Desegregation busing

1592:. At that time, the proportion of white students in those schools reflected the proportion of whites in the community, 54 percent and 53 percent, respectively. After the desegregation process began, large numbers of whites in the upper and middle classes who could afford it pulled their children from the integrated public school system and placed them into private schools instead. As a result, by 2004 Pasadena became home to 63 private schools, which educated one-third of all school-aged children in the city, and the proportion of white students in the public schools had fallen to 16 percent. In the meantime, the proportion of whites in the community has declined somewhat as well, to 37 percent in 2006. The superintendent of Pasadena's public schools characterized them as being to whites "like the bogey-man", and mounted policy changes, including a curtailment of busing, and a publicity drive to induce affluent whites to put their children back into public schools. 1732:

Appeals on June 6, 1972, barring forced busing schemes that made students cross county/city boundaries. (Note: Since 1871, Virginia has had independent cities which are not politically located within counties, although some are completely surrounded geographically by a single county. This distinctive and unusual arrangement was pivotal in the Court of Appeals decision overturning Merhige's ruling). The percentage of white students in Richmond city schools declined from 45 to 21 percent between 1960 and 1975 and continued to decline over the next several decades. By 2010 white students accounted for less than 9 percent of student enrollment in Richmond. This so-called "white flight" prevented Richmond schools from ever becoming truly integrated. A number of assignment plans were tried to address the non-racial concerns, and eventually, most elementary schools were "unpaired".

1366:. The NAACP won the Swann case by producing evidence that Charlotte schools placed over 10,000 white and black students in schools that were not the closest to their homes. Importantly, the Swann v. Mecklenburg case illustrated that segregation was the product of local policies and legislation rather than a natural outcome. In response, an anti-busing organization titled Concerned Parents Association (CPA) was formed in Charlotte. Ultimately, the CPA failed to prevent busing. In 1974, West Charlotte High school even hosted students from Boston to demonstrate the benefits of peaceful integration. Since Capacchione v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools in 1999, however, Charlotte has once again become segregated. A report in 2019 shows that Charlotte-Mecklenburg schools are as segregated as they were before the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954. 1354:'s decision to desegregate the city's public schools in 1974, Springfield quietly enacted its own desegregation busing plans. Although not as well-documented as Boston's crisis, Springfield's situation centered on the city's elementary schools. Much of the primary evidence for Springfield's busing plans stemmed from a March 1976 report by a committee for the Massachusetts Commission on Civil Rights (MCCR). According to the report, 30 of the city's 36 elementary schools were grouped into six separate districts during the 1974–75 school year, and each district contained at least one racially imbalanced school. The basic idea behind the "six-district" plan was to preserve a neighborhood feeling for school children while busing them locally to improve not only racial imbalances, but also educational opportunities in the school system. 1768:, ordered that the school districts of New Castle County all be combined into a single district governed by the New Castle County Board of Education. The District Court ordered the Board to implement a desegregation plan in which the students from the predominantly black Wilmington and De La Warr districts were required to attend school in the predominantly white suburb districts, while students from the predominantly white districts were required to attend school in Wilmington or De La Warr districts for three years (usually 4th through 6th grade). In many cases, this required students to be bused a considerable distance (12–18 miles in the 27: 817:(1974), imposed limits on busing. The key issue was whether a district court could order a metropolitan-wide desegregation plan between urban Detroit and suburban school districts. Busing would play a key role in the implementation phase. The Court essentially declared that federal courts did not have the authority to order inter-district desegregation unless it could be proven that suburban school districts intentionally mandated segregation policies. The implication of the decision was that suburban school districts in the North were not affected by the principles established by 1037:. From 1972 to 1980, despite busing, the percentage of blacks attending mostly-minority schools barely changed, moving from 63.6 percent to 63.3 percent. Forced busing was implemented starting in the 1971 school year, and from 1970 to 1980 the percentage of blacks attending mostly-minority schools decreased from 66.9 percent to 62.9 percent. The South saw the largest percentage change from 1968 to 1980 with a 23.8 percent decrease in blacks attending mostly-minority schools and a 54.8 percent decrease in blacks attending 90%–100% minority schools. 895:(PICS). The decision prohibited the use of racial classifications in student assignment plans to maintain racial balance. Whereas the Brown case ruled that racial segregation violated the Constitution, now the use of racial classifications violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment. Writing for the minority, Justice Breyer said the "ruling contradicted previous decisions upholding race-conscious pupil assignments and would hamper local school boards' efforts to prevent 'resegregation' in individual schools". 977:)—contained many controversial findings. One conclusion from the study was that, while black schools in the South were not significantly underfunded as compared to white schools, and while per-pupil funding did not contribute significantly to differences in educational outcomes, socially disadvantaged black children still benefited significantly from learning in mixed-race classrooms. Thus, it was argued that busing (as opposed to simply increasing funding to segregated schools) was necessary for achieving racial equality. 491: 1723:, Virginia. When the massive busing program began in the fall of 1971, parents of all races complained about the long rides, hardships with transportation for extracurricular activities, and the separation of siblings when elementary schools at opposite sides of the city were "paired", (i.e., splitting lower and upper elementary grades into separate schools). The result was further white flight to private schools and to suburbs in the neighboring counties of 4315: 1561:

began pulling their children out of the public schools and enrolling them in the numerous private schools that began to spring up almost overnight in Nashville in the 1960s and 1970s. Many of these schools continued to be segregated through the 1970s. Other white parents moved outside of the city limits and eventually outside the Davidson County line so as not to be part of the Metropolitan District and thus not part of the busing plan.

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closure of neighborhood schools such as Pearl High School, which brought the community together. Parents from both sides did not like the plan because they had no control over where their children were going to be sent to school, a problem that many other cities had during the 1970s when busing was mandated across the country. Despite the judge's decision and the subsequent implementation of the new busing plan, the city stood divided.

1606: 2849:'When Chief Justice Warren said that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," he was within walking distance of an all-black public high school that sent a higher percentage of its graduates on to college than any white public high school in Washington. As far back as 1899, that school's students scored higher on tests than two of the city's three white academic public high schools.'Thomas Sowell (June 30, 2015) 1132:. The law put a premium on student testing, not integration, to measure academic progress. Financial penalties were incurred on schools if students did not demonstrate adequate academic performance. While initially supported by Democrats, critics say the law has failed to adequately address the achievement gap between whites and minorities and that there are problems with implementation and inflexible provisions. 480: 4344: 1155:

busing, 60 percent of Boston parents, both black and white, reported more discipline problems in schools. Black children were more likely to be bused than whites, and some black parents saw it as discrimination that uprooted their children from their communities. Politicians and judges who supported busing were seen as hypocrites, as many sent their own children to private school. In the

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school sports teams' seasons and other typical school activities were disrupted. Life in general for families in the county was disrupted by things such as the changes in daily times to get children ready and receive them after school, transportation logistics for extracurricular activities, and parental participation activities such as volunteer work in the schools and

1064:, many teenagers, rallied at the district's high schools and fought with police trying to break up the crowds. Police cars were vandalized, 200 were arrested, and people were hurt in the melee, but despite further rallies being banned the next day by Louisville's mayor, demonstrators showed up to the schools the following day. Kentucky Governor 1761:

Castle-Gunning Bedford, Newark, Stanton, and Wilmington school districts). However, this reorganization did little to address the issue of segregation, since the Wilmington schools (Wilmington and De La Warr districts) remained predominantly black, while the suburban schools in the county outside the city limits remained predominantly white.

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areas. However, a longitudinal study has shown that support for desegregation busing among black respondents has only dropped below 50% once from 1972 to 1976 while support among white respondents has steadily increased. This increased support may be due to the diminished impact of desegregation policies over time. A 1978 study by the

864:) that federal judges could ease their supervision of school districts "once legally enforced segregation had been eliminated to the extent practicable". With these decisions, the Rehnquist Court opened the door for school districts throughout the country to get away from judicial supervision once they had achieved unitary status. 1927:

admissions. Teachers and principals cite other issues, such as economic and cultural barriers in schools with high rates of poverty, as well as teachers' choices to work closer to home or in higher-performing schools. In some areas black teachers are also leaving the profession, resulting in teacher shortages.

