramatically increased growth in the South and Southwest, decreases in old industrial cities, and much increased immigration of

1742:

that were predominantly white. In January 1972, Merhige ruled that students in Henrico and Chesterfield counties would have to be bused into the City of Richmond in order to decrease the high percentage of black students in Richmond's schools. This order was overturned by the Fourth Circuit Court of

1567:

What followed were mixed emotions from both the black and white communities. Many whites did not want their children to share schools with black children, arguing that it would decrease the quality of their education. While a triumph for some, many blacks believed that the new plan would enforce the

1317:

Some metropolitan areas in which land values and property-tax structures were less favorable to relocation saw significant declines in enrollment of whites in public schools as white parents chose to enroll their children in private schools. Currently, most segregation occurs across school districts

2576:

My bill strikes at the heart of the injustice of court-ordered busing. It prohibits the federal courts from disrupting our educational system in the name of the constitution where there is no evidence that the governmental officials intended to discriminate," Biden wrote to fellow senators on March

1937:

The authors of a 2003 Harvard study on re-segregation believe current trends in the South of white teachers leaving predominantly black schools is an inevitable result of federal court decisions limiting former methods of civil rights-era protections, such as busing and affirmative action in school

1933:

which would provide for creation of three school districts in Omaha according to current racial demographics: black, white, and Hispanic, with local community control of each district. He believed this would give the black community the chance to control a district in which their children were the

1810:

The requirements for maintaining racial balance in the schools of each of the districts was ended by the District Court in 1994, but the process of busing students to and from the suburbs for schooling continued largely unchanged until 2001, when the Delaware state government passed House Bill 300,

1571:

As in many other cities across the country at this time, many white citizens took action against the desegregation laws. Organized protests against the busing plan began before the order was even official, led by future mayoral candidate Casey Jenkins. While some protested, many other white parents

1532:

when the district was consolidated in 1963). The plan, beginning in 1957, involved the gradual integration of schools by working up through the grades each year starting in the fall of 1957 with first graders. Very few black children who had been zoned for white schools showed up at their assigned

1344:

In 1965 Massachusetts passed into law the Racial Imbalance Act, which ordered school districts to desegregate or risk losing state educational funding. The first law of its kind in the nation, it was opposed by many in Boston, especially less-well-off white ethnic areas, such as the Irish-American

1165:

set out to find why whites were opposed to busing and concluded that it was because they believed it destroyed neighborhood schools and camaraderie and increased discipline problems. It is said that busing eroded the community pride and support that neighborhoods had for their local schools. After

821:

children in the busing scheme: "Transportation of kindergarten children for upwards of forty-five minutes, one-way, does not appear unreasonable, harmful, or unsafe in any way." (Some research has shown however the deleterious effects of long bus rides on student health and academic achievement ).

1771:

on appeal), the school system was forced to desegregate. As a result, the school districts in the Wilmington metropolitan area were split into eleven districts covering the metropolitan area (Alfred I. duPont, Alexis I. duPont, Claymont, Conrad, De La Warr, Marshallton-McKean, Mount Pleasant, New

1701:

The transition was very traumatic as the court ordered that the plan be administered with "all due haste". This happened during the middle of the school term, and students, except those in their senior year in high school, were transferred to different schools to achieve racial balance. Many high

1478:

required the district to come up with a plan in 1977. The board returned to court with what the court of appeal years later would describe as "one of if not the most drastic plan of mandatory student reassignment in the nation". A desegregation busing plan was developed, to be implemented in the

1271:

Critics point out that children in the Northeast were often bused from integrated schools to less integrated schools. The percentage of Northeastern black children who attended a predominantly black school increased from 67 percent in 1968 to 80 percent in 1980 (a higher percentage than in 1954).

1917:

School districts continue to try various programs to improve student and school performance, including magnet schools and special programs related to the economic standing of families. Omaha proposed incorporating some suburban districts within city limits to enlarge its school-system catchment

1160:

taken in the 1973, very low percentages of whites (4 percent) and blacks (9 percent) supported busing outside of local neighborhoods, even though majorities were in favour of other desegregation methods such as redrawing school district boundaries and building low-income housing in middle-income

983:

report on educational equality commissioned by the U.S. government in the 1960s. It was one of the largest studies in history, with more than 150,000 students in the sample. The result was a massive report of over 700 pages. That 1966 report—titled "Equality of Educational Opportunity" (or often

966:

wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation , because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race". While Javits said any government official who

1709:

The federal case and the school busing order was officially ended in 2001, as the "remaining vestiges of segregation" had been erased to the court's satisfaction. Unfortunately, the ultimate result has been resegregation through changes to county demographics, as the percentage of white county

1280:

In 1978, a proponent of busing, Nancy St. John, studied 100 cases of urban busing from the North and did not find what she had been looking for; she found no cases in which significant black academic improvement occurred, but many cases where race relations suffered due to busing, as those in

1262:

Some critics of busing cited increases in distance to schools. However, segregation of schools often entailed far more distant busing. For example, in Tampa, Florida, the longest bus ride was 9 miles (14 km) under desegregation whereas it was 25 miles (40 km) during segregation.

1811:

mandating that the districts convert to sending students to the schools closest to them, a process that continues as of 2007. In the 1990s, Delaware schools would utilize the Choice program, which would allow children to apply to schools in other school districts based on space.

1325:, John Kain, and Steven Rivkin has shown that the level of achievement by black students is adversely affected by higher concentrations of black students in their schools. Additionally, the impact of racial concentration appears to be greatest for high-achieving black students. 1520:

decision in 1954. Despite this initial breakthrough, however, full desegregation of the schools was a far cry from reality in Nashville in the mid-1950s, and thus 22 plaintiffs, including black student Robert Kelley, filed suit against the Nashville Board of Education in 1955.

816:

The judge who instituted the Detroit busing plan said that busing "is a considerably safer, more reliable, healthful and efficient means of getting children to school than either carpools or walking, and this is especially true for younger children". He, therefore, included

804:, schools were constructed and school district lines drawn intentionally to segregate the schools racially. In the early 1970s, a series of court decisions found that the racially imbalanced schools trampled the rights of minority students. As a remedy, courts ordered the 942:

branches joining the judiciary to promote racial integration. In addition, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 authorized the federal government to cut off funding if Southern school districts did not comply and also to bring lawsuits against school officials who resisted.

643:

mandating racial segregation of schools. Northern states and some border states were primarily white (in 1940, the populations of Detroit and Chicago were more than 90% white) and existing black populations were concentrated in urban ghettos partly as the result of

888:

which declared that the school system had achieved desegregation status and that the method to achieve integration, like busing, was unnecessary. The refusal of the Court to hear the challenges to the lower court decision effectively overturned the earlier 1971

3433:

Johnson, T. A. (2009-02-03) "African American Administration of Predominately Black Schools: Segregation or Emancipation in Omaha, Nebraska", Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Study of Black Life and History in Charlotte,

1685:, was over 80 percent white in population and in the public schools. In some county communities close to Washington, there was a higher concentration of black residents than in more outlying areas. Through a series of desegregation orders after the 1066:

school district, which was not integrated due to whites largely moving to the suburbs, was forced to start a busing program. The first day, 1,000 protestors rallied against the busing, and a few days into the process, 8,000 to 10,000 whites from

808:

of school districts within individual cities, sometimes requiring the racial composition of each individual school in the district to reflect the composition of the district as a whole. This was generally achieved by transporting children by

797:

such plans argued that with the schools integrated, minority students would have equal access to equipment, facilities, and resources that the cities' white students had, thus giving all students in the city equal educational opportunities.

2484:

added, "I don't feel responsible for the sins of my father and grandfather. I feel responsible for what the situation is today, for the sins of my own generation. And I'll be damned if I feel responsible to pay for what happened 300 years

2466: 1693:

argued that housing patterns in the county still reflected the vestiges of segregation. Against the will of the Board of Education of Prince George's County, the federal court ordered that a school busing plan be set in place. A 1974

2291:

Yeung, R., & Nguyen-Hoang, P. (2020). It’s the journey, not the destination: the effect of school travel mode on student achievement. Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, 13(2),

1012:"Forced busing" was a term used by many to describe the mandates that generally came from the courts. Court-ordered busing to achieve school desegregation was used mainly in large, ethnically segregated school systems, including 1515:

was not a hotbed of racial violence or massive protest during the civil rights era. In fact, the city was a leader of school desegregation in the South, even housing a few small schools that were minimally integrated before the

1583:(MNPS). The plan was reexamined and reconfigured to include some concessions made by the school board and the Kelley plaintiffs and in 1983 the new plan, which still included busing, was introduced. However, problems with " 725:

wanted a speedy process for desegregating the school districts, but the Court waited until the following year to make its recommendations. Reasons for delaying had to do with the changes in the Court and with Chief Justice

682:

allowed whites to migrate into the suburbs. By 1960, all major Northern and Western cities had sizable black populations (e.g., 23% in Chicago, 29% in Detroit, and 32% in Los Angeles). Blacks tended to be concentrated in

1790:

However, the process of handling an entire metropolitan area as a single school district resulted in a revision to the plan in 1981, in which the New Castle County schools were again divided into four separate districts

1909:, the desegregation of U.S. public schools peaked in 1988; since then, schools have become more segregated because of changes in demographic residential patterns with continuing growth in suburbs and new communities. 1313:

Supreme Court decision that busing children across districts is unconstitutional limited the extent of busing to within metropolitan areas. This decision made suburbs attractive to those who wished to evade busing.

