1035:"Renatus Profuturus Frigeridus, whom we have already mentioned, in his story of the capture and destruction of Rome by the Goths, says: "Meantime when Goare had gone over to the Romans, Respendial, king of the Alamanni, turned the army of his people from the Rhine, since the Vandals were getting the worse of the war with the Franks, having lost their king Godegisil, and about 20,000 of the army, and all the Vandals would have been exterminated if the army of the Alamanni had not come to their aid in time." It is surprising to us that when he names the kings of the other nations he does not name the king of the Franks as well." – Gregory of Tours quoting Frigeridus (the Frigeridus fragment) in
741:
795:) came to the rescue of the Vandals, and the joint forces seem to have defeated the Franks in a decisive battle. Frigeridus does not mention a date nor a precise location for this battle; he only indicated that the Alan army 'turned away from the Rhine' in order to intervene in the Vandal–Frankish war, so it must have taken place some distance away from the river. MacDowall estimated that this last battle 'probably took place some time in the summer or autumn of 406, and it allowed the Vandals and their allies to move into Frankish territory on the middle Rhine'.
20:
1022:, of Lugdunensis and Narbonensis are, with the exception of a few cities, one universal scene of desolation. And those which the sword spares without, famine ravages within. I cannot speak without tears of Toulouse which has been kept from falling hitherto by the merits of its reverend bishop Exuperius. Even the Spains are on the brink of ruin and tremble daily as they recall the invasion of the Cymry; and, while others suffer misfortunes once in actual fact, they suffer them continually in anticipation." – Jerome,
974:
894:, finding that in traditional historiography "the sequence of events bristles with technical difficulties", bypassed modern historians' accounts, which he found to have depended upon Gibbon and one another, and reanalysed the literary sources. His conclusion was that a date for the mid-winter crossing of the Rhine of 31 December 405 offers a more coherent chronology of events in Belgica, Gaul and Britannia. However, Kulikowski's dating theory, which is a revival of arguments that were put forward by
785:, in which the latter were losing. MacDowall (2016) suggested this war may have consisted of several battles, wherein the Franks were trying to defend their own territory and/or the Roman frontier as foederati, while Vandals were trying to either obtain a similar foederati status as the Franks, Alemanni and Burgunds on the east bank, or trying to cross the Rhine. Frigeridus states that the Vandals lost around 20,000 warriors, including their king
820:
Worms (Vangionum) and
Strasbourg (Argentoratum) are two other Roman cities on the Rhine reportedly sacked, so an initial traversal further to the south may seem equally plausible (if one is to assume that it was accompanied by plundering a city on the western bank, which isn't even necessary; these cities could have been pillaged any time between the 405/6 crossing and Jerome's 409 letter). On the other hand, the downstream river fortresses of
769:(2009), on the other hand, argued that this hypothesis does not explain all the evidence, such as the fact that 'the vast majority of the invaders who emerged from the middle Danubian region between 405 and 408 had not been living there in the fourth century', and that the evidence for any Roman military withdrawal from the northwest at this time is weak; escaping 'the Hun-generated chaos and predation' was still a better explanation.
808:
882:, for the time being until the Goths had been driven out of Italy. Furthermore, he interpreted the Frigeridus fragment as showing the Franks being initially successful in preventing the Vandals from crossing the Rhine, but that they could no longer hold them back when the Alans joined the fray. However, Heather (2009) pointed out that the evidence for any Roman military withdrawal from the northwest at this time is weak.
856:. Although many later writers have since mentioned a frozen Rhine as if it were a fact, for Gibbon himself it was merely a hypothesis ('in a season when the waters of the Rhine were most probably frozen') to help explain why the Vandals, Alans and Suebi were able to cross the Rhine into Gaul with such apparent ease. It is also possible that they used a Roman Rhine bridge, or that the migrating peoples simply used boats.
922:. "The three entries are linked, and together they tell a kind of story", Kulikowski observed. "Prosper was writing a chronicle, and the genre abhorred blank years. Since his chosen genre demanded an entry for each of three years, Prosper simply portioned out his sequence of events, one event to the year. He does the same thing elsewhere in the chronicle".