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students were attending majority white schools. By restricting the tools by which schools can address school segregation, many fear that the PICS decision will continue to accelerate this trend. The ruling reflects the culmination of the conservatives' central message on education, as alleged by the liberal

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forced-integrated schools had worse relations with those of the opposite race than those in non-integrated schools. Researcher David Armour, also looking for hopeful signs, found that busing "heightens racial identity" and "reduces opportunities for actual contact between the races". A 1992 study led by

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lawsuits in court. Wherever the courts have backed away from mandating school districts to implement desegregation plans, resegregation of Blacks and Latinos has increased dramatically. In 1988, 44 percent of southern black students were attending majority-white schools. In 2005, 27 percent of black

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of the Roberts court as the inevitable consequence of gradual court decisions dating back to the early 1970s to ease judicial supervision and limit important tools to achieve integrated schools. Even those school districts that voluntarily created race-conscious programs are under pressure to abandon

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said "I don't feel responsible for the sins of my father and grandfather," and that busing was "a liberal train wreck." In 1977, senators William Roth and Biden proposed the "Biden-Roth" amendment. This amendment "prevented judges from ordering wider busing to achieve actually-integrated districts."

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still attended all-black schools. Evidence of such de facto segregation motivated early proponents of plans to engage in conscious "integration" of public schools, by busing schoolchildren to schools other than their neighborhood schools, with an objective to equalize racial imbalances. Proponents of

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segregated in many cities because of demographic patterns, school district lines being intentionally drawn to segregate the schools racially, and, in some cases, due to conscious efforts to send black children to inferior schools. Thus, for example, by 1969, more than nine of every ten black students

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that the school districts desegregate "with all deliberate speed". Public school administrators had to begin the process of desegregating the schools through the development of policies that would promote racial mixing. A backlash of resistance and violence ensued. Even members of Congress refused to

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has found that as of 2005, the proportion of black students at majority-white schools was at "a level lower than in any year since 1968". Changing population patterns, with dramatically increased growth in the South and Southwest, decreases in old industrial cities, and much increased immigration of

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that were predominantly white. In January 1972, Merhige ruled that students in Henrico and Chesterfield counties would have to be bused into the City of Richmond in order to decrease the high percentage of black students in Richmond's schools. This order was overturned by the Fourth Circuit Court of

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What followed were mixed emotions from both the black and white communities. Many whites did not want their children to share schools with black children, arguing that it would decrease the quality of their education. While a triumph for some, many blacks believed that the new plan would enforce the

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Some metropolitan areas in which land values and property-tax structures were less favorable to relocation saw significant declines in enrollment of whites in public schools as white parents chose to enroll their children in private schools. Currently, most segregation occurs across school districts

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My bill strikes at the heart of the injustice of court-ordered busing. It prohibits the federal courts from disrupting our educational system in the name of the constitution where there is no evidence that the governmental officials intended to discriminate," Biden wrote to fellow senators on March

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The authors of a 2003 Harvard study on re-segregation believe current trends in the South of white teachers leaving predominantly black schools is an inevitable result of federal court decisions limiting former methods of civil rights-era protections, such as busing and affirmative action in school

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which would provide for creation of three school districts in Omaha according to current racial demographics: black, white, and Hispanic, with local community control of each district. He believed this would give the black community the chance to control a district in which their children were the

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The requirements for maintaining racial balance in the schools of each of the districts was ended by the District Court in 1994, but the process of busing students to and from the suburbs for schooling continued largely unchanged until 2001, when the Delaware state government passed House Bill 300,

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As in many other cities across the country at this time, many white citizens took action against the desegregation laws. Organized protests against the busing plan began before the order was even official, led by future mayoral candidate Casey Jenkins. While some protested, many other white parents

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when the district was consolidated in 1963). The plan, beginning in 1957, involved the gradual integration of schools by working up through the grades each year starting in the fall of 1957 with first graders. Very few black children who had been zoned for white schools showed up at their assigned

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In 1965 Massachusetts passed into law the Racial Imbalance Act, which ordered school districts to desegregate or risk losing state educational funding. The first law of its kind in the nation, it was opposed by many in Boston, especially less-well-off white ethnic areas, such as the Irish-American

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set out to find why whites were opposed to busing and concluded that it was because they believed it destroyed neighborhood schools and camaraderie and increased discipline problems. It is said that busing eroded the community pride and support that neighborhoods had for their local schools. After

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children in the busing scheme: "Transportation of kindergarten children for upwards of forty-five minutes, one-way, does not appear unreasonable, harmful, or unsafe in any way." (Some research has shown however the deleterious effects of long bus rides on student health and academic achievement ).

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on appeal), the school system was forced to desegregate. As a result, the school districts in the Wilmington metropolitan area were split into eleven districts covering the metropolitan area (Alfred I. duPont, Alexis I. duPont, Claymont, Conrad, De La Warr, Marshallton-McKean, Mount Pleasant, New

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The transition was very traumatic as the court ordered that the plan be administered with "all due haste". This happened during the middle of the school term, and students, except those in their senior year in high school, were transferred to different schools to achieve racial balance. Many high

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required the district to come up with a plan in 1977. The board returned to court with what the court of appeal years later would describe as "one of if not the most drastic plan of mandatory student reassignment in the nation". A desegregation busing plan was developed, to be implemented in the

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Critics point out that children in the Northeast were often bused from integrated schools to less integrated schools. The percentage of Northeastern black children who attended a predominantly black school increased from 67 percent in 1968 to 80 percent in 1980 (a higher percentage than in 1954).

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School districts continue to try various programs to improve student and school performance, including magnet schools and special programs related to the economic standing of families. Omaha proposed incorporating some suburban districts within city limits to enlarge its school-system catchment

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taken in the 1973, very low percentages of whites (4 percent) and blacks (9 percent) supported busing outside of local neighborhoods, even though majorities were in favour of other desegregation methods such as redrawing school district boundaries and building low-income housing in middle-income

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report on educational equality commissioned by the U.S. government in the 1960s. It was one of the largest studies in history, with more than 150,000 students in the sample. The result was a massive report of over 700 pages. That 1966 report—titled "Equality of Educational Opportunity" (or often

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wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation , because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race". While Javits said any government official who

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The federal case and the school busing order was officially ended in 2001, as the "remaining vestiges of segregation" had been erased to the court's satisfaction. Unfortunately, the ultimate result has been resegregation through changes to county demographics, as the percentage of white county

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In 1978, a proponent of busing, Nancy St. John, studied 100 cases of urban busing from the North and did not find what she had been looking for; she found no cases in which significant black academic improvement occurred, but many cases where race relations suffered due to busing, as those in

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Some critics of busing cited increases in distance to schools. However, segregation of schools often entailed far more distant busing. For example, in Tampa, Florida, the longest bus ride was 9 miles (14 km) under desegregation whereas it was 25 miles (40 km) during segregation.

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mandating that the districts convert to sending students to the schools closest to them, a process that continues as of 2007. In the 1990s, Delaware schools would utilize the Choice program, which would allow children to apply to schools in other school districts based on space.

1314:, John Kain, and Steven Rivkin has shown that the level of achievement by black students is adversely affected by higher concentrations of black students in their schools. Additionally, the impact of racial concentration appears to be greatest for high-achieving black students. 1509:

decision in 1954. Despite this initial breakthrough, however, full desegregation of the schools was a far cry from reality in Nashville in the mid-1950s, and thus 22 plaintiffs, including black student Robert Kelley, filed suit against the Nashville Board of Education in 1955.

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The judge who instituted the Detroit busing plan said that busing "is a considerably safer, more reliable, healthful and efficient means of getting children to school than either carpools or walking, and this is especially true for younger children". He, therefore, included

793:, schools were constructed and school district lines drawn intentionally to segregate the schools racially. In the early 1970s, a series of court decisions found that the racially imbalanced schools trampled the rights of minority students. As a remedy, courts ordered the 931:

branches joining the judiciary to promote racial integration. In addition, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 authorized the federal government to cut off funding if Southern school districts did not comply and also to bring lawsuits against school officials who resisted.

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mandating racial segregation of schools. Northern states and some border states were primarily white (in 1940, the populations of Detroit and Chicago were more than 90% white) and existing black populations were concentrated in urban ghettos partly as the result of

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which declared that the school system had achieved desegregation status and that the method to achieve integration, like busing, was unnecessary. The refusal of the Court to hear the challenges to the lower court decision effectively overturned the earlier 1971

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Johnson, T. A. (2009-02-03) "African American Administration of Predominately Black Schools: Segregation or Emancipation in Omaha, Nebraska", Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Study of Black Life and History in Charlotte,

1674:, was over 80 percent white in population and in the public schools. In some county communities close to Washington, there was a higher concentration of black residents than in more outlying areas. Through a series of desegregation orders after the 1055:

school district, which was not integrated due to whites largely moving to the suburbs, was forced to start a busing program. The first day, 1,000 protestors rallied against the busing, and a few days into the process, 8,000 to 10,000 whites from

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of school districts within individual cities, sometimes requiring the racial composition of each individual school in the district to reflect the composition of the district as a whole. This was generally achieved by transporting children by

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such plans argued that with the schools integrated, minority students would have equal access to equipment, facilities, and resources that the cities' white students had, thus giving all students in the city equal educational opportunities.