1552:, decided the following year that to correct the problem, forced busing of the children was to be mandated, among the many parts to a new plan that was finally decided on. This was a similar plan to that enacted in 884: 1458:, which converted the Westside's six elementary schools into sixth-grade classrooms where nearly all of the school district's sixth graders (black and white alike) would be bused for the 1972–73 school year. 2547:

the bill required judges to tailor their court orders to remedy only the adverse effects of existing segregation, i.e. it prevented judges from ordering wider busing to achieve actually-integrated districts

836:

segregation was allowed to persist in the North. The courts could order desegregation where segregation patterns existed, but only within municipalities, not suburban areas. The lasting consequence of the

1807:). However, unlike the 1954 districts, each of these districts was racially balanced and encompassed inner city and suburban areas. Each of the districts continued a desegregation plan based upon busing. 1945:

decision has been achieved and that there is no segregation in the way that existed before the ruling. They further argue that employing race to impose desegregation policies discriminates and violates

587:

Busing met considerable opposition from both white and black people. The policy may have contributed to the movement of large numbers of white families to suburbs of large cities, a phenomenon known as

1825:

Delaware currently has some of the highest rates in the nation of children who attend private schools, magnet schools, and charter schools, due to the perceived weaknesses of the public school system.

1399:

for the lack of integration, the state was responsible for making sure that money was available for the program. It was one of the most expensive desegregation efforts attempted and included busing, a

1851:

racial segregation. Beginning in 1973, due to federal court mandates, some 7,000 African-American students began to be bused from the IPS district to neighboring township school corporations within

3054: 1533:

campus on the first day of school, and those who did met with angry mobs outside several city elementary schools. No white children assigned to black schools showed up to their assigned campuses.

902: 274: 934:, the three laws were intended to end discriminatory voting practices and segregation of public accommodations and housing. The importance of these three laws was the injection of both the 1503:

lawsuit was heard in the Supreme Court in 1982. The Supreme Court upheld the decision that Proposition 1 was constitutional, and that, therefore, mandatory busing was not permissible.

1209:" based on the court decisions to integrate schools. Such stresses led white middle-class families in many communities to desert the public schools and create a network of private schools. 3179: 1005:

ruling was limited because whites and blacks tended to live in all-white or all-black communities. Initial integration in the South tended to be symbolic: for example, the integration of

668:

brought five million blacks from the agrarian South to the urban and manufacturing centers in Northern and Western cities to fill in the labor shortages during the industrial buildup of

1454:. On May 10, 1972, the Ninth Circuit handed down its decision in favor of the NAACP, which therefore required the CCSD to implement a plan for integration. The CCSD then instituted its 1117: 3671:

Siegel-Hawley, Genevieve, Sarah Diem, and Erica Frankenberg. "The disintegration of Memphis-Shelby County, Tennessee: School district secession and local control in the 21st century."

844:

With waning public support, the courts began relaxing judicial supervision of school districts during the 1990s and 2000s, calling for voluntary efforts to achieve racial balance.

2590: 2384: 1926:, Nebraska, believed a different solution was needed. Some observers said that in practical terms, public schools in Omaha had been re-segregated since the end of busing in 1999. 3315: 1135:, that "race should be ignored, inequalities should be blamed on individuals and schools, and existing civil rights remedies should be dismantled". In 2001 Congress passed the 2021: 1710:

residents dropped from over 80% in 1974 to 27% in 2010. Neighborhood-based school boundaries were restored. The Prince George's County Public Schools was ordered to pay the

479: 83: 3369: 3352: 1407:

schools. The entire program was built on the premise that extremely good schools in the inner-city area combined with paid busing would be enough to achieve integration.

388: 1549: 1420: 1218:

reported that some members of Congress, government, and the press who supported busing most vociferously sent their own children to private schools, including Senator

1918:

area. It wanted to create a "one tax, one school" system that would also allow it to create magnet programs to increase diversity in now predominantly white schools.

1446:, all school desegregation cases had to be heard at the federal level if they reached a state's highest court. As a result, the Las Vegas case, which became known as 750:, rejected a freedom of choice plan. The Court ordered the county to desegregate immediately and eliminate racial discrimination "root and branch". Then in 1971, the 1525: 1435:. Therefore, the CCSD did not see the need to desegregate the schools, as the cause of segregation appeared to result from factors outside of its immediate control. 17: 558:) was a failed attempt to diversify the racial make-up of schools in the United States by sending students to school districts other than their own. While the 1954 1941:

Education conservatives argue that any apparent separation of races is due to patterns of residential demographics not due to court decisions. They argue that the

87: 1205:

Busing is claimed to have accelerated a trend of middle-class relocation to the suburbs of metropolitan areas. Many opponents of busing claimed the existence of "

879:

meant that a school district had successfully eliminated segregation in dual school systems and thus was no longer bound to court-ordered desegregation policies.

3259: 3122: 3087: 2301:

Austin, W., Heutel, G., & Kreisman, D. (2019). School bus emissions, student health and academic performance. Economics of Education Review, 70, 109–126.

760:

ruled that the school district must achieve racial balance even if it meant redrawing school boundaries and the use of busing as a legal tool. The impact of

361: 159: 3018: 3760: 3043: 437: 383: 245: 1681:, Maryland, became the largest school district in the United States forced to adopt a busing plan. The county, a large suburban school district east of 3394: 864: 427: 92: 2606:

Two weeks later, Biden followed up with a note to Eastland "to thank you again for your efforts in support of my bill to limit court ordered busing."

1876: 1374: 756: 580: 336: 678:(1948) allowed them to settle in formerly white neighborhoods, contributing to racial tension. Meanwhile, the post-war housing boom and the rise of 4401: 4391: 4386: 3930: 3245: 2718:

Woodward, Jennifer R. (Winter 2011). "How Busing Burdened Blacks: Critical Race Theory and Busing for Desegregation in Nashville-Davidson County".

1856: 876: 415: 2411: 1868: 841:

decision is that it opened the door for whites to flee to the suburbs and not be concerned about compliance with mandatory integration policies.

746: 530: 368: 264: 253: 3183: 1814:

Wilmington High, which, many felt, was a victim of the busing order, closed in 1998 due to dropping enrollment. The campus would become home to

1714:

more than $ 2 million in closing attorney fees and is estimated to have paid the NAACP over $ 20 million over the course of the case.

656:

The origins of desegregation busing can be traced back to two major developments that occurred in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s.

600:; these effects combined to make many urban school districts predominantly non-white, reducing any effectiveness mandatory busing may have had. 3940: 1872: 1864: 1860: 461: 3867: 3824: 2664: 856: 1009:, the first public school in Tennessee to be integrated, amounted to the admission of twelve black students to a formerly all-white school. 4169: 4044: 269: 193: 3719: 950:

that opponents of the proposed legislation found particularly compelling was that the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain

1178:

presidential elections, candidates opposed to busing were elected each time, and Congress voted repeatedly to end court-mandated busing.

968: 326: 316: 259: 1536:

After a decade of this gradual integration strategy, it became evident that the schools still lacked full integration. Many argued that

3204: 1288:, who supports busing, found black and Hispanic students lacked "even modest overall improvement" as a result of court-ordered busing. 294: 203: 3935: 3411: 2951: 2779: 665: 373: 351: 213: 97: 1126:

these efforts as the white parents are refusing to participate in any pupil assignment programs. In some cases, white parents filed

4005: 1962: 1431:

segregation that existed in six elementary schools located on the city's Westside. This area of Las Vegas had traditionally been a

1175: 1171: 1167: 1006: 469: 420: 4025: 4010: 2529: 1974: 1900: 1883:

to phase out inter-district, one-way busing. By 2005, the six township school districts no longer received any new IPS students.

1834: 410: 356: 198: 54: 3332: 2498: 3955: 3373: 3349: 572:

unconstitutional, many American schools continued to remain largely racially homogeneous. In an effort to address the ongoing

465: 393: 176: 3547: 3145: 3796: 3292: 3229: 2885: 2845: 2809: 2763: 2094: 2059: 1638: 1580: 1392: 717:

decision affirmed principles of equality and justice, it did not specify how its ruling would promote equality in education.

473: 321: 223: 122: 112: 2900:

Rivkin, Steven G., and Finis Welch. 2006. "Has school desegregation improved academic and economic outcomes for blacks?" In

3862: 3802: 1051:

In some southern states in the 1960s and 1970s, parents opposed to busing created new private schools. The schools, called

378: 311: 240: 186: 164: 154: 2278: 918:, whose goal was to end legal segregation in all public places. The movement's efforts culminated in Congress passing the 4089: 1934:

majority. Chambers' amendment was controversial. Opponents to the measure described it as "state-sponsored segregation".

1880: 1800: 1678: 1471: 744:

The momentum continued with two additional Supreme Court decisions aimed at implementation. In 1968, the Warren Court in

523: 398: 181: 144: 3736: 2560: 1698:

showed that 75 percent of county residents were against forced busing and that only 32 percent of blacks supported it.