997:.' Based on Jerome's letter, Kulikowski argued that the Vandals, Alans and Suebi probably mostly stayed in northern Gaul until at least the spring of 409 (the earliest possible date of Jerome's letter), because almost all cities pillaged by the barbarians listed by Jerome were located in the north, and the southern city of
989:, the barbarians crossed into Spain in September or October 409; little is known about the acts of the Vandals, Alans and Suevi in Gaul between the crossing of the Rhine and their invasion of Spain. Gregory of Tours only mentions that 'the Vandals left their own country and burst into the Gauls under king
1106:
123.16: Quadus, Vandalus, Sarmata, Halani, Gipedes, Heruli, Saxones, Burgundiones, Alemanni et – o lugenda respublica! – hostes
Pannonii. ("Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun all parts of Gaul. The whole country between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been
1078:
For on the bitterly cold night of
December 31, 406, there was apparently no Roman army on guard when a host of Vandal, Alan, Suevi and Burgundian warriors, with their families and possessions, crossed the frozen Rhine and headed southwest through Gaul. This time, Rome's frontiers had been breached by
1017:
Jerome: “The once noble city of
Moguntiacum has been captured and destroyed. In its church many thousands have been massacred. The people of Vangionum after standing a long siege have been extirpated. The powerful city of Remorum , the Ambiani , the Altrebatæ , the Morini on the skirts, Tornacum ,
798:
Despite this, and against contemporary military logic of staying in the winter quarters to await more favourable weather for their next campaign, Prosper claimed the
Vandals and Alans crossed the Rhine in the middle of the winter, which MacDowall argues would only make sense if they were starving and
819:
at that time, and the
Vandals may have been starving (given the fact that they crossed the Rhine in mid-winter) and therefore decided to raid Mainz in order to plunder its food supplies; this is why scholars such as MacDowall (2016) assume this to have been the location of the crossing of the Rhine.
938:
in
Britannia: the latter occurred in the course of 406, thus preceded the 31 December 406 date, and therefore the Rhine crossing must have happened earlier. Kulikowski's proposed date of 31 December 405 places the acclamation of the first of the usurpers in Britannia, which was characterised as a
764:
have argued instead that the barbarian groups crossed the Rhine not (so much) because they were fleeing away from the Huns, but seized the opportunity to plunder and settle in Gaul when the Roman garrisons on the Rhine frontier were weakened or withdrawn in order to protect Italy.
702:
of a war between the
Vandals, Alans and Franks that took place in the neighbourhood of the Rhine around the time of the supposed crossing of the Rhine. This text, scholarly called the "Frigeridus fragment", may provide some clues about the circumstances preceding the crossing.
844:), situated a few days' march west of Mainz. As Jerome had lived in Trier until 370, it's very likely he would have reported it if the invaders had attacked his former hometown, but he makes no such mention.
1107:
laid waste by hordes of Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, Gepids, Herules, Saxons, Burgundians, Allemanni and – alas! for the commonweal! – even
Pannonians.)
58:
815:
Jerome mentions Mainz (Mogontiacum) first in his list of the cities devastated by the incursion, there was a Roman stone pillar bridge across the Rhine at Mainz called the
953:
With the traditional date of 31 December 406 in mind, much has been made of the inaction of
Stilicho, which is sometimes imputed to his strategy focussed on ambitions in
864:
It is not clear why the Germanic bands crossing the Rhine apparently met no organised military resistance on the Roman side. A common hypothesis is that Roman general
918:
as the prime event of the previous year, as well as his death, which actually occurred in 406, and he correctly assigned to the next year (407) the usurpation of
51:
1403:"De 14C-chronologie van de Nederlandse Pre- en Protohistorie VI: Romeinse tijd en Merovische periode, deel A: historische bronnen en chronologische thema's"
876:(died c. 404), who knew Stilicho personally; the general supposedly entrusted the defence of the Rhine frontier to the Franks and Alamanni, who were Roman
607:
and dated to the year 409, gives a long list of the barbarian tribes who had overrun all of Gaul at that time, including those who had crossed the Rhine:
1566:
44:
852:
A frozen Rhine, making the crossing easier, is not attested by any contemporary source, but was a plausible surmise made by 18th-century historian
1561:
1376:
Barbarian agency and imperial withdrawal: the causes and consequences of political change in fourth- and fifth-century Trier and Cologne
709:, a generally reliable contemporary historian, wrote an account of the crossing, of which only fragments have survived in quotations by
522:
is traditionally considered to have occurred on the last day of the year 406 (December 31, 406). The crossing transgressed one of the
993:. And when the Gauls had been thoroughly laid waste they made for the Spains. The Suebi, that is, Alamanni, following them, seized
930:
Kulikowski noted a contradiction between Prosper's date and the assertions made by a fragment of Olympiodorus of Thebes, Zosimus's
799:
desperate, and the lands they had just conquered from the Franks were insufficient to provide them with enough food for everyone.