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added, "I don't feel responsible for the sins of my father and grandfather. I feel responsible for what the situation is today, for the sins of my own generation. And I'll be damned if I feel responsible to pay for what happened 300 years

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argued that housing patterns in the county still reflected the vestiges of segregation. Against the will of the Board of Education of Prince George's County, the federal court ordered that a school busing plan be set in place. A 1974

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Yeung, R., & Nguyen-Hoang, P. (2020). It’s the journey, not the destination: the effect of school travel mode on student achievement. Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, 13(2),

1001:"Forced busing" was a term used by many to describe the mandates that generally came from the courts. Court-ordered busing to achieve school desegregation was used mainly in large, ethnically segregated school systems, including 1504:

was not a hotbed of racial violence or massive protest during the civil rights era. In fact, the city was a leader of school desegregation in the South, even housing a few small schools that were minimally integrated before the

1572:(MNPS). The plan was reexamined and reconfigured to include some concessions made by the school board and the Kelley plaintiffs and in 1983 the new plan, which still included busing, was introduced. However, problems with " 714:

wanted a speedy process for desegregating the school districts, but the Court waited until the following year to make its recommendations. Reasons for delaying had to do with the changes in the Court and with Chief Justice

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allowed whites to migrate into the suburbs. By 1960, all major Northern and Western cities had sizable black populations (e.g., 23% in Chicago, 29% in Detroit, and 32% in Los Angeles). Blacks tended to be concentrated in

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However, the process of handling an entire metropolitan area as a single school district resulted in a revision to the plan in 1981, in which the New Castle County schools were again divided into four separate districts

1898:, the desegregation of U.S. public schools peaked in 1988; since then, schools have become more segregated because of changes in demographic residential patterns with continuing growth in suburbs and new communities. 1302:

Supreme Court decision that busing children across districts is unconstitutional limited the extent of busing to within metropolitan areas. This decision made suburbs attractive to those who wished to evade busing.

1541:, decided the following year that to correct the problem, forced busing of the children was to be mandated, among the many parts to a new plan that was finally decided on. This was a similar plan to that enacted in 873: 1447:, which converted the Westside's six elementary schools into sixth-grade classrooms where nearly all of the school district's sixth graders (black and white alike) would be bused for the 1972–73 school year. 2536:

the bill required judges to tailor their court orders to remedy only the adverse effects of existing segregation, i.e. it prevented judges from ordering wider busing to achieve actually-integrated districts

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segregation was allowed to persist in the North. The courts could order desegregation where segregation patterns existed, but only within municipalities, not suburban areas. The lasting consequence of the

1796:). However, unlike the 1954 districts, each of these districts was racially balanced and encompassed inner city and suburban areas. Each of the districts continued a desegregation plan based upon busing. 1934:

decision has been achieved and that there is no segregation in the way that existed before the ruling. They further argue that employing race to impose desegregation policies discriminates and violates

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Busing met considerable opposition from both white and black people. The policy may have contributed to the movement of large numbers of white families to suburbs of large cities, a phenomenon known as

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Delaware currently has some of the highest rates in the nation of children who attend private schools, magnet schools, and charter schools, due to the perceived weaknesses of the public school system.

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for the lack of integration, the state was responsible for making sure that money was available for the program. It was one of the most expensive desegregation efforts attempted and included busing, a

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racial segregation. Beginning in 1973, due to federal court mandates, some 7,000 African-American students began to be bused from the IPS district to neighboring township school corporations within

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campus on the first day of school, and those who did met with angry mobs outside several city elementary schools. No white children assigned to black schools showed up to their assigned campuses.

891: 263: 923:, the three laws were intended to end discriminatory voting practices and segregation of public accommodations and housing. The importance of these three laws was the injection of both the 1492:

lawsuit was heard in the Supreme Court in 1982. The Supreme Court upheld the decision that Proposition 1 was constitutional, and that, therefore, mandatory busing was not permissible.

1198:" based on the court decisions to integrate schools. Such stresses led white middle-class families in many communities to desert the public schools and create a network of private schools. 3168: 994:

ruling was limited because whites and blacks tended to live in all-white or all-black communities. Initial integration in the South tended to be symbolic: for example, the integration of

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brought five million blacks from the agrarian South to the urban and manufacturing centers in Northern and Western cities to fill in the labor shortages during the industrial buildup of

1443:. On May 10, 1972, the Ninth Circuit handed down its decision in favor of the NAACP, which therefore required the CCSD to implement a plan for integration. The CCSD then instituted its 1106: 3660:

Siegel-Hawley, Genevieve, Sarah Diem, and Erica Frankenberg. "The disintegration of Memphis-Shelby County, Tennessee: School district secession and local control in the 21st century."

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With waning public support, the courts began relaxing judicial supervision of school districts during the 1990s and 2000s, calling for voluntary efforts to achieve racial balance.

2579: 2373: 1915:, Nebraska, believed a different solution was needed. Some observers said that in practical terms, public schools in Omaha had been re-segregated since the end of busing in 1999. 3304: 1124:, that "race should be ignored, inequalities should be blamed on individuals and schools, and existing civil rights remedies should be dismantled". In 2001 Congress passed the 2010: 1699:

residents dropped from over 80% in 1974 to 27% in 2010. Neighborhood-based school boundaries were restored. The Prince George's County Public Schools was ordered to pay the

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schools. The entire program was built on the premise that extremely good schools in the inner-city area combined with paid busing would be enough to achieve integration.

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reported that some members of Congress, government, and the press who supported busing most vociferously sent their own children to private schools, including Senator

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area. It wanted to create a "one tax, one school" system that would also allow it to create magnet programs to increase diversity in now predominantly white schools.

1435:, all school desegregation cases had to be heard at the federal level if they reached a state's highest court. As a result, the Las Vegas case, which became known as 739:, rejected a freedom of choice plan. The Court ordered the county to desegregate immediately and eliminate racial discrimination "root and branch". Then in 1971, the 1514: 1424:. Therefore, the CCSD did not see the need to desegregate the schools, as the cause of segregation appeared to result from factors outside of its immediate control. 547:) was a failed attempt to diversify the racial make-up of schools in the United States by sending students to school districts other than their own. While the 1954 1930:

Education conservatives argue that any apparent separation of races is due to patterns of residential demographics not due to court decisions. They argue that the

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Busing is claimed to have accelerated a trend of middle-class relocation to the suburbs of metropolitan areas. Many opponents of busing claimed the existence of "

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meant that a school district had successfully eliminated segregation in dual school systems and thus was no longer bound to court-ordered desegregation policies.

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Austin, W., Heutel, G., & Kreisman, D. (2019). School bus emissions, student health and academic performance. Economics of Education Review, 70, 109–126.

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ruled that the school district must achieve racial balance even if it meant redrawing school boundaries and the use of busing as a legal tool. The impact of

350: 148: 3007: 3749: 3032: 426: 372: 234: 1670:, Maryland, became the largest school district in the United States forced to adopt a busing plan. The county, a large suburban school district east of 3383: 853: 416: 81: 2595:

Two weeks later, Biden followed up with a note to Eastland "to thank you again for your efforts in support of my bill to limit court ordered busing."

1865: 1363: 745: 569: 325: 667:(1948) allowed them to settle in formerly white neighborhoods, contributing to racial tension. Meanwhile, the post-war housing boom and the rise of 4390: 4380: 4375: 3919: 3234: 2707:

Woodward, Jennifer R. (Winter 2011). "How Busing Burdened Blacks: Critical Race Theory and Busing for Desegregation in Nashville-Davidson County".

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decision is that it opened the door for whites to flee to the suburbs and not be concerned about compliance with mandatory integration policies.

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Wilmington High, which, many felt, was a victim of the busing order, closed in 1998 due to dropping enrollment. The campus would become home to

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more than $ 2 million in closing attorney fees and is estimated to have paid the NAACP over $ 20 million over the course of the case.

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The origins of desegregation busing can be traced back to two major developments that occurred in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s.