1339: 696: 299: 208: 149: 3773: 3817: 3792: 3692: 3663: 3634: 3603: 3588: 3518: 3267: 3002: 2619: 2449: 2253: 2197: 1664: 1095:

to prevent police reprisals while cameras were running. Despite the protests, Louisville's busing program continued.

569: 3534:

Domina, Thurston, et al. "The Kids on the Bus: The Academic Consequences of Diversity‐Driven School Reassignments."

3529: 1646: 1587:" and private schools continued to segregate MNPS to a certain degree, a problem that has never fully been solved. 432: 117: 107: 709:

laws for public schools that had been in place in a number of states, since the late 19th century, and ruled that

4079: 3852: 3561: 3490: 1815: 1084: 169: 102: 4069: 3915: 1642: 1451: 1373:

Charlotte operated under "freedom of choice" plans until the Supreme Court upheld Judge McMillan's decision in

516: 63: 3721:

A Boston judge's experiment in social engineering has unraveled neighborhoods and frustrated black achievement

730:

steering a careful course given the expected opposition from Southern states. In May 1955, the Court ruled in

4406: 3468: 1783:) because of the distance between Wilmington and some of the major communities of the suburban area (such as 1739: 1553: 1194: 139: 3044:"Stymied by Segregation: How Integration can Transform North Carolina Schools and the Lives of its Students" 4359: 4084: 4064: 3810: 3420: 2441: 1819: 1596: 1424: 289: 3882: 2467:"Biden's tough talk on 1970s school desegregation plan could get new scrutiny in today's Democratic Party" 1438:

The case initially entered the Eighth Judicial District Court of Nevada, but quickly found its way to the

592:, which further reduced the effectiveness of the policy. Many whites who stayed moved their children into 584:, ruled that the federal courts could use busing as a further integration tool to achieve racial balance. 4346: 4214: 4031: 3217: 1767: 1756: 1484: 971:

said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing.

701: 564: 4396: 3925: 3872: 3625: 2936:, and Steven G. Rivkin. 2009. "Harming the best: How schools affect the black-white achievement gap", 2534: 1995: 1930: 1792: 1703: 1529: 1068: 1056: 1579:

case was again brought back to the courts because of the busing plan's failure to fully integrate the

4381: 3897: 3892: 1796: 1780: 1557: 923: 403: 235: 42: 3783: 3581:

From Brown to Meredith: The Long Struggle in School Desegregation in Louisville, Kentucky, 1954–2007

1879:

townships. This practice continued on until 1998, when an agreement was reached between IPS and the

967:

sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself", two years later the

4341: 3784:

Image of students from South Central Los Angeles riding a school bus to Van Nuys, California, 1977.

2976: 1996:"What is busing? Joe Biden forced to defend record of segregation in face of Kamala Harris attacks" 1804: 1735: 1627: 1475: 1136: 1103:

Despite Biden's lobbying of other senators and getting the support of Judiciary Committee Chairman

947: 927: 919: 306: 3075:

A History of the Las Vegas School Desegregation Case: Kelly et al. v. Clark County School District

776:

decision ushered in new forms of resistance in subsequent decades. The decision failed to address

4209: 4074: 2637:

Wrote Biden to Eastland: "My bill strikes at the heart of the injustice of court-ordered busing."

1631: 1496: 1080: 37: 31: 3980: 3757:

are available at Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department.

3750:

are available at Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department.

3705: 3676: 3281:

Hunt, Thomas C.; Carper, James C.; Lasley, II, Thomas J.; Raisch, C. Daniel (January 12, 2010).

2561:"Letters from Joe Biden reveal how he sought support of segregationists in fight against busing" 4300: 4219: 3920: 1852: 1838: 1727: 1186: 1127: 939: 860: 636: 2755: 2749: 2189: 2183: 1098:

Congressional opposition to busing continued. Delaware senator (and future 46th US President)

4269: 4202: 3970: 3839: 3218:

Hunt, Thomas C.; Carper, James C.;Lasley, II, Thomas J.;Raisch, C. Daniel (20 January 2010).

3126: 3091: 2875: 2577:

25, 1977. "I believe there is a growing sentiment in the Congress to curb unnecessary busing.

1923: 1845:

issued a ruling in 1971 which found the Indianapolis Public Schools (IPS) district guilty of

1299:

racial segregation in schools did not necessarily lead to poor education for black students.

1052: 1025: 915: 868: 279: 3950: 3832: 3614: 3501: 3395:"Inequality Remade: Residential Segregation, Indianapolis Public Schools, and Forced Busing" 2591:"Joe Biden: Letters reveal how he sought support of segregationists in fight against busing" 4330: 4279: 4274: 3965: 2651:

Historic reversals, accelerating resegregation, and the need for new integration strategies

1752: 1600: 1439: 1132: 1063: 1045: 1029: 985: 645: 506: 341: 284: 3498:

An African American dilemma: A history of school integration and civil rights in the North

3487:

The Detroit school busing case: Milliken v. Bradley and the controversy over desegregation

3444: 3408: 2366: 8: 4249: 4174: 4152: 4147: 4094: 2620:"Biden Praises Jeb Bush as Old Letters Show He Sought Support From Famous Segregationist" 2471: 2086:

Why busing failed : race, media, and the national resistance to school desegregation

2026: 1545: 1537: 1427:(CCSD). The NAACP wanted the CCSD to acknowledge publicly, and likewise, act against the 1386: 1350: 1309: 872: 824: 3960: 3539: 3129: 2244:: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (Pivotal Moments in American History) 1818:, a magnet school focused on the arts that was established in 1992. It would also house 1689:

decision, the county had a neighborhood-based system of school boundaries. However, the

4037: 4020: 4015: 3990: 3975: 3907: 3887: 3877: 3847: 3449: 3239: 3094: 2727: 2239: 1968: 1906: 1731: 1495:. California Constitutional Proposition 1, which mandated that busing follow the 1432: 1282: 1156:

Support for the practice is influenced by the methodology of the study conducted. In a

1083:

and stationed them on every bus. On September 26, 1975, 400 protestors held a rally at

1037: 805: 738: 710: 706: 674: 559: 3463: 2861: 4244: 4125: 3787: 3688: 3659: 3630: 3599: 3584: 3514: 3329: 3288: 3225: 3198: 2998: 2881: 2841: 2815: 2805: 2759: 2445: 2249: 2193: 2100: 2090: 2065: 2055: 1761: 1488: 1254:. Many of the judges who ordered busing also sent their children to private schools. 1227: 718: 597: 3743:, Garrity Decision Oral History Interviews. Suffolk University Archives; Boston, MA. 3282: 3219: 1318:

as large cities have moved significantly toward racial balance among their schools.

4295: 4179: 4120: 4110: 3714:

Money And School Performance: Lessons from the Kansas City Desegregation Experiment

3651: 3620: 3526:

Why Busing Failed: Race, Media, and the National Resistance to School Desegregation

3142: 2624: 2438:

The Citizen's Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954–1964

2022:"'Forced busing' didn't fail. Desegregation is the best way to improve our schools" 1892: 1784: 1682: 1396: 1361:

Unlike Boston, which experienced a large degree of racial violence following Judge

1251: 1162: 495: 2904:, edited by Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch. Amsterdam: North Holland: 1019–1049. 4284: 4056: 3945: 3777: 3740: 3640:

McAndrews, Lawrence J. "Missing the bus: Gerald Ford and school desegregation."

3415: 3356: 3336: 3149: 1416: 1223: 963: 848: 2977:

The Six-District Plan: Integration of the Springfield, Mass., Elementary Schools

741:, promising to use all legal means to undermine and reverse the Court's ruling. 4336: 4254: 4229: 4224: 4137: 2373:, Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 4(1): pp. 11–27. Retrieved 30 December 2008 1919: 1910: 1842: 1561: 1492: 1362: 1307:

Busing integrated school age ethnic minorities with the larger community. The

1247: 1140: 1104: 1076: 1021: 955: 931: 593: 3761:

Digitized primary sources related to busing for school desegregation in Boston

3727: 2995:

Mothers of Massive Resistance: White Women and the Politics of White Supremacy

2104: 2069: 2051:

Boston Against Busing : Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s

1929:

In 2006, Chambers offered an amendment to the Omaha school reform bill in the

4375: 4319: 4239: 4115: 4000: 3857: 2933: 2913: 2819: 2783: 2349: 1400: 1322: 1292: 1091:, followed by a rally of 8,000 the next day, who marched led by a woman in a 1033: 962:, said that the bill would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Sen. 951: 897: 882:

Then in 2002, the Supreme Court declined to review a lower court decision in

852: 640: 346: 3733: 3556:

Jones, Nathaniel R. "Milliken v. Bradley: Brown's Troubled Journey North."

1528:, an attempt to integrate the public schools of Nashville (and later all of 3770: 3713: 3167:

The Burden of Busing: The Politics of Desegregation in Nashville, Tennessee

2833: 1896: 1584: 1499:

of the U.S. Constitution, passed in 1979 with 70 percent of the vote. The

1479:

1978 school year. Two suits to stop the enforced busing plan, both titled

1346: 1285: 1206: 980: 959: 903:

Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1

818: 751: 684: 669: 620: 614: 589: 3791:

Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections,

3609:

Lord, J. Dennis. "School busing and white abandonment of public schools."