31:
789:, in these military engagements. When the Vandals' war situation was becoming desperate, the Alans (who he mistakenly labels
229:
1453:
1576:
748:
The initial gathering of barbarians on the east bank of the Rhine has been interpreted as a banding of refugees from the
833:
1591:
1523:
1414:
1347:
1228:
1158:
919:
337:
219:
357:
224:
68:
1586:
271:
1071:
934:(vi.3.1) and Orosius that the Rhine crossing and the presence of barbarians in Gaul provoked the usurpation of
113:
699:
300:
244:
118:
816:
718:
533:
740:
1596:
825:
536:. It initiated a wave of destruction of Roman cities and the collapse of Roman civic order in northern
407:
392:
320:
256:
150:
1571:
910:
Kulikowski outlined how 406 came to be selected. The sixth consulship of Arcadius, with Probus as co-
434:
387:
281:
145:
108:
261:
962:
589:
484:
449:
422:
417:
325:
315:
310:
187:
155:
83:
479:
469:
439:
412:
214:
182:
1018:
the Nemetæ , and Argentoratus have fallen to Germania: while the provinces of Aquitaine and of
1194:
706:
402:
342:
293:
288:
239:
170:
130:
1148:
868:
may have depleted the garrisons on the Rhine border in 402 to face the Visigothic invasion of
1402:
1337:
1001:(Tolosa) had so far been able to repel the invaders, and they hadn't yet crossed into Spain.
459:
305:
276:
199:
93:
88:
577:
528:
474:
332:
249:
103:
1374:
8:
1122:
714:
592:, Vandals and Alans came into the Gauls, having crossed the Rhine, on the day before the
464:
382:
165:
160:
872:
in Italy. Goffart argued in favour of this hypothesis based on the writings of the poet
540:. That, in turn, occasioned the rise of three usurpers in succession in the province of
19:
1532:
1300:
891:
841:
695:
377:
347:
266:
209:
204:
135:
98:
454:
1519:
1500:
Drinkwater, John F., "The usurpers Constantine III (407–411) and Jovinus (411–413)",
1410:
1343:
1304:
1224:
1154:
1067:
948:
939:
fearful reaction to the barbarian presence in Gaul, after the crossing of the Rhine.
444:
427:
397:
234:
177:
1292:
935:
895:
691:
553:
549:
362:
36:
744:
Reconstructed map of the migration of Danubian peoples across the Rhine around 406
1218:
489:
352:
1091:
Arcadio VI et Probo, Wandali et Halani Gallias trajecto Rheno ingressi II k. Ian
811:
Reconstruction of Roman Mainz, with the Pons Ingeniosa bridge crossing the Rhine
1556:
1019:
899:
757:
652:
372:
125:
1280:
973:
1550:
1511:
1150:
People, Personal Expression, and Social Relations in Late Antiquity, Volume 2
1118:
986:
853:
766:
541:
367:
668:
1581:
523:
140:
977:
Reconstruction of the 407–409 sack of Gaul, based on Peter Heather (2005)
761:
636:
557:
532:
or boundaries; as such, it has been considered a climactic moment in the
957:. Kulikowski's date of 31 December 405 finds Stilicho fully occupied in
1409:(in Dutch). Groningen: Groningen Institute of Archaeology. p. 46.