589:; these effects combined to make many urban school districts predominantly non-white, reducing any effectiveness mandatory busing may have had. 3929: 1861: 1853: 1849: 450: 3856: 3813: 2653: 845: 998:, the first public school in Tennessee to be integrated, amounted to the admission of twelve black students to a formerly all-white school. 4158: 4033: 258: 182: 3708: 939:

that opponents of the proposed legislation found particularly compelling was that the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain

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presidential elections, candidates opposed to busing were elected each time, and Congress voted repeatedly to end court-mandated busing.

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After a decade of this gradual integration strategy, it became evident that the schools still lacked full integration. Many argued that

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these efforts as the white parents are refusing to participate in any pupil assignment programs. In some cases, white parents filed

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segregation that existed in six elementary schools located on the city's Westside. This area of Las Vegas had traditionally been a

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to phase out inter-district, one-way busing. By 2005, the six township school districts no longer received any new IPS students.

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unconstitutional, many American schools continued to remain largely racially homogeneous. In an effort to address the ongoing

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decision affirmed principles of equality and justice, it did not specify how its ruling would promote equality in education.

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Rivkin, Steven G., and Finis Welch. 2006. "Has school desegregation improved academic and economic outcomes for blacks?" In

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In some southern states in the 1960s and 1970s, parents opposed to busing created new private schools. The schools, called

367: 300: 229: 175: 153: 143: 2267: 907:, whose goal was to end legal segregation in all public places. The movement's efforts culminated in Congress passing the 4078: 1923:

majority. Chambers' amendment was controversial. Opponents to the measure described it as "state-sponsored segregation".

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The momentum continued with two additional Supreme Court decisions aimed at implementation. In 1968, the Warren Court in

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showed that 75 percent of county residents were against forced busing and that only 32 percent of blacks supported it.

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to prevent police reprisals while cameras were running. Despite the protests, Louisville's busing program continued.

558: 3523:

Domina, Thurston, et al. "The Kids on the Bus: The Academic Consequences of Diversity‐Driven School Reassignments."

3518: 1635: 1576:" and private schools continued to segregate MNPS to a certain degree, a problem that has never fully been solved. 421: 106: 96: 698:

laws for public schools that had been in place in a number of states, since the late 19th century, and ruled that

4068: 3841: 3550: 3479: 1804: 1073: 158: 91: 4058: 3904: 1631: 1440: 1362:

Charlotte operated under "freedom of choice" plans until the Supreme Court upheld Judge McMillan's decision in

505: 52: 3710:

A Boston judge's experiment in social engineering has unraveled neighborhoods and frustrated black achievement

719:

steering a careful course given the expected opposition from Southern states. In May 1955, the Court ruled in

4395: 3457: 1772:) because of the distance between Wilmington and some of the major communities of the suburban area (such as 1728: 1542: 1183: 128: 3033:"Stymied by Segregation: How Integration can Transform North Carolina Schools and the Lives of its Students" 4348: 4073: 4053: 3799: 3409: 2430: 1808: 1585: 1413: 278: 3871: 2456:"Biden's tough talk on 1970s school desegregation plan could get new scrutiny in today's Democratic Party" 1427:

The case initially entered the Eighth Judicial District Court of Nevada, but quickly found its way to the

581:, which further reduced the effectiveness of the policy. Many whites who stayed moved their children into 573:, ruled that the federal courts could use busing as a further integration tool to achieve racial balance. 4335: 4203: 4020: 3206: 1756: 1745: 1473: 960:

said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing.

690: 553: 4385: 3914: 3861: 3614: 2925:, and Steven G. Rivkin. 2009. "Harming the best: How schools affect the black-white achievement gap", 2523: 1984: 1919: 1781: 1692: 1518: 1057: 1045: 1568:

case was again brought back to the courts because of the busing plan's failure to fully integrate the

4370: 3886: 3881: 1785: 1769: 1546: 912: 392: 224: 31: 3772: 3570:

From Brown to Meredith: The Long Struggle in School Desegregation in Louisville, Kentucky, 1954–2007

1868:

townships. This practice continued on until 1998, when an agreement was reached between IPS and the

956:

sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself", two years later the

4330: 3773:

Image of students from South Central Los Angeles riding a school bus to Van Nuys, California, 1977.

2965: 1985:"What is busing? Joe Biden forced to defend record of segregation in face of Kamala Harris attacks" 1793: 1724: 1616: 1464: 1125: 1092:

Despite Biden's lobbying of other senators and getting the support of Judiciary Committee Chairman

936: 916: 908: 295: 3064:

A History of the Las Vegas School Desegregation Case: Kelly et al. v. Clark County School District

765:

decision ushered in new forms of resistance in subsequent decades. The decision failed to address

4198: 4063: 2626:

Wrote Biden to Eastland: "My bill strikes at the heart of the injustice of court-ordered busing."

1620: 1485: 1069: 26: 20: 3969: 3746:

are available at Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department.

3739:

are available at Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department.

3694: 3665: 3270:

Hunt, Thomas C.; Carper, James C.; Lasley, II, Thomas J.; Raisch, C. Daniel (January 12, 2010).

2550:"Letters from Joe Biden reveal how he sought support of segregationists in fight against busing" 4289: 4208: 3909: 1841: 1827: 1716: 1175: 1116: 928: 849: 625: 2744: 2738: 2178: 2172: 1087:

Congressional opposition to busing continued. Delaware senator (and future 46th US President)

4258: 4191: 3959: 3828: 3207:

Hunt, Thomas C.; Carper, James C.;Lasley, II, Thomas J.;Raisch, C. Daniel (20 January 2010).

3115: 3080: 2864: 2566:

25, 1977. "I believe there is a growing sentiment in the Congress to curb unnecessary busing.

1912: 1834:

issued a ruling in 1971 which found the Indianapolis Public Schools (IPS) district guilty of

1288:

racial segregation in schools did not necessarily lead to poor education for black students.

1041: 1014: 904: 857: 268: 3939: 3821: 3603: 3490: 3384:"Inequality Remade: Residential Segregation, Indianapolis Public Schools, and Forced Busing" 2580:"Joe Biden: Letters reveal how he sought support of segregationists in fight against busing" 4319: 4268: 4263: 3954: 2640:

Historic reversals, accelerating resegregation, and the need for new integration strategies

1741: 1589: 1428: 1121: 1052: 1034: 1018: 974: 634: 495: 330: 273: 3487:

An African American dilemma: A history of school integration and civil rights in the North

3476:

The Detroit school busing case: Milliken v. Bradley and the controversy over desegregation

3433: 3397: 2355: 8: 4238: 4163: 4141: 4136: 4083: 2609:"Biden Praises Jeb Bush as Old Letters Show He Sought Support From Famous Segregationist" 2460: 2075:

Why busing failed : race, media, and the national resistance to school desegregation

2015: 1534: 1526: 1416:(CCSD). The NAACP wanted the CCSD to acknowledge publicly, and likewise, act against the 1375: 1339: 1298: 861: 813: 3949: 3528: 3118: 2233:: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (Pivotal Moments in American History) 1807:, a magnet school focused on the arts that was established in 1992. It would also house 1678:

decision, the county had a neighborhood-based system of school boundaries. However, the

4026: 4009: 4004: 3979: 3964: 3896: 3876: 3866: 3836: 3438: 3228: 3083: 2716: 2228: 1957: 1895: 1720: 1484:. California Constitutional Proposition 1, which mandated that busing follow the 1421: 1271: 1145:

Support for the practice is influenced by the methodology of the study conducted. In a

1072:

and stationed them on every bus. On September 26, 1975, 400 protestors held a rally at

1026: 794: 727: 699: 695: 663: 548: 3452: 2850: 4233: 4114: 3776: 3677: 3648: 3619: 3588: 3573: 3503: 3318: 3277: 3214: 3187: 2987: 2870: 2830: 2804: 2794: 2748: 2434: 2238: 2182: 2089: 2079: 2054: 2044: 1750: 1477: 1243:. Many of the judges who ordered busing also sent their children to private schools. 1216: 707: 586: 3732:, Garrity Decision Oral History Interviews. Suffolk University Archives; Boston, MA. 3271: 3208: 1307:

as large cities have moved significantly toward racial balance among their schools.