2279:"Walking into History: The Beginning of School Desegregation in Nashville" 3995: 3755:

Metropolitan Council for Educational Opportunity records 1961–2005 (M101)

3626:

Common Ground: A Turbulent Decade in the Lives of Three American Families

2367:

Conclusions and Controversies about the Effectiveness of School Resources

1695: 1235: 1219: 1157: 935: 727: 3833:

Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)

3645: 2731: 4305: 4162: 4157: 4142: 3764: 3754: 3747: 2745: 2179: 1404: 1243: 1239: 1214: 1092: 810: 2084: 2049: 687:, whereas newer suburbs of most cities were almost exclusively white. 4197: 4130: 3985: 2799: 1837:

was coming to light in Indianapolis in the late 1960s as a result of

1512: 1231: 1190: 1182: 1099: 1017: 793: 737:

abide by the decision. In 1956 over a hundred congressmen signed the

3656:

Busing and Backlash: White Against White in an Urban School District

3511:

With All Deliberate Speed: Implementing Brown v. Board of Education.

2920:: The complex effects of school racial composition on achievement", 2683:

Reviving the goal of an integrated society: A 21st century challenge

1616: 1487:. The petitions to stop the busing plan were subsequently denied by 4290: 2952:"Kevin H. White, Mayor Who Led Boston in Busing Crisis, Dies at 82" 2877:

The Color of Politics: Racism in the American Political Arena Today

2503: 1759:, segregated schools were required by law until 1954, when, due to 1443: 1118:

Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1

1088: 1072: 732: 679: 631: 574: 457: 2801:

The politics of trust : Reubin Askew and Florida in the 1970s

1914:

new ethnic groups, have altered school populations in many areas.

1544:

case was reintroduced to the courts. Ruling on the case was Judge

1483:, were filed by the group Bustop Inc., and were petitioned to the 979:

Another catalyst for the development of busing was an influential

914:

The struggle to desegregate the schools received impetus from the

4264: 4234: 3572: 3260:"U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Prince George's County, Maryland" 1847: 1041: 625: 2412:"Busing for Desegregation to Affect 350,000 Pupils in the South" 672:

and for better opportunities during the post-war economic boom.

4259: 2916:, John F. Kain, and Steve G. Rivkin. 2009. "New evidence about 1295:

wrote that the stated premise for school busing was flawed, as

1013: 801: 490: 2826: 3685:

Both Sides Now: The Story of School Desegregation's Graduates

3583:. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2013. 2385:"Public School Desegregation in the United States, 1968–1980" 1711: 1690: 722: 2330:

Jost, Kenneth (2007). "Racial Diversity in Public Schools".

1822:, which focuses on math and science, and opened up in 1996. 1524:

The result of that lawsuit was what came to be known as the

27:

Failed attempt to racially diversify American public schools

3596:

The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South

2499:"How a Young Joe Biden Turned Liberals Against Integration" 3280: 2530:"Joe Biden's Record on Racial Integration is Indefensible" 1550:

United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

1421:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

783:

Consequently, despite being found "inherently unequal" in

772:

segregation in the South. However, the consequence of the

3708: 2564: 1501:

Crawford v. Board of Education of the City of Los Angeles

1468:

Crawford v. Board of Education of the City of Los Angeles

1403:

program, and an extensive plan to improve the quality of

1395:(KCMSD). Since the district and the state had been found 1055:, were sometimes organized with the support of the local 578:

segregation in schools, the 1971 Supreme Court decision,

2699:

Jost, Kenneth (April 23, 2004). "School Desegregation".

3316:"Report: Schools segregation by race, income worsening" 2832: 1266: 3780:. Moakley Archive & Institute, Suffolk University. 3763:

from various libraries and archives are available via

3728:

25 Years of Forced Busing. Good Riddance to a Bad Idea

3687:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2009. 3658:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1972. 3513:

Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press, 2008.

2840:. Alexandria, VA: National School Boards Association. 1548:, who, after seeking advice from consultants from the 3330:

School Busing – The Civil Rights Movement in Virginia

3287:(1st ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. p. 123. 3107:

Crawford v. Board of Educ. of the City of Los Angeles

3019:"Charlotte Talks: Segregation In Charlotte Education" 1391:

In 1985, a federal court took partial control of the

1511:

In comparison with many other cities in the nation,

1115:

Civil rights advocates see the 2007 joint ruling on

984:

simply called the "Coleman Report" after its author

3598:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005. 3567:Kelley, Jonathan. "The politics of school busing." 3350:

Delaware's Constitution and Its Impact on Education

2838:

Status of School Desegregation: The Next Generation

2685:. Los Angeles: The Civil Rights Project. p. 4. 2311:Jost, K. (April 23, 2004). "School Desegregation". 1606: 1599:ordered the desegregation of the public schools in 1200: 2943: 2864:, Jewish World Review. Retrieved 22 September 2019 2648: 2238: 2213:Jost, K (April 23, 2004). "School Desegregation". 1730:, ordered an extensive citywide busing program in 3169:, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville: 1985. 2676: 2674: 2617: 1275: 813:to a school in a different area of the district. 757:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education 581:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education 4373: 3716:by Paul Ciotti. Policy Analysis, CATO Institute. 1540:was the true culprit in the matter. In 1970 the 885:Belk v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education 713:schools were "inherently unequal". Although the 3548:"The Quest to Desegregate Los Angeles Schools," 3445:Law to Segregate Omaha Schools Divides Nebraska 2694: 2692: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2144: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2136: 2134: 1993: 1953:s central warning of using racial preferences. 1123:Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education 747:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County 3509:Daugherity, Brian, and Charles Bolton (eds.), 3284:Encyclopedia of Educational Reform and Dissent 3221:Encyclopedia of Educational Reform and Dissent 2671: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2114: 1481:Bustop, Inc. v. Los Angeles Board of Education 1139:(NCLB) which was promptly signed by President 3818: 3424:, December 19, 2005. Retrieved April 11, 2017 2997:. Oxford University Press. pp. 219–220. 1922:, a 34-year-serving black state senator from 1356: 524: 30:"Busing" redirects here. For other uses, see 4170:Residential segregation in the United States 3244:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3143:The Quest to DESEGREGATE Los Angeles Schools 2738: 2689: 2516:Biden called busing "a liberal train wreck." 2188:. New York, New York: Basic Books. pp. 1368: 954:in schools. Proponents of the bill, such as 787:, by the late 1960s public schools remained 3748:Freedom House, Inc. records 1941–1996 (M16) 3453:. April 15, 2006. Retrieved April 12, 2009. 2975:Massachusetts Commission on Civil Rights, " 2588: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2111: 1645:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 969:Department of Health, Education and Welfare 3825: 3811: 2772: 1461: 623:, most public schools in the country were 531: 517: 3536:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 2981:University of Maryland Law School Library 2938:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 2873: 2552: 2356:, April 2000. Retrieved 30 December 2008. 2236: 2047: 2019: 1905:According to the Civil Rights Project at 1665:Learn how and when to remove this message 659: 98:History of education in the United States 18:Desegregation busing in the United States 3734:John Joseph Moakley Oral History Project 3086:Crawford v. Board of Ed. of Los Angeles 3077:(Las Vegas: UNLV, 1998), pp. 28, 33, 94. 3069: 3067: 2717: 2653:. Los Angeles: The Civil Rights Project. 2435: 2359: 2225: 1963:Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska 1828: 1380: 1333: 909: 36: 4402:Bus transportation in the United States 4392:School segregation in the United States 4387:Race and education in the United States 3165:Richard A. Pride and J. David Woodard, 3023:WFAE 90.7 – Charlotte's NPR News Source 2680: 2082: 1975:School segregation in the United States 1901:School segregation in the United States 1746: 1590: 1506: 14: 4374: 3203:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3119:Bustop, Inc. v. Los Angeles Bd. of Ed. 2902:Handbook of the Economics of Education 2558: 2409: 2342: 2054:. University of North Carolina Press. 2020:Theoharis, George (October 23, 2015). 1470:, was filed to end segregation in the 1328: 608: 3806: 3797:University of California, Los Angeles 3673:American Educational Research Journal 3109:, 200 Cal. App. 3d 1397, 1402 (1988). 3064: 3041: 2992: 2527: 2496: 2464: 2048:Formisano, Ronald P. (January 2012). 1775:In 1976, the U.S. District Court, in 1717: 1581:Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools 1448:Kelly v. Clark County School District 1393:Kansas City, Missouri School District 1181:Ultimately, many black leaders, from 974: 900:produced a contentious 5–4 ruling in 651: 123:History of education in New York City 113:History of education in Massachusetts 4354: 2969: 2744: 2698: 2391:. Joint Center for Political Studies 2329: 2310: 2304: 2212: 2178: 1643:adding citations to reliable sources 1610: 1423:(NAACP) filed a lawsuit against the 1410: 1267:Effect on already-integrated schools 4175:Segregation academy (United States) 4090:Sex segregation in public restrooms 3629:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985. 3489:(University Press of Kansas, 2011) 2950:Fox, Margalite (January 27, 2012). 2949: 2618:Ben Mathis-Lilley (11 April 2019). 2410:Wooten, James T. (15 August 1971). 2382: 1881:United States Department of Justice 1472:Los Angeles Unified School District 1450:, was eventually heard by the U.S. 24: 3771:Busing in Boston: A research guide 3479: 2797: 2649:Orfield, G. & Lee, C. (2007). 2089:. University of California Press. 1340:Boston desegregation busing crisis 1151: 822:The resultant Supreme Court case, 25: 4418: 3793:Charles E. Young Research Library 3699: 3464:White teachers flee black schools 2754:. New York: Basic Books. p. 1994:Zhao, Christina (June 27, 2019). 1886: 1062:For the 1975–76 school year, the 851:ruled in three cases coming from 4353: 4325: 4324: 3500:(Oxford University Press, 2021) 3462:Jonnson, P. (January 21, 2003) " 3060:from the original on 2020-11-29. 1724:Bradley v. Richmond School Board 1615: 1607:Prince George's County, Maryland 1201:White flight and private schools 1087:, which was broken up by police 690: 500: 489: 118:History of education in Missouri 108:History of education in Kentucky 3456: 3437: 3427: 3401: 3387: 3362: 3342: 3322: 3308: 3274: 3252: 3211: 3172: 3159: 3135: 3112: 3100: 3080: 3035: 3011: 2986: 2927: 2907: 2894: 2867: 2854: 2791: 2711: 2657: 2642: 2611: 2582: 2521: 2490: 2458: 2429: 2403: 2376: 2323: 2295: 2285: 2248:. US: Oxford University Press. 1816:Cab Calloway School of the Arts 568:declared racial segregation in 103:History of education in Chicago 3642:Presidential Studies Quarterly 3339:", Virginia Historical Society 2720:The Journal of Negro Education 2559:Zeleny, Jeff (11 April 2019). 2528:Smith, Asher (11 April 2019). 2497:Sokol, Jasin (4 August 2015). 2271: 2262: 2206: 2076: 2041: 2013: 1987: 1452:Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals 1276:Effect on academic performance 1107:, "Biden-Roth" narrowly lost. 996: 800:A federal court found that in 768:served to end all remnants of 438:Full-service community schools 13: 1: 3469:The Christian Science Monitor 3051:North Carolina Justice Center 2589:Jeff Zeleny (11 April 2019). 1980: 1765:(which was later rolled into 1554:Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools 1110: 2940:28, no. 3 (Summer): 366–393. 2924:, 27, no. 3 (July): 349–383. 2788:Retrieved on August 5, 2020. 2665:"Brennan Center for Justice" 2465:Viser, Matt (7 March 2019). 2442:University of Illinois Press 2350:The Social Side of Schooling 2083:Delmont, Matthew F. (2016). 1820:Charter School of Wilmington 1425:Clark County School District 1146: 7: 4032:Brown v. Board of Education 3706:The Legacy of School Busing 2918:Brown v. Board of Education 2836:; Franklin Monfort (1992). 2365:Hanushek, Eric A. (1998), " 2348:Kiviat, Barbara J. (2000) " 2242:Brown v. Board of Education 1956: 1855:. These townships included 1768:Brown v. Board of Education 1728:Robert R. Merhige, Jr. 1722:In April 1971, in the case 1518:Brown v. Board of Education 1485:United States Supreme Court 1257: 1197:led efforts to end busing. 1189:, a Milwaukee Democrat, to 1003:Brown v. Board of Education 991: 785:Brown v. Board of Education 702:Brown v. Board of Education 565:Brown v. Board of Education 416:For-profit higher education 10: 4423: 3941:Czechoslovakia and Hungary 3224:. SAGE Publications, Inc. 2922:Journal of Labor Economics 2436:McMillen, Neil R. (1971). 1931:Nebraska State Legislature 1890: 1384: 1357:Springfield, Massachusetts 1337: 1302: 1079:sent 1,800 members of the 612: 603: 369:School corporal punishment 29: 4314: 4188: 4103: 4055: 3986:Apartheid in South Africa 3906: 3838: 2993:McRae, Elizabeth (2018). 2874:Danielson, Chris (2013). 2751:How We Got Here: The '70s 2389:UCLA Civil Rights Project 2237:Patterson, James (2001). 2185:How We Got Here: The '70s 1839:Civil Rights reformation. 1781:Christina School District 1726:, Federal District Judge 1375:Swann v. Mecklenburg 1971 1369:Charlotte, North Carolina 946:One argument against the 924:Voting Rights Act of 1965 404:School-to-work transition 43:Charlotte, North Carolina 3569:Public Opinion Quarterly 3538:40.4 (2021): 1197–1229. 2880:. ABC-CLIO. p. 16. 