1296:
1153:. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. pp. 101–102.
915:
753:
680:
616:
1516:
The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians
994:
878:
836:) in the north were apparently left intact by the barbarians, as was
786:
604:
581:
573:
507:
647:
from within the empire itself. Jerome lists the cities now known as
572:
Several written accounts document the crossing, supplemented by the
1116:
998:
990:
982:
873:
869:
865:
821:
807:
791:
644:
640:
585:
561:
777:
According to the Frigeridus fragment, there was a war between the
961:
battling the forces of Radagaisus, who was not finally overcome (
954:
829:
782:
724:
710:
672:
628:
612:
593:
580:, which gives a firm date of 31 December 406 in his year-by-year
511:
24:
958:
911:
778:
676:
660:
656:
632:
624:
600:
1436:
Michael Kulikowski, "Barbarians in Gaul, Usurpers in Britain"
1220:
Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire
914:, corresponds to 406. Prosper noted the invasion of Italy by
885:
837:
664:
648:
620:
608:
545:
519:
515:
756:' defeated Goths, without direct evidence. Scholars such as
749:
537:
1400:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1223:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 95–98.
1066:. Amsterdam: Time-Life Books Inc. 1988. p. 38.
66:
1518:(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
1175:
1057:
1055:
905:
1548:
1382:. Sheffield: University of Sheffield. p. 59
1274:
1272:
1052:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1535:, "Barbarians in Gaul, Usurpers in Britain",
52:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1269:
1401:Lanting, J. N.; van der Plicht, J. (2010).
1342:. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. pp. 37–43.
1291:(1). Johns Hopkins University Press: 3–29.
1201:
556:moved westward and southward from southern
16:Mixed group of barbarians invade Gaul (406)
1368:
1366:
886:Alternative dating – Baynes and Kulikowski
59:
45:
1335:
1318:
1567:Battles involving early Germanic peoples
1281:"Why Did the Barbarian Cross the Rhine?"
1146:
972:
806:
739:
18:
1510:
1394:
1372:
1363:
1278:
1216:
925:
1549:
942:
772:
32:Crossing of the Rhine (disambiguation)
698:account by the 5th-century historian
40:
1127:Christian Classics Ethereal Library
859:
727:mentioned the crossing in passing.
13:
1562:Battles involving the Roman Empire
1373:Davison, Christine Rachel (2013).
694:embedded some short passages of a
567:
14:
1608:
965:) and executed until August 406.
730:
643:and, to the shame of the empire,
544:. Therefore, the crossing of the
1407:Palaeohistoria 51/52 (2009/2010)
1093:; quoted by Kulikowski 2000:328.
847:
70:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
1477:
1468:
1459:
1446:
1430:
1260:
1244:
906:Problems with Prosper's account
898:, was forcefully challenged by
1195:History of the Franks. Book II
1140:
1110:
1096:
1084:
1029:
1011:
584:: "In the sixth consulship of
30:For other similar events, see
1:
1123:"Letter CXXIII. To Ageruchia"
1079:barbarians who meant to stay.
1046:
700:Renatus Profuturus Frigeridus
338:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440
230:Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422
220:Gothic War in Spain (416–418)
968:
690:, the 6th-century historian
301:Burgundian Revolt of Gunther
245:Gothic revolt of Theodoric I
7:
1577:Battles involving the Alans
1454:Roman Government of Britain
1147:Mathisen, Ralph W. (2003).
802:
504:crossing of the Rhine River
10:
1613:
1493:
946:
735:
321:Battle of Mons Colubrarius
257:Roman civil war of 427-429
29:
1336:MacDowall, Simon (2016).
1285:Journal of Late Antiquity
1252:English Historical Review
683:as having been pillaged.
388:Gothic War in Spain (456)
78:
1592:400s in the Roman Empire
1217:Goffart, Walter (2010).
548:is a marker date in the
1279:Heather, Peter (2009).
1024:Letter 123 to Ageruchia
1004:
1587:5th century in Germany
1456:, Oxford 2005, p. 458.