4284: 4168: 4109: 4099: 3703:

Money And School Performance: Lessons from the Kansas City Desegregation Experiment

3640: 3609: 3515:

Why Busing Failed: Race, Media, and the National Resistance to School Desegregation

3131: 2613: 2427:

The Citizen's Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954–1964

2011:"'Forced busing' didn't fail. Desegregation is the best way to improve our schools" 1881: 1773: 1671: 1385: 1350:

Unlike Boston, which experienced a large degree of racial violence following Judge

1240: 1151: 484: 2893:, edited by Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch. Amsterdam: North Holland: 1019–1049. 4273: 4045: 3934: 3766: 3729: 3629:

McAndrews, Lawrence J. "Missing the bus: Gerald Ford and school desegregation."

3404: 3345: 3325: 3138: 1405: 1212: 952: 837: 2966:

The Six-District Plan: Integration of the Springfield, Mass., Elementary Schools

730:, promising to use all legal means to undermine and reverse the Court's ruling. 4325: 4243: 4218: 4213: 4126: 2362:, Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 4(1): pp. 11–27. Retrieved 30 December 2008 1908: 1899: 1831: 1550: 1481: 1351: 1296:

Busing integrated school age ethnic minorities with the larger community. The

1236: 1129: 1093: 1065: 1010: 944: 920: 582: 3750:

Digitized primary sources related to busing for school desegregation in Boston

3716: 2984:

Mothers of Massive Resistance: White Women and the Politics of White Supremacy

2093: 2058: 2040:

Boston Against Busing : Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s

1918:

In 2006, Chambers offered an amendment to the Omaha school reform bill in the

4364: 4308: 4228: 4104: 3989: 3846: 2922: 2902: 2808: 2772: 2338: 1389: 1311: 1281: 1080:, followed by a rally of 8,000 the next day, who marched led by a woman in a 1022: 951:, said that the bill would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Sen. 940: 886: 871:

Then in 2002, the Supreme Court declined to review a lower court decision in

841: 629: 335: 3722: 3545:

Jones, Nathaniel R. "Milliken v. Bradley: Brown's Troubled Journey North."

1517:, an attempt to integrate the public schools of Nashville (and later all of 3759: 3702: 3156:

The Burden of Busing: The Politics of Desegregation in Nashville, Tennessee

2822: 1885: 1573: 1488:

of the U.S. Constitution, passed in 1979 with 70 percent of the vote. The

1468:

1978 school year. Two suits to stop the enforced busing plan, both titled

1335: 1274: 1195: 969: 948: 892:

Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1

807: 740: 673: 658: 609: 603: 578: 3780:

Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections,

3598:

Lord, J. Dennis. "School busing and white abandonment of public schools."

2268:"Walking into History: The Beginning of School Desegregation in Nashville" 3984: 3744:

Metropolitan Council for Educational Opportunity records 1961–2005 (M101)

3615:

Common Ground: A Turbulent Decade in the Lives of Three American Families

2356:

Conclusions and Controversies about the Effectiveness of School Resources

1684: 1224: 1208: 1146: 924: 716: 3822:

Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)

3634: 2720: 4294: 4151: 4146: 4131: 3753: 3743: 3736: 2734: 2168: 1393: 1232: 1228: 1203: 1081: 799: 2073: 2038: 676:, whereas newer suburbs of most cities were almost exclusively white. 4186: 4119: 3974: 2788: 1826:

was coming to light in Indianapolis in the late 1960s as a result of

1501: 1220: 1179: 1171: 1088: 1006: 782: 726:

abide by the decision. In 1956 over a hundred congressmen signed the

3645:

Busing and Backlash: White Against White in an Urban School District

3500:

With All Deliberate Speed: Implementing Brown v. Board of Education.

2909:: The complex effects of school racial composition on achievement", 2672:

Reviving the goal of an integrated society: A 21st century challenge

1605: 1476:. The petitions to stop the busing plan were subsequently denied by 4279: 2941:"Kevin H. White, Mayor Who Led Boston in Busing Crisis, Dies at 82" 2866:

The Color of Politics: Racism in the American Political Arena Today

2492: 1748:, segregated schools were required by law until 1954, when, due to 1432: 1107:

Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1

1077: 1061: 721: 668: 620: 563: 446: 2790:

The politics of trust : Reubin Askew and Florida in the 1970s

1903:

new ethnic groups, have altered school populations in many areas.

1533:

case was reintroduced to the courts. Ruling on the case was Judge

1472:, were filed by the group Bustop Inc., and were petitioned to the 968:

Another catalyst for the development of busing was an influential

903:

The struggle to desegregate the schools received impetus from the

4253: 4223: 3561: 3249:"U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Prince George's County, Maryland" 1836: 1030: 614: 2401:"Busing for Desegregation to Affect 350,000 Pupils in the South" 661:

and for better opportunities during the post-war economic boom.

4248: 2905:, John F. Kain, and Steve G. Rivkin. 2009. "New evidence about 1284:

wrote that the stated premise for school busing was flawed, as

1002: 790: 479: 2815: 3674:

Both Sides Now: The Story of School Desegregation's Graduates

3572:. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2013. 2374:"Public School Desegregation in the United States, 1968–1980" 1700: 1679: 711: 2319:

Jost, Kenneth (2007). "Racial Diversity in Public Schools".

1811:, which focuses on math and science, and opened up in 1996. 1513:

The result of that lawsuit was what came to be known as the

16:

Failed attempt to racially diversify American public schools

3585:

The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South

2488:"How a Young Joe Biden Turned Liberals Against Integration" 3269: 2519:"Joe Biden's Record on Racial Integration is Indefensible" 1539:

United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

1410:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

772:

Consequently, despite being found "inherently unequal" in

761:

segregation in the South. However, the consequence of the

3697: 2553: 1490:

Crawford v. Board of Education of the City of Los Angeles

1457:

Crawford v. Board of Education of the City of Los Angeles

1392:

program, and an extensive plan to improve the quality of

1384:(KCMSD). Since the district and the state had been found 1044:, were sometimes organized with the support of the local 567:

segregation in schools, the 1971 Supreme Court decision,

2688:

Jost, Kenneth (April 23, 2004). "School Desegregation".

3305:"Report: Schools segregation by race, income worsening" 2821: 1255: 3769:. Moakley Archive & Institute, Suffolk University. 3752:

from various libraries and archives are available via

3717:

25 Years of Forced Busing. Good Riddance to a Bad Idea

3676:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2009. 3647:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1972. 3502:

Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press, 2008.

2829:. Alexandria, VA: National School Boards Association. 1537:, who, after seeking advice from consultants from the 3319:

School Busing – The Civil Rights Movement in Virginia

3276:(1st ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. p. 123. 3096:

Crawford v. Board of Educ. of the City of Los Angeles

3008:"Charlotte Talks: Segregation In Charlotte Education" 1380:

In 1985, a federal court took partial control of the

1500:

In comparison with many other cities in the nation,

1104:

Civil rights advocates see the 2007 joint ruling on

973:

simply called the "Coleman Report" after its author

3587:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005. 3556:Kelley, Jonathan. "The politics of school busing." 3339:

Delaware's Constitution and Its Impact on Education

2827:

Status of School Desegregation: The Next Generation

2674:. Los Angeles: The Civil Rights Project. p. 4. 2300:Jost, K. (April 23, 2004). "School Desegregation". 1595: 1588:ordered the desegregation of the public schools in 1189: 2932: 2853:, Jewish World Review. Retrieved 22 September 2019 2637: 2227: 2202:Jost, K (April 23, 2004). "School Desegregation". 1719:, ordered an extensive citywide busing program in 3158:, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville: 1985. 2665: 2663: 2606: 1264: 802:to a school in a different area of the district. 746:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education 570:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education 4362: 3705:by Paul Ciotti. Policy Analysis, CATO Institute. 1529:was the true culprit in the matter. In 1970 the 874:Belk v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education 702:schools were "inherently unequal". Although the 3537:"The Quest to Desegregate Los Angeles Schools," 3434:Law to Segregate Omaha Schools Divides Nebraska 2683: 2681: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2123: 1982: 1942:s central warning of using racial preferences. 1112:Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education 736:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County 3498:Daugherity, Brian, and Charles Bolton (eds.), 3273:Encyclopedia of Educational Reform and Dissent 3210:Encyclopedia of Educational Reform and Dissent 2660: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2107: 2105: 2103: 1470:Bustop, Inc. v. Los Angeles Board of Education 1128:(NCLB) which was promptly signed by President 3807: 3413:, December 19, 2005. Retrieved April 11, 2017 2986:. Oxford University Press. pp. 219–220. 1911:, a 34-year-serving black state senator from 1345: 513: 19:"Busing" redirects here. For other uses, see 4159:Residential segregation in the United States 3233:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3132:The Quest to DESEGREGATE Los Angeles Schools 2727: 2678: 2505:Biden called busing "a liberal train wreck." 2177:. New York, New York: Basic Books. pp. 1357: 943:in schools. Proponents of the bill, such as 776:, by the late 1960s public schools remained 3737:Freedom House, Inc. records 1941–1996 (M16) 3442:. April 15, 2006. Retrieved April 12, 2009. 2964:Massachusetts Commission on Civil Rights, " 2577: 2221: 2219: 2217: 2100: 1634:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 958:Department of Health, Education and Welfare 3814: 3800: 2761: 1450: 612:, most public schools in the country were 520: 506: 3525:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 2970:University of Maryland Law School Library 2927:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 2862: 2541: 2345:, April 2000. Retrieved 30 December 2008. 2225: 2036: 2008: 1894:According to the Civil Rights Project at 1654:Learn how and when to remove this message 648: 87:History of education in the United States 3723:John Joseph Moakley Oral History Project 3075:Crawford v. Board of Ed. of Los Angeles 3066:(Las Vegas: UNLV, 1998), pp. 28, 33, 94. 3058: 3056: 2706: 2642:. Los Angeles: The Civil Rights Project. 2424: 2348: 2214: 1952:Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska 1817: 1369: 1322: 898: 25: 4391:Bus transportation in the United States 4381:School segregation in the United States 4376:Race and education in the United States 3154:Richard A. Pride and J. David Woodard, 3012:WFAE 90.7 – Charlotte's NPR News Source 2669: 2071: 1964:School segregation in the United States 1890:School segregation in the United States 1735: 1579: 1495: 4363: 3192:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3108:Bustop, Inc. v. Los Angeles Bd. of Ed. 2891:Handbook of the Economics of Education 2547: 2398: 2331: 2043:. University of North Carolina Press. 2009:Theoharis, George (October 23, 2015). 1459:, was filed to end segregation in the 1317: 597: 3795: 3786:University of California, Los Angeles 3662:American Educational Research Journal 3098:, 200 Cal. App. 3d 1397, 1402 (1988). 3053: 3030: 2981: 2516: 2485: 2453: 2037:Formisano, Ronald P. (January 2012). 1764:In 1976, the U.S. District Court, in 1706: 1570:Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools 1437:Kelly v. Clark County School District 1382:Kansas City, Missouri School District 1170:Ultimately, many black leaders, from 963: 889:produced a contentious 5–4 ruling in 640: 112:History of education in New York City 102:History of education in Massachusetts 4343: 2958: 2733: 2687: 2380:. Joint Center for Political Studies 2318: 2299: 2293: 2201: 2167: 1632:adding citations to reliable sources 1599: 1412:(NAACP) filed a lawsuit against the 1399: 1256:Effect on already-integrated schools 4164:Segregation academy (United States) 4079:Sex segregation in public restrooms 3618:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985. 3478:(University Press of Kansas, 2011) 2939:Fox, Margalite (January 27, 2012). 2938: 2607:Ben Mathis-Lilley (11 April 2019). 2399:Wooten, James T. (15 August 1971). 2371: 1870:United States Department of Justice 1461:Los Angeles Unified School District 1439:, was eventually heard by the U.S. 13: 3760:Busing in Boston: A research guide 3468: 2786: 2638:Orfield, G. & Lee, C. (2007). 2078:. University of California Press. 1329:Boston desegregation busing crisis 1140: 811:The resultant Supreme Court case, 14: 4407: 3782:Charles E. Young Research Library 3688: 3453:White teachers flee black schools 2743:. New York: Basic Books. p. 1983:Zhao, Christina (June 27, 2019). 1875: 1051:For the 1975–76 school year, the 840:ruled in three cases coming from 4342: 4314: 4313: 3489:(Oxford University Press, 2021) 3451:Jonnson, P. (January 21, 2003) " 3049:from the original on 2020-11-29. 1713:Bradley v. Richmond School Board 1604: 1596:Prince George's County, Maryland 1190:White flight and private schools 1076:, which was broken up by police 679: 489: 478: 107:History of education in Missouri 97:History of education in Kentucky 3445: 3426: 3416: 3390: 3376: 3351: 3331: 3311: 3297: 3263: 3241: 3200: 3161: 3148: 3124: 3101: 3089: 3069: 3024: 3000: 2975: 2916: 2896: 2883: 2856: 2843: 2780: 2700: 2646: 2631: 2600: 2571: 2510: 2479: 2447: 2418: 2392: 2365: 2312: 2284: 2274: 2237:. US: Oxford University Press. 1805:Cab Calloway School of the Arts 557:declared racial segregation in 92:History of education in Chicago 3631:Presidential Studies Quarterly 3328:", Virginia Historical Society 2709:The Journal of Negro Education 2548:Zeleny, Jeff (11 April 2019). 2517:Smith, Asher (11 April 2019). 2486:Sokol, Jasin (4 August 2015). 2260: 2251: 2195: 2065: 2030: 2002: 1976: 1441:Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals 1265:Effect on academic performance 1096:, "Biden-Roth" narrowly lost. 985: 789:A federal court found that in 757:served to end all remnants of 427:Full-service community schools 1: 3458:The Christian Science Monitor 3040:North Carolina Justice Center 2578:Jeff Zeleny (11 April 2019). 1969: 1754:(which was later rolled into 1543:Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools 1099: 2929:28, no. 3 (Summer): 366–393. 2913:, 27, no. 3 (July): 349–383. 2777:Retrieved on August 5, 2020. 2654:"Brennan Center for Justice" 2454:Viser, Matt (7 March 2019). 2431:University of Illinois Press 2339:The Social Side of Schooling 2072:Delmont, Matthew F. (2016). 1809:Charter School of Wilmington 1414:Clark County School District 1135: 7: 4021:Brown v. Board of Education 3695:The Legacy of School Busing 2907:Brown v. Board of Education 2825:; Franklin Monfort (1992). 2354:Hanushek, Eric A. (1998), " 2337:Kiviat, Barbara J. (2000) " 2231:Brown v. Board of Education 1945: 1844:. These townships included 1757:Brown v. Board of Education 1717:Robert R. Merhige, Jr. 1711:In April 1971, in the case 1507:Brown v. Board of Education 1474:United States Supreme Court 1246: 1186:led efforts to end busing. 1178:, a Milwaukee Democrat, to 992:Brown v. Board of Education 980: 774:Brown v. Board of Education 691:Brown v. Board of Education 554:Brown v. Board of Education 405:For-profit higher education 10: 4412: 3930:Czechoslovakia and Hungary 3213:. SAGE Publications, Inc. 2911:Journal of Labor Economics 2425:McMillen, Neil R. (1971). 1920:Nebraska State Legislature 1879: 1373: 1346:Springfield, Massachusetts 1326: 1291: 1068:sent 1,800 members of the 601: 592: 358:School corporal punishment 18: 4303: 4177: 4092: 4044: 3975:Apartheid in South Africa 3895: 3827: 2982:McRae, Elizabeth (2018). 