1476:California Supreme Court 1137:No Child Left Behind Act 948:Civil Rights Act of 1964 928:Civil Rights Act of 1968 920:Civil Rights Act of 1964 847:In the early 1990s, the 507:United States portal 53:This article is part of 4210:Anti-miscegenation laws 4045:Anti-miscegenation laws 3611:Southeastern Geographer 2862:Supreme Court Disasters 2268:Morgan v. Hennigan 1974 1755:, Delaware, located in 1497:Equal protection clause 1462:Los Angeles, California 1456:Sixth Grade Center Plan 1081:Kentucky National Guard 1057:White Citizen's Council 225:Education policy issues 194:Environmental education 32:Busing (disambiguation) 4301:White Australia policy 4220:Corporative federalism 3675:55.4 (2018): 651–692. 3409:"Overcoming Apartheid" 2371:Economic Policy Review 2354:Johns Hopkins Magazine 1679:Prince George's County 1575:In 1979 and 1980, the 1286:Professor Gary Orfield 1187:Annette Polly Williams 1128:reverse discrimination 930:. Signed by President 896:Finally, in 2007, the 695:At the same time, the 666:Second Great Migration 664:Starting in 1940, the 660:Black population shift 546:(also known simply as 362:Standards-based reform 337:Gender achievement gap 327:Racial achievement gap 260:Educational attainment 46: 4270:Religious intolerance 3724:. Hoover Institution. 3644:27.4 (1997): 791–804 3553:vol. 26 (March 2003). 1829:Indianapolis, Indiana 1381:Kansas City, Missouri 1334:Boston, Massachusetts 1053:segregation academies 1026:Kansas City, Missouri 916:Civil Rights Movement 910:Civil rights movement 646:restrictive covenants 613:Further information: 562:landmark decision in 428:Research universities 295:Student financial aid 290:Graduate unemployment 265:Post-secondary issues 241:Primary and secondary 204:Mathematics education 41:Integrated busing in 40: 4407:Types of bus service 4280:Second-class citizen 4275:Reservation in India 4001:United Arab Emirates 3931:Bulgaria and Romania 3765:Digital Commonwealth 3613:15.2 (1975): 81–92. 3594:Lassiter, Matthew. 3571:38.1 (1974): 23–39. 3546:Ettinger, David S. 3524:Delmont, Matthew F. 3472:. Retrieved 4/12/09. 3141:David S. Ettinger, " 1841:U.S. District Judge 1747:Wilmington, Delaware 1639:improve this section 1601:Pasadena, California 1591:Pasadena, California 1507:Nashville, Tennessee 1466:In 1963, a lawsuit, 1440:Nevada Supreme Court 1133:Civil Rights Project 1085:Southern High School 1064:Louisville, Kentucky 1046:Wilmington, Delaware 544:Desegregation busing 496:Education portal 332:Desegregation busing 285:Elite overproduction 214:Vocational education 4148:Exclusionary zoning 4095:Separatist feminism 3873:Partition of Bengal 3683:Wells, Amy Stuart. 3551:Los Angeles Lawyer, 3397:. 16 February 2017. 2681:Orfield, G (2009). 2472:The Washington Post 2027:The Washington Post 1546:Leland Clure Morton 1538:Housing Segregation 1387:Missouri v. Jenkins 1351:Charlestown, Boston 1329:Historical examples 1321:Recent research by 1310:Milliken v. Bradley 1007:Clinton High School 825:Milliken v. Bradley 609:Before World War II 449:Levels of education 421:For-profit colleges 389:Foreign involvement 4038:Massive resistance 4026:School segregation 4021:Separate but equal 3946:Dominican Republic 3848:Partition of India 3776:2015-08-15 at the 3739:2008-05-16 at the 3730:, at Adversity.net 3579:K'Meyer, Tracy E. 3558:Fordham Law Review 3450:The New York Times 3414:2017-04-12 at the 3355:2008-11-20 at the 3335:2007-10-20 at the 3154:Los Angeles Lawyer 3148:2008-02-28 at the 2956:The New York Times 2798:Harvey, Gordon E. 2416:The New York Times 1969:Morgan v. Hennigan 1907:Harvard University 1835:racial segregation 1718:Richmond, Virginia 1433:black neighborhood 1283:Harvard University 1212:During the 1970s, 1001:The impact of the 975:Sociological study 806:racial integration 739:Southern Manifesto 711:separate but equal 707:racial segregation 705:(1954) overturned 697:U.S. Supreme Court 675:Shelley v. Kraemer 652:After World War II 560:U.S. Supreme Court 411:Community colleges 357:School segregation 275:Cost and financing 199:Language education 47: 4397:Student transport 4369: 4368: 4245:Majority minority 4126:Ethnic federalism 3908:Ethnic and racial 3868:Greece and Turkey 3788:Los Angeles Times 3621:Lukas, J. Anthony 3496:Burkholder, Zoë. 3348:Samuel B. Hoff, " 3294:978-1-4129-5664-2 3231:978-1-4129-5664-2 3042:Nordstrom, Kris. 2887:978-1-4408-0276-8 2847:978-0-88364-174-3 2811:978-0-8173-8888-1 2765:978-0-465-04195-4 2096:978-0-520-28425-8 2061:978-0-8078-6970-3 1777:Evans v. Buchanan 1762:Belton v. Gebhart 1757:New Castle County 1675: 1674: 1667: 1564:, the same year. 1489:Justice Rehnquist 1415:In May 1968, the 1411:Las Vegas, Nevada 1345:neighborhoods of 1228:Thurgood Marshall 1016:, Massachusetts; 719:Thurgood Marshall 598:parochial schools 552:integrated busing 541: 540: 394:Special education 384:Sexual harassment 177:Medical education 131:Curriculum topics 67: 16:(Redirected from 4414: 4382:Education issues 4357: 4356: 4328: 4327: 4296:Social apartheid 4180:Social exclusion 4153:Forced migration 4121:Ethnic cleansing 4111:Auto-segregation 3853:Northern Ireland 3827: 3820: 3813: 3804: 3803: 3652:Rubin Lillian B. 3485:Baugh, Joyce A. 3473: 3460: 3454: 3441: 3435: 3431: 3425: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3391: 3385: 3384: 3382: 3381: 3372:. Archived from 3370:"iccjournal.biz" 3366: 3360: 3346: 3340: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3318:. 14 March 2013. 3312: 3306: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3278: 3272: 3271: 3266:. Archived from 3256: 3250: 3249: 3243: 3235: 3215: 3209: 3208: 3202: 3194: 3192: 3191: 3182:. Archived from 3176: 3170: 3163: 3157: 3139: 3133: 3116: 3110: 3104: 3098: 3084: 3078: 3073:Matthew, Ronan, 3071: 3062: 3061: 3059: 3048: 3039: 3033: 3032: 3030: 3029: 3015: 3009: 3008: 2990: 2984: 2973: 2967: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2947: 2941: 2934:Eric A. Hanushek 2931: 2925: 2914:Eric A. Hanushek 2911: 2905: 2898: 2892: 2891: 2871: 2865: 2858: 2852: 2851: 2830: 2824: 2823: 2795: 2789: 2776: 2770: 2769: 2742: 2736: 2735: 2715: 2709: 2708: 2696: 2687: 2686: 2678: 2669: 2668: 2661: 2655: 2654: 2646: 2640: 2639: 2634: 2632: 2615: 2609: 2608: 2603: 2601: 2586: 2580: 2579: 2573: 2571: 2556: 2550: 2549: 2544: 2542: 2525: 2519: 2518: 2513: 2511: 2494: 2488: 2487: 2481: 2479: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2433: 2427: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2407: 2401: 2400: 2398: 2396: 2380: 2374: 2363: 2357: 2346: 2340: 2339: 2327: 2321: 2320: 2308: 2302: 2299: 2293: 2289: 2283: 2282: 2275: 2269: 2266: 2260: 2259: 2247: 2234: 2223: 2222: 2210: 2204: 2203: 2176: 2109: 2108: 2080: 2074: 2073: 2045: 2039: 2038: 2036: 2034: 2017: 2011: 2010: 2008: 2006: 1991: 1952: 1893:Auto-segregation 1683:Washington, D.C. 1670: 1663: 1659: 1656: 1650: 1619: 1611: 1526:"Nashville Plan" 1397:severally liable 1195:Michael R. White 1163:RAND Corporation 1069:Jefferson County 1044:, Michigan; and 635:segregated. All 533: 526: 519: 505: 504: 503: 494: 493: 433:Community school 352:Racial diversity 322:Achievement gaps 226: 88:in insular areas 70: 66:Education in the 65: 49: 48: 21: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4416: 4415: 4413: 4412: 4411: 4372: 4371: 4370: 4365: 4310: 4285:Separate school 4190: 4184: 4099: 4051: 3902: 3834: 3831: 3778:Wayback Machine 3741:Wayback Machine 3702: 3560:61 (1992): 49+ 3482: 3480:Further reading 3477: 3476: 3461: 3457: 3442: 3438: 3432: 3428: 3416:Wayback Machine 3406: 3402: 3393: 3392: 3388: 3379: 3377: 3368: 3367: 3363: 3357:Wayback Machine 3347: 3343: 3337:Wayback Machine 3327: 3323: 3314: 3313: 3309: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3279: 3275: 3258: 3257: 3253: 3237: 3236: 3232: 3216: 3212: 3196: 3195: 3189: 3187: 3180:"Archived copy" 3178: 3177: 3173: 3164: 3160: 3150:Wayback Machine 3140: 3136: 3117: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3085: 3081: 3072: 3065: 3057: 3046: 3040: 3036: 3027: 3025: 3017: 3016: 3012: 3005: 2991: 2987: 2974: 2970: 2960: 2958: 2948: 2944: 2932: 2928: 2912: 2908: 2899: 2895: 2888: 2872: 2868: 2859: 2855: 2848: 2831: 2827: 2812: 2796: 2792: 2777: 2773: 2766: 2743: 2739: 2716: 2712: 2697: 2690: 2679: 2672: 2663: 2662: 2658: 2647: 2643: 2630: 2628: 2616: 2612: 2599: 2597: 2587: 2583: 2569: 2567: 2557: 2553: 2540: 2538: 2535:Current Affairs 2526: 2522: 2509: 2507: 2495: 2491: 2477: 2475: 2463: 2459: 2452: 2444:. p. 301. 