1117:Jerome (translated by
978:
812:
745:
707:Olympiodorus of Thebes
403:Roman civil war of 456
289:Roman civil war of 432
240:Roman civil war of 425
27:
1062:"The Roman Decline".
1039:(Book II, Chapter 9).
1037:History of the Franks
976:
810:
743:
688:History of the Franks
552:during which various
534:decline of the Empire
195:Crossing of the Rhine
22:
1104:Epistle to Ageruchia
981:According to bishop
926:Usurpation of Marcus
578:Prosper of Aquitaine
506:by a mixed group of
418:Gothic War (457–458)
333:Vandal War (439-442)
311:Gothic War (436–439)
156:Gothic War (401–403)
84:Gothic War (376–382)
1533:Kulikowski, Michael
1474:Kulikowski 2000:325
1465:Kulikowski 2000:329
1250:Peter Heather, in:
943:Stilicho's inaction
773:Vandal–Frankish war
752:or the remnants of
151:Revolt of Tribigild
23:The Rhine near the
1297:10.1353/jla.0.0036
1192:Gregory of Tours,
979:
963:Battle of Faesulae
892:Michael Kulikowski
890:A 2000 article by
842:Augusta Treverorum
813:
746:
358:Catalaunian Plains
267:Frankish War (428)
225:Nervasos Mountains
210:War of Heraclianus
136:Revolt of Alaric I
28:
1597:Germania Superior
1172:(Latin original).
949:War of Radagaisus
524:Late Roman Empire
499:
498:
178:War of Radagaisus
1604:
1572:Migration Period
1542:(2000), 325–345.
1529:
1488:
1487:, 1991, 199–213.
1485:Goths and Romans
1481:
1475:
1472:
1466:
1463:
1457:
1452:Anthony Birley,
1450:
1444:
1434:
1428:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1398:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1381:
1370:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1333:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1276:
1267:
1264:
1258:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1214:
1199:
1190:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1114:
1108:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1064:Empires Besieged
1059:
1040:
1033:
1027:
1015:
896:Norman H. Baynes
860:Unguarded Rhine?
692:Gregory of Tours
550:Migration Period
73:
71:
61:
54:
47:
38:
37:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1526:
1507:(1998), 269–98.
1496:
1491:
1483:Peter Heather,
1482:
1478:
1473:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1451:
1447:
1443:(2000:325–345).
1435:
1431:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1399:
1395:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1371:
1364:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1334:
1319:
1309:
1307:
1277:
1270:
1266:Drinkwater 1998
1265:
1261:
1249:
1245:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1215:
1202:
1191:
1176:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1145:
1141:
1131:
1129:
1115:
1111:
1101:
1097:
1089:
1085:
1074:
1061:
1060:
1053:
1049:
1044:
1043:
1034:
1030:
1016:
1012:
1007:
971:
951:
945:
928:
920:Constantine III
908:
888:
862:
850:
805:
775:
738:
733:
603:, written from
570:
568:Ancient sources
554:Germanic tribes
526:'s most secure
510:which included
500:
495:
494:
74:
69:
67:
65:
35:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1610:
1600:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1544:
1543:
1530:
1524:
1512:Heather, Peter
1508:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1489:
1476:
1467:
1458:
1445:
1429:
1415:
1393:
1362:
1348:
1317:
1268:
1259:
1243:
1229:
1200:
1174:
1159:
1139:
1109:
1095:
1083:
1072:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1028:
1020:Novempopulania
1009:
1008:
1006:
1003:
970:
967:
947:Main article:
944:
941:
927:
924:
907:
904:
900:Anthony Birley
887:
884:
861:
858:
849:
846:
817:Pons Ingeniosa
804:
801:
774:
771:
758:Walter Goffart
737:
734:
732:
731:Interpretation
729:
596:of January."
569:
566:
497:
496:
493:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
431:
430:
425:
423:Toulouse (458)
415:
410:
405:
400:
395:
390:
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
329:
328:
326:Toulouse (439)
323:
318:
308:
303:
298:
297:
296:
286:
285:
284:
279:
269:
264:
259:
254:