2863:Danielson, Chris (2013). 2740:How We Got Here: The '70s 2378:UCLA Civil Rights Project 2226:Patterson, James (2001). 2174:How We Got Here: The '70s 1828:Civil Rights reformation. 1770:Christina School District 1715:, Federal District Judge 1364:Swann v. Mecklenburg 1971 1358:Charlotte, North Carolina 935:One argument against the 913:Voting Rights Act of 1965 393:School-to-work transition 32:Charlotte, North Carolina 3558:Public Opinion Quarterly 3527:40.4 (2021): 1197–1229. 2869:. ABC-CLIO. p. 16. 1465:California Supreme Court 1126:No Child Left Behind Act 937:Civil Rights Act of 1964 917:Civil Rights Act of 1968 909:Civil Rights Act of 1964 836:In the early 1990s, the 496:United States portal 42:This article is part of 4199:Anti-miscegenation laws 4034:Anti-miscegenation laws 3600:Southeastern Geographer 2851:Supreme Court Disasters 2257:Morgan v. Hennigan 1974 1744:, Delaware, located in 1486:Equal protection clause 1451:Los Angeles, California 1445:Sixth Grade Center Plan 1070:Kentucky National Guard 1046:White Citizen's Council 214:Education policy issues 183:Environmental education 21:Busing (disambiguation) 4290:White Australia policy 4209:Corporative federalism 3664:55.4 (2018): 651–692. 3398:"Overcoming Apartheid" 2360:Economic Policy Review 2343:Johns Hopkins Magazine 1668:Prince George's County 1564:In 1979 and 1980, the 1275:Professor Gary Orfield 1176:Annette Polly Williams 1117:reverse discrimination 919:. Signed by President 885:Finally, in 2007, the 684:At the same time, the 655:Second Great Migration 653:Starting in 1940, the 649:Black population shift 535:(also known simply as 351:Standards-based reform 326:Gender achievement gap 316:Racial achievement gap 249:Educational attainment 35: 4259:Religious intolerance 3713:. Hoover Institution. 3633:27.4 (1997): 791–804 3542:vol. 26 (March 2003). 1818:Indianapolis, Indiana 1370:Kansas City, Missouri 1323:Boston, Massachusetts 1042:segregation academies 1015:Kansas City, Missouri 905:Civil Rights Movement 899:Civil rights movement 635:restrictive covenants 602:Further information: 551:landmark decision in 417:Research universities 284:Student financial aid 279:Graduate unemployment 254:Post-secondary issues 230:Primary and secondary 193:Mathematics education 30:Integrated busing in 29: 4396:Types of bus service 4269:Second-class citizen 4264:Reservation in India 3990:United Arab Emirates 3920:Bulgaria and Romania 3754:Digital Commonwealth 3602:15.2 (1975): 81–92. 3583:Lassiter, Matthew. 3560:38.1 (1974): 23–39. 3535:Ettinger, David S. 3513:Delmont, Matthew F. 3461:. Retrieved 4/12/09. 3130:David S. Ettinger, " 1830:U.S. District Judge 1736:Wilmington, Delaware 1628:improve this section 1590:Pasadena, California 1580:Pasadena, California 1496:Nashville, Tennessee 1455:In 1963, a lawsuit, 1429:Nevada Supreme Court 1122:Civil Rights Project 1074:Southern High School 1053:Louisville, Kentucky 1035:Wilmington, Delaware 533:Desegregation busing 485:Education portal 321:Desegregation busing 274:Elite overproduction 203:Vocational education 4137:Exclusionary zoning 4084:Separatist feminism 3862:Partition of Bengal 3672:Wells, Amy Stuart. 3540:Los Angeles Lawyer, 3386:. 16 February 2017. 2670:Orfield, G (2009). 2461:The Washington Post 2016:The Washington Post 1535:Leland Clure Morton 1527:Housing Segregation 1376:Missouri v. Jenkins 1340:Charlestown, Boston 1318:Historical examples 1310:Recent research by 1299:Milliken v. Bradley 996:Clinton High School 814:Milliken v. Bradley 598:Before World War II 438:Levels of education 410:For-profit colleges 378:Foreign involvement 4027:Massive resistance 4015:School segregation 4010:Separate but equal 3935:Dominican Republic 3837:Partition of India 3765:2015-08-15 at the 3728:2008-05-16 at the 3719:, at Adversity.net 3568:K'Meyer, Tracy E. 3547:Fordham Law Review 3439:The New York Times 3403:2017-04-12 at the 3344:2008-11-20 at the 3324:2007-10-20 at the 3143:Los Angeles Lawyer 3137:2008-02-28 at the 2945:The New York Times 2787:Harvey, Gordon E. 2405:The New York Times 1958:Morgan v. Hennigan 1896:Harvard University 1824:racial segregation 1707:Richmond, Virginia 1422:black neighborhood 1272:Harvard University 1201:During the 1970s, 990:The impact of the 964:Sociological study 795:racial integration 728:Southern Manifesto 700:separate but equal 696:racial segregation 694:(1954) overturned 686:U.S. Supreme Court 664:Shelley v. Kraemer 641:After World War II 549:U.S. Supreme Court 400:Community colleges 346:School segregation 264:Cost and financing 188:Language education 36: 4386:Student transport 4358: 4357: 4234:Majority minority 4115:Ethnic federalism 3897:Ethnic and racial 3857:Greece and Turkey 3777:Los Angeles Times 3610:Lukas, J. Anthony 3485:Burkholder, Zoë. 3337:Samuel B. Hoff, " 3283:978-1-4129-5664-2 3220:978-1-4129-5664-2 3031:Nordstrom, Kris. 2876:978-1-4408-0276-8 2836:978-0-88364-174-3 2800:978-0-8173-8888-1 2754:978-0-465-04195-4 2085:978-0-520-28425-8 2050:978-0-8078-6970-3 1766:Evans v. Buchanan 1751:Belton v. Gebhart 1746:New Castle County 1664: 1663: 1656: 1553:, the same year. 1478:Justice Rehnquist 1404:In May 1968, the 1400:Las Vegas, Nevada 1334:neighborhoods of 1217:Thurgood Marshall 1005:, Massachusetts; 708:Thurgood Marshall 587:parochial schools 541:integrated busing 530: 529: 383:Special education 373:Sexual harassment 166:Medical education 120:Curriculum topics 56: 4403: 4371:Education issues 4346: 4345: 4317: 4316: 4285:Social apartheid 4169:Social exclusion 4142:Forced migration 4110:Ethnic cleansing 4100:Auto-segregation 3842:Northern Ireland 3816: 3809: 3802: 3793: 3792: 3641:Rubin Lillian B. 3474:Baugh, Joyce A. 3462: 3449: 3443: 3430: 3424: 3420: 3414: 3394: 3388: 3387: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3371: 3370: 3361:. Archived from 3359:"iccjournal.biz" 3355: 3349: 3335: 3329: 3315: 3309: 3308: 3307:. 14 March 2013. 3301: 3295: 3294: 3292: 3290: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3255:. Archived from 3245: 3239: 3238: 3232: 3224: 3204: 3198: 3197: 3191: 3183: 3181: 3180: 3171:. Archived from 3165: 3159: 3152: 3146: 3128: 3122: 3105: 3099: 3093: 3087: 3073: 3067: 3062:Matthew, Ronan, 3060: 3051: 3050: 3048: 3037: 3028: 3022: 3021: 3019: 3018: 3004: 2998: 2997: 2979: 2973: 2962: 2956: 2955: 2953: 2951: 2936: 2930: 2923:Eric A. Hanushek 2920: 2914: 2903:Eric A. Hanushek 2900: 2894: 2887: 2881: 2880: 2860: 2854: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2819: 2813: 2812: 2784: 2778: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2731: 2725: 2724: 2704: 2698: 2697: 2685: 2676: 2675: 2667: 2658: 2657: 2650: 2644: 2643: 2635: 2629: 2628: 2623: 2621: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2592: 2590: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2562: 2560: 2545: 2539: 2538: 2533: 2531: 2514: 2508: 2507: 2502: 2500: 2483: 2477: 2476: 2470: 2468: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2422: 2416: 2415: 2413: 2411: 2396: 2390: 2389: 2387: 2385: 2369: 2363: 2352: 2346: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2316: 2310: 2309: 2297: 2291: 2288: 2282: 2278: 2272: 2271: 2264: 2258: 2255: 2249: 2248: 2236: 2223: 2212: 2211: 2199: 2193: 2192: 2165: 2098: 2097: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2034: 2028: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1980: 1941: 1882:Auto-segregation 1672:Washington, D.C. 1659: 1652: 1648: 1645: 1639: 1608: 1600: 1515:"Nashville Plan" 1386:severally liable 1184:Michael R. White 1152:RAND Corporation 1058:Jefferson County 1033:, Michigan; and 624:segregated. All 522: 515: 508: 494: 493: 492: 483: 482: 422:Community school 341:Racial diversity 311:Achievement gaps 215: 77:in insular areas 59: 55:Education in the 54: 38: 37: 4411: 4410: 4406: 4405: 4404: 4402: 4401: 4400: 4361: 4360: 4359: 4354: 4299: 4274:Separate school 4179: 4173: 4088: 4040: 3891: 3823: 3820: 3767:Wayback Machine 3730:Wayback Machine 3691: 3549:61 (1992): 49+ 3471: 3469:Further reading 3466: 3465: 3450: 3446: 3431: 3427: 3421: 3417: 3405:Wayback Machine 3395: 3391: 3382: 3381: 3377: 3368: 3366: 3357: 3356: 3352: 3346:Wayback Machine 3336: 3332: 3326:Wayback Machine 3316: 3312: 3303: 3302: 3298: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3268: 3264: 3247: 3246: 3242: 3226: 3225: 3221: 3205: 3201: 3185: 3184: 3178: 3176: 3169:"Archived copy" 3167: 3166: 3162: 3153: 3149: 3139:Wayback Machine 3129: 3125: 3106: 3102: 3094: 3090: 3074: 3070: 3061: 3054: 3046: 3035: 3029: 3025: 3016: 3014: 3006: 3005: 3001: 2994: 2980: 2976: 2963: 2959: 2949: 2947: 2937: 2933: 2921: 2917: 2901: 2897: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2861: 2857: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2820: 2816: 2801: 2785: 2781: 2766: 2762: 2755: 2732: 2728: 2705: 2701: 2686: 2679: 2668: 2661: 2652: 2651: 2647: 2636: 2632: 2619: 2617: 2605: 2601: 2588: 2586: 2576: 2572: 2558: 2556: 2546: 2542: 2529: 2527: 2524:Current Affairs 2515: 2511: 2498: 2496: 2484: 2480: 2466: 2464: 2452: 2448: 2441: 2433:. p. 301. 