2434: 2430: 2420: 2418: 2408: 2404: 2394: 2392: 2383:Orfield, Gary. 2381: 2377: 2364: 2360: 2347: 2343: 2328: 2324: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2290: 2286: 2277: 2276: 2272: 2267: 2263: 2256: 2235: 2226: 2211: 2207: 2200: 2177: 2112: 2097: 2081: 2077: 2062: 2046: 2042: 2032: 2030: 2018: 2014: 2004: 2002: 1992: 1988: 1983: 1959: 1950: 1920:Ernest Chambers 1903: 1889: 1831: 1749: 1720: 1671: 1660: 1654: 1651: 1636: 1620: 1609: 1593: 1530:Davidson County 1509: 1464: 1442:. According to 1419:chapter of the 1417:Southern Nevada 1413: 1389: 1383: 1371: 1359: 1342: 1336: 1331: 1305: 1278: 1269: 1260: 1224:George McGovern 1203: 1154: 1152:Popular opinion 1149: 1113: 999: 994: 977: 964:Hubert Humphrey 912: 849:Rehnquist Court 693: 662: 654: 637:Southern states 617: 611: 606: 537: 501: 499: 498: 488: 462:Early childhood 444: 379:School violence 312:Charter schools 224: 218: 187:Nursing degrees 165:Legal education 160:Music education 155:Civic education 93:By subject area 68: 64: 45:, February 1973 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4420: 4410: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4367: 4366: 4364: 4363: 4351: 4350: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4322: 4315: 4312: 4311: 4309: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4255:Nuremberg Laws 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4230:Ghetto benches 4227: 4225:Discrimination 4222: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4206: 4205: 4194: 4192: 4186: 4185: 4183: 4182: 4177: 4172: 4167: 4166: 4165: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4138:Ethnopluralism 4135: 4134: 4133: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4107: 4105: 4101: 4100: 4098: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4061: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4050: 4049: 4048: 4047: 4042: 4041: 4040: 4035: 4023: 4018: 4008: 4006:United Kingdom 4003: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3912: 3910: 3904: 3903: 3901: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3844: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3830: 3829: 3822: 3815: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3781: 3768: 3758: 3751: 3744: 3731: 3725: 3717: 3711: 3701: 3700:External links 3698: 3697: 3696: 3680: 3679: 3668: 3667: 3649: 3638: 3617: 3616: 3607: 3592: 3576: 3575: 3565: 3554: 3543: 3542: 3532: 3522: 3506: 3505: 3494: 3481: 3478: 3475: 3474: 3455: 3436: 3426: 3400: 3386: 3361: 3341: 3321: 3307: 3293: 3273: 3270:on 2020-03-01. 3264:www.census.gov 3251: 3230: 3210: 3171: 3158: 3134: 3111: 3099: 3079: 3063: 3034: 3010: 3003: 2985: 2968: 2942: 2926: 2906: 2893: 2886: 2866: 2853: 2846: 2825: 2810: 2804:. p. 58. 2790: 2771: 2764: 2737: 2710: 2707:(15): 345–372. 2688: 2670: 2656: 2641: 2610: 2581: 2551: 2520: 2489: 2457: 2450: 2428: 2402: 2375: 2358: 2341: 2338:(32): 745–767. 2322: 2319:(15): 345–372. 2303: 2294: 2284: 2270: 2261: 2254: 2224: 2221:(15): 345–372. 2205: 2198: 2110: 2095: 2075: 2060: 2040: 2012: 1985: 1984: 1982: 1979: 1978: 1977: 1972: 1965: 1958: 1955: 1911:Jonathan Kozol 1888: 1887:Re-segregation 1885: 1843:S. Hugh Dillin 1833:Institutional 1830: 1827: 1748: 1745: 1719: 1716: 1673: 1672: 1623: 1621: 1614: 1608: 1605: 1592: 1589: 1562:North Carolina 1508: 1505: 1493:Justice Powell 1463: 1460: 1412: 1409: 1382: 1379: 1370: 1367: 1363:Arthur Garrity 1358: 1355: 1338:Main article: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1304: 1301: 1277: 1274: 1268: 1265: 1259: 1256: 1248:Philip Geyelin 1202: 1199: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1141:George W. Bush 1112: 1109: 1105:James Eastland 1077:Julian Carroll 1036:, California; 1022:Columbus, Ohio 998: 995: 993: 990: 976: 973: 956:Emanuel Celler 932:Lyndon Johnson 911: 908: 877:Unitary Status 692: 689: 661: 658: 653: 650: 610: 607: 605: 602: 570:public schools 539: 538: 536: 535: 528: 521: 513: 510: 509: 485: 484: 483: 482: 477: 474:Post-secondary 451: 450: 446: 445: 443: 442: 441: 440: 430: 425: 424: 423: 413: 408: 407: 406: 399:Apprenticeship 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 365: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 304: 303: 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 277: 272: 262: 257: 250: 249: 248: 246:Post-secondary 243: 232: 229: 228: 220: 219: 217: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 190: 189: 184: 182:Medical school 174: 173: 172: 162: 157: 152: 147: 145:Normal schools 142: 136: 133: 132: 128: 127: 126: 125: 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 78: 77: 73: 72: 60: 59: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4419: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4362: 4361: 4352: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4334: 4333: 4332: 4323: 4321: 4320:Pillarisation 4317: 4316: 4313: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4240:Jim Crow laws 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4204: 4201: 4200: 4199: 4196: 4195: 4193: 4187: 4181: 4178: 4176: 4173: 4171: 4168: 4164: 4161: 4160: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4132: 4129: 4128: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4116:Balkanization 4114: 4112: 4109: 4108: 4106: 4102: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4062: 4060: 4058: 4054: 4046: 4043: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4033: 4029: 4028: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4013: 4012: 4011:United States 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3905: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3845: 3843: 3841: 3837: 3828: 3823: 3821: 3816: 3814: 3809: 3808: 3805: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3789: 3785: 3782: 3779: 3775: 3772: 3769: 3766: 3762: 3759: 3756: 3752: 3749: 3745: 3742: 3738: 3735: 3732: 3729: 3726: 3723: 3722: 3718: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3704: 3703: 3694: 3693:0-520-25677-8 3690: 3686: 3682: 3681: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3669: 3665: 3664:0-520-02198-3 3661: 3657: 3653: 3650: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3636: 3635:0-394-41150-1 3632: 3628: 3627: 3622: 3619: 3618: 3615: 3612: 3608: 3605: 3604:0-691-09255-9 3601: 3597: 3593: 3590: 3589:1-469-60708-5 3586: 3582: 3578: 3577: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3552: 3549: 3545: 3544: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3520: 3519:1-557-28868-2 3516: 3512: 3508: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3483: 3471: 3470: 3465: 3459: 3452: 3451: 3446: 3440: 3430: 3423: 3422: 3417: 3413: 3410: 3404: 3396: 3390: 3376:on 2008-11-20 3375: 3371: 3365: 3358: 3354: 3351: 3345: 3338: 3334: 3331: 3325: 3317: 3311: 3296: 3290: 3286: 3285: 3277: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3255: 3247: 3241: 3233: 3227: 3223: 3222: 3214: 3206: 3200: 3186:on 2007-06-16 3185: 3181: 3175: 3168: 3162: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3144: 3138: 3131: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3108: 3103: 3096: 3093: 3089: 3083: 3076: 3070: 3068: 3056: 3052: 3045: 3038: 3024: 3020: 3014: 3006: 3004:9780190271725 3000: 2996: 2989: 2982: 2978: 2972: 2957: 2953: 2946: 2939: 2935: 2930: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2903: 2897: 2889: 2883: 2879: 2878: 2870: 2863: 2857: 2849: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2834:Orfield, Gary 2829: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2807: 2803: 2802: 2794: 2787: 2785: 2784:Adversity.net 2780: 2775: 2767: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2752: 2747: 2741: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2714: 2706: 2702: 2701:CQ Researcher 2695: 2693: 2684: 2677: 2675: 2666: 2660: 2652: 2645: 2638: 2627: 2626: 2621: 2614: 2607: 2596: 2592: 2585: 2578: 2566: 2562: 2555: 2548: 2537: 2536: 2531: 2524: 2517: 2506: 2505: 2500: 2493: 2486: 2474: 2473: 2468: 2461: 2453: 2451:0-252-00177-X 2447: 2443: 2439: 2432: 2417: 2413: 2406: 2390: 2386: 2379: 2372: 2368: 2362: 2355: 2351: 2345: 2337: 2333: 2332:CQ Researcher 2326: 2318: 2314: 2313:CQ Researcher 2307: 2298: 2288: 2280: 2274: 2265: 2257: 2255:0-19-515632-3 2251: 2246: 2245: 2241: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2220: 2216: 2215:CQ Researcher 2209: 2201: 2199:0-465-04195-7 2195: 2191: 2187: 2186: 2181: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2092: 2088: 2087: 2079: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2057: 2053: 2052: 2044: 2029: 2028: 2023: 2016: 2001: 1997: 1990: 1986: 1976: 1973: 1971: 1970: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1960: 1954: 1949: 1944: 1939: 1935: 1932: 1927: 1925: 1921: 1915: 1912: 1908: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1853:Marion County 1850: 1849: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1808: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1788: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1773: 1770: 1769: 1764: 1763: 1758: 1754: 1744: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1715: 1713: 1707: 1705: 1699: 1697: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1669: 1666: 1658: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1634: 1633: 1629: 1624:This section 1622: 1618: 1613: 1612: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1597:federal court 1588: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1522: 1519: 1514: 1504: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1444:Brown II 1441: 1436: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1401:magnet school 1398: 1394: 1388: 1378: 1376: 1366: 1364: 1354: 1352: 1348: 1341: 1326: 1324: 1323:Eric Hanushek 1319: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1293:Thomas Sowell 1289: 1287: 1284: 1273: 1264: 1255: 1253: 1252:Donald Fraser 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1216: 1210: 1208: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1144: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1120: 1119: 1108: 1106: 1101: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1034:San Francisco 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1010: 1008: 1004: 989: 987: 986:James Coleman 982: 972: 970: 965: 961: 957: 953: 952:racial quotas 949: 944: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 907: 905: 904: 899: 898:Roberts Court 894: 892: 887: 886: 880: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 861:DeKalb County 858: 854: 853:Oklahoma City 850: 845: 842: 840: 835: 831: 827: 826: 820: 814: 812: 807: 803: 798: 795: 790: 786: 781: 780:segregation. 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 758: 753: 749: 748: 742: 740: 735: 734: 729: 724: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 703: 698: 691:Legal rulings 688: 686: 681: 677: 676: 671: 667: 657: 649: 647: 642: 641:Jim Crow Laws 638: 634: 633: 628: 627: 622: 616: 601: 599: 595: 591: 585: 583: 582: 577: 576: 571: 567: 566: 561: 557: 556:forced busing 553: 549: 545: 534: 529: 527: 522: 520: 515: 514: 512: 511: 508: 497: 492: 487: 486: 481: 480:Organizations 478: 476: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 454: 453: 452: 448: 447: 439: 436: 435: 434: 431: 429: 426: 422: 419: 418: 417: 414: 412: 409: 405: 402: 401: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 347:School choice 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 309: 308: 305: 301: 300:Student loans 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 280:Credentialism 278: 276: 273: 271: 268: 267: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 255: 251: 247: 244: 242: 239: 238: 237: 236:Accreditation 234: 233: 231: 230: 227: 222: 221: 215: 212: 210: 209:Sex education 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 188: 185: 183: 180: 179: 178: 175: 171: 168: 167: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 150:Art education 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 137: 135: 134: 130: 129: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 94: 91: 89: 85: 82: 81: 80: 79: 75: 74: 71: 69:United States 62: 61: 58: 56: 51: 50: 44: 39: 33: 19: 4358: 4329: 4080:Saudi Arabia 4030: 3996:Saudi Arabia 3883:Saudi Arabia 3786: 3720: 3684: 3672: 3655: 3641: 3624: 3610: 3595: 3580: 3568: 3557: 3550: 3535: 3525: 3510: 3497: 3486: 3467: 3458: 3448: 3439: 3429: 3419: 3403: 3389: 3378:. Retrieved 3374:the original 3364: 3344: 3324: 3310: 3298:. Retrieved 3283: 3276: 3268:the original 3263: 3254: 3220: 3213: 3188:. Retrieved 3184:the original 3174: 3166: 3161: 3156:, March 2003 3153: 3137: 3118: 3114: 3106: 3102: 3082: 3074: 3050: 3037: 3026:. Retrieved 3022: 3013: 2994: 2988: 2980: 2971: 2959:. Retrieved 2955: 2945: 2937: 2929: 2921: 2917: 2909: 2901: 2896: 2876: 2869: 2856: 2837: 2828: 2800: 2793: 2782: 2774: 2750: 2740: 2726:(1): 22–32. 2723: 2719: 2713: 2704: 2700: 2682: 2659: 2650: 2644: 2636: 2629:. Retrieved 2623: 2613: 2605: 2598:. Retrieved 2594: 2584: 2575: 2568:. Retrieved 2554: 2546: 2539:. Retrieved 2533: 2523: 2515: 2508:. Retrieved 2502: 2492: 2483: 2476:. Retrieved 2470: 2460: 2437: 2431: 2419:. Retrieved 2415: 2405: 2393:. Retrieved 2388: 2378: 2370: 2361: 2353: 2344: 2335: 2331: 2325: 2316: 2312: 2306: 2297: 2287: 2273: 2264: 2243: 2240: 2218: 2214: 2208: 2184: 2085: 2078: 2050: 2043: 2031:. Retrieved 2025: 2015: 2003:. Retrieved 1999: 1989: 1967: 1947: 1942: 1940: 1936: 1928: 1916: 1904: 1897:White flight 1846: 1832: 1824: 1813: 1809: 1789: 1776: 1774: 1766: 1760: 1750: 1740:Chesterfield 1723: 1721: 1708: 1700: 1686: 1676: 1661: 1655:October 2014 1652: 1637:Please help 1625: 1594: 1585:white flight 1576: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1541: 1535: 1523: 1517: 1510: 1500: 1480: 1467: 1465: 1455: 1447: 1437: 1428: 1414: 1390: 1372: 1360: 1347:South Boston 1343: 1320: 1316: 1308: 1306: 1296: 1290: 1279: 1270: 1261: 1213: 1211: 1207:white flight 1204: 1180: 1155: 1122: 1116: 1114: 1097: 1061: 1050: 1040:, Virginia; 1011: 1002: 1000: 981:sociological 978: 960:Jacob Javits 945: 913: 901: 895: 890: 883: 881: 863:in Georgia ( 846: 843: 838: 833: 829: 823: 819:kindergarten 815: 799: 788: 784: 782: 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 755: 752:Burger Court 745: 743: 731: 714: 700: 694: 685:inner cities 673: 670:World War II 663: 655: 630: 624: 621:World War II 618: 615:Black school 590:white flight 586: 579: 573: 563: 555: 551: 547: 543: 542: 456: 374:School meals 331: 252: 52: 4215:Black Codes 4163:labor camps 4070:Afghanistan 3300:26 December 3132: (1978) 3097: (1982) 2983:, pp. 1–50. 2961:January 29, 2746:Frum, David 2180:Frum, David 2033:January 15, 1924:North Omaha 1696:Gallup poll 1236:Ben Bradlee 1220:Ted Kennedy 1185:State Rep. 1158:Gallup poll 997:Before 2007 936:legislative 869:Kansas City 728:Earl Warren 4376:Categories 4318:See also: 4306:Xenophobia 4158:Internment 4143:Ethnocracy 3421:The Nation 3407:Kozol, J. 3380:2007-09-24 3190:2007-01-07 3028:2021-04-13 2440:. Urbana: 2105:1107279446 2070:1058531778 1981:References 1891:See also: 1793:Brandywine 1753:Wilmington 1706:meetings. 1595:In 1970 a 1405:inner city 1385:See also: 1291:Economist 1244:Tom Wicker 1240:Birch Bayh 1238:, Senator 1215:60 Minutes 1111:After 2007 1093:wheelchair 926:, and the 811:school bus 699:ruling in 342:Head Start 317:Inequality 170:Law school 4198:Apartheid 4131:Bantustan 4016:Civil War 3840:Religious 3240:cite book 2820:995305085 1797:Christina 1677:In 1974, 1626:does not 1558:Charlotte 1513:Nashville 1232:Phil Hart 1191:Cleveland 1183:Wisconsin 1147:Criticism 1100:Joe Biden 1018:Cleveland 940:executive 794:Nashville 619:Prior to 470:Secondary 254:Financing 4331:Category 4291:Shunning 4287:(Canada) 4250:Nativism 4104:Dynamics 3981:Rhodesia 3976:Portugal 3971:Malaysia 3936:Bulgaria 3878:Portugal 3774:Archived 3737:Archived 3412:Archived 3353:Archived 3333:Archived 3199:cite web 3146:Archived 3055:Archived 2748:(2000). 2732:41341103 2631:12 April 2600:12 April 2595:MSN News 2570:12 April 2541:12 April 2510:12 April 2504:Politico 2478:12 April 2292:170–186. 2182:(2000). 2005:June 28, 2000:Newsweek 1957:See also 1877:Lawrence 1861:Franklin 1805:Red Clay 1801:Colonial 1732:Richmond 1429:de facto 1297:de facto 1258:Distance 1089:tear gas 1073:Kentucky 1038:Richmond 1030:Pasadena 992:Reaction 893:ruling. 839:Milliken 834:De facto 789:de facto 778:de facto 733:Brown II 721:and the 680:suburbia 632:de facto 575:de facto 140:Literacy 84:By state 55:a series 4360:Commons 4265:Rankism 4235:Hafrada 4189:Related 4085:Judaism 3961:Germany 3921:Bahrain 3898:Myanmar 3893:Bahrain 3528:(2016) 2190:252–264 1857:Decatur 1848:de jure 1736:Henrico 1647:removed 1632:sources 1474:. The 1303:Effects 1042:Detroit 873:in 1995 867:), and 865:in 1992 857:in 1991 770:de jure 626:de jure 604:History 594:private 466:Primary 76:Summary 4347:racial 4342:gender 4260:Racism 4191:topics 4057:Gender 3966:Israel 3956:France 3926:Brazil 3916:Canada 3863:Serbia 3858:Israel 3691: 3677:online 3662: 3646:Online 3633: 3602: 3587: 3573:online 3562:Online 3540:online 3530:online 3517: 3502:online 3491:online 3291: 3228: 3001: 2884: 2844: 2818: 2808: 2762: 2730: 2448: 2421:2 June 2395:2 June 2252: 2196: 2103: 2093: 2068: 2058: 1899:, and 1875:, and 1869:Warren 1803:, and 1785:Newark 1577:Kelley 1542:Kelley 1250:, and 1193:Mayor 1174:, and 1014:Boston 922:, the 802:Boston 548:busing 307:Reform 270:Bubble 4337:caste 4065:Islam 3991:Spain 3888:Spain 3125: 3090: 3058:(PDF) 3047:(PDF) 2728:JSTOR 2625:Slate 2485:ago." 1951:' 1948:Brown 1943:Brown 1873:Wayne 1865:Perry 1712:NAACP 1691:NAACP 1687:Brown 891:Swann 830:Brown 774:Swann 766:Swann 762:Green 723:NAACP 715:Brown 4203:laws 4075:Iran 3951:Fiji 3753:The 3746:The 3689:ISBN 3660:ISBN 3631:ISBN 3600:ISBN 3585:ISBN 3515:ISBN 3302:2019 3289:ISBN 3246:link 3226:ISBN 3205:link 3130:1380 3127:U.S. 3092:U.S. 2999:ISBN 2963:2010 2882:ISBN 2842:ISBN 2816:OCLC 2806:ISBN 2760:ISBN 2633:2019 2602:2019 2572:2019 2543:2019 2512:2019 2480:2019 2446:ISBN 2423:2020 2397:2020 2250:ISBN 2194:ISBN 2101:OCLC 2091:ISBN 2066:OCLC 2056:ISBN 2035:2019 2007:2019 1738:and 1630:any 1628:cite 1491:and 1349:and 1176:1976 1172:1972 1168:1968 1121:and 1032:and 1020:and 958:and 938:and 764:and 639:had 472:) – 458:K–12 86:and 3709:NPR 3466:", 3447:", 3434:NC. 3152:", 3123:439 3095:527 3088:458 2979:", 2781:", 2756:265 2565:CNN 2369:", 2352:", 1787:). 1751:In 1704:PTA 1641:by 1556:in 859:), 792:in 754:in 629:or 596:or 554:or 550:or 4378:: 3795:, 3654:, 3623:, 3418:, 3262:. 3242:}} 3238:{{ 3201:}} 3197:{{ 3121:, 3066:^ 3053:. 3049:. 3021:. 2954:. 2814:. 2758:. 2724:80 2722:. 2705:14 2703:. 2691:^ 2673:^ 2635:. 2622:. 2604:. 2593:. 2574:. 2563:. 2545:. 2532:. 2514:. 2501:. 2482:. 2469:. 2414:. 2387:. 2336:17 2334:. 2317:14 2315:. 2227:^ 2219:14 2217:. 2192:. 2113:^ 2099:. 2064:. 2024:. 1998:. 1895:, 1871:, 1867:, 1863:, 1859:, 1799:, 1795:, 1560:, 1353:. 1246:, 1242:, 1234:, 1230:, 1226:, 1222:, 1170:, 1071:, 1059:. 1028:; 1024:; 832:. 648:. 468:– 460:- 57:on 3826:e 3819:t 3812:v 3799:. 3767:. 3695:. 3666:. 3648:. 3637:. 3606:. 3591:. 3564:. 3521:. 3504:. 3493:. 3443:" 3383:. 3359:" 3328:" 3304:. 3248:) 3234:. 3207:) 3193:. 3031:. 3007:. 2965:. 2890:. 2850:. 2822:. 2786:. 2778:" 2768:. 2734:. 2667:. 2454:. 2425:. 2399:. 2281:. 2258:. 2202:. 2107:. 2072:. 2037:. 2009:. 1791:( 1668:) 1662:( 1657:) 1653:( 1649:. 1635:. 871:( 855:( 532:e 525:t 518:v 464:( 34:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Knowledge

Desegregation busing

Index