2423: 2419: 2409: 2407: 2397: 2393: 2383: 2381: 2372:Orfield, Gary. 2370: 2366: 2353: 2349: 2336: 2332: 2317: 2313: 2298: 2294: 2289: 2285: 2279: 2275: 2266: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2252: 2245: 2224: 2215: 2200: 2196: 2189: 2166: 2101: 2086: 2070: 2066: 2051: 2035: 2031: 2021: 2019: 2007: 2003: 1993: 1991: 1981: 1977: 1972: 1948: 1939: 1909:Ernest Chambers 1892: 1878: 1820: 1738: 1709: 1660: 1649: 1643: 1640: 1625: 1609: 1598: 1582: 1519:Davidson County 1498: 1453: 1431:. According to 1408:chapter of the 1406:Southern Nevada 1402: 1378: 1372: 1360: 1348: 1331: 1325: 1320: 1294: 1267: 1258: 1249: 1213:George McGovern 1192: 1143: 1141:Popular opinion 1138: 1102: 988: 983: 966: 953:Hubert Humphrey 901: 838:Rehnquist Court 682: 651: 643: 626:Southern states 606: 600: 595: 526: 490: 488: 487: 477: 451:Early childhood 433: 368:School violence 301:Charter schools 213: 207: 176:Nursing degrees 154:Legal education 149:Music education 144:Civic education 82:By subject area 57: 53: 34:, February 1973 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4409: 4399: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4356: 4355: 4353: 4352: 4340: 4339: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4311: 4304: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4244:Nuremberg Laws 4241: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4219:Ghetto benches 4216: 4214:Discrimination 4211: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4195: 4194: 4183: 4181: 4175: 4174: 4172: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4155: 4154: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4127:Ethnopluralism 4124: 4123: 4122: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4096: 4094: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4050: 4048: 4042: 4041: 4039: 4038: 4037: 4036: 4031: 4030: 4029: 4024: 4012: 4007: 3997: 3995:United Kingdom 3992: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3901: 3899: 3893: 3892: 3890: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3839: 3833: 3831: 3825: 3824: 3819: 3818: 3811: 3804: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3770: 3757: 3747: 3740: 3733: 3720: 3714: 3706: 3700: 3690: 3689:External links 3687: 3686: 3685: 3669: 3668: 3657: 3656: 3638: 3627: 3606: 3605: 3596: 3581: 3565: 3564: 3554: 3543: 3532: 3531: 3521: 3511: 3495: 3494: 3483: 3470: 3467: 3464: 3463: 3444: 3425: 3415: 3389: 3375: 3350: 3330: 3310: 3296: 3282: 3262: 3259:on 2020-03-01. 3253:www.census.gov 3240: 3219: 3199: 3160: 3147: 3123: 3100: 3088: 3068: 3052: 3023: 2999: 2992: 2974: 2957: 2931: 2915: 2895: 2882: 2875: 2855: 2842: 2835: 2814: 2799: 2793:. p. 58. 2779: 2760: 2753: 2726: 2699: 2696:(15): 345–372. 2677: 2659: 2645: 2630: 2599: 2570: 2540: 2509: 2478: 2446: 2439: 2417: 2391: 2364: 2347: 2330: 2327:(32): 745–767. 2311: 2308:(15): 345–372. 2292: 2283: 2273: 2259: 2250: 2243: 2213: 2210:(15): 345–372. 2194: 2187: 2099: 2084: 2064: 2049: 2029: 2001: 1974: 1973: 1971: 1968: 1967: 1966: 1961: 1954: 1947: 1944: 1900:Jonathan Kozol 1877: 1876:Re-segregation 1874: 1832:S. Hugh Dillin 1822:Institutional 1819: 1816: 1737: 1734: 1708: 1705: 1662: 1661: 1612: 1610: 1603: 1597: 1594: 1581: 1578: 1551:North Carolina 1497: 1494: 1482:Justice Powell 1452: 1449: 1401: 1398: 1371: 1368: 1359: 1356: 1352:Arthur Garrity 1347: 1344: 1327:Main article: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1293: 1290: 1266: 1263: 1257: 1254: 1248: 1245: 1237:Philip Geyelin 1191: 1188: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1130:George W. Bush 1101: 1098: 1094:James Eastland 1066:Julian Carroll 1025:, California; 1011:Columbus, Ohio 987: 984: 982: 979: 965: 962: 945:Emanuel Celler 921:Lyndon Johnson 900: 897: 866:Unitary Status 681: 678: 650: 647: 642: 639: 599: 596: 594: 591: 559:public schools 528: 527: 525: 524: 517: 510: 502: 499: 498: 474: 473: 472: 471: 466: 463:Post-secondary 440: 439: 435: 434: 432: 431: 430: 429: 419: 414: 413: 412: 402: 397: 396: 395: 388:Apprenticeship 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 354: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 293: 292: 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 261: 251: 246: 239: 238: 237: 235:Post-secondary 232: 221: 218: 217: 209: 208: 206: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 179: 178: 173: 171:Medical school 163: 162: 161: 151: 146: 141: 136: 134:Normal schools 131: 125: 122: 121: 117: 116: 115: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 67: 66: 62: 61: 49: 48: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4408: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4368: 4366: 4351: 4350: 4341: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4323: 4322: 4321: 4312: 4310: 4309:Pillarisation 4306: 4305: 4302: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4229:Jim Crow laws 4227: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4200: 4197: 4193: 4190: 4189: 4188: 4185: 4184: 4182: 4176: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4153: 4150: 4149: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4121: 4118: 4117: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4105:Balkanization 4103: 4101: 4098: 4097: 4095: 4091: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4051: 4049: 4047: 4043: 4035: 4032: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4022: 4018: 4017: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4002: 4001: 4000:United States 3998: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 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1887: 1883: 1873: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1842:Marion County 1839: 1838: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1815: 1812: 1810: 1806: 1801: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1762: 1759: 1758: 1753: 1752: 1747: 1743: 1733: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1704: 1702: 1696: 1694: 1688: 1686: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1658: 1655: 1647: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1623: 1622: 1618: 1613:This section 1611: 1607: 1602: 1601: 1593: 1591: 1587: 1586:federal court 1577: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1523: 1520: 1516: 1511: 1508: 1503: 1493: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1433:Brown II 1430: 1425: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1390:magnet school 1387: 1383: 1377: 1367: 1365: 1355: 1353: 1343: 1341: 1337: 1330: 1315: 1313: 1312:Eric Hanushek 1308: 1304: 1301: 1300: 1289: 1287: 1283: 1282:Thomas Sowell 1278: 1276: 1273: 1262: 1253: 1244: 1242: 1241:Donald Fraser 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1205: 1199: 1197: 1187: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1118: 1113: 1109: 1108: 1097: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1038: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1023:San Francisco 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 999: 997: 993: 978: 976: 975:James Coleman 971: 961: 959: 954: 950: 946: 942: 941:racial quotas 938: 933: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 896: 894: 893: 888: 887:Roberts Court 883: 881: 876: 875: 869: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 850:DeKalb County 847: 843: 842:Oklahoma City 839: 834: 831: 829: 824: 820: 816: 815: 809: 803: 801: 796: 792: 787: 784: 779: 775: 770: 769:segregation. 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 747: 742: 738: 737: 731: 729: 724: 723: 718: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 692: 687: 680:Legal rulings 677: 675: 670: 666: 665: 660: 656: 646: 638: 636: 631: 630:Jim Crow Laws 627: 623: 622: 617: 616: 611: 605: 590: 588: 584: 580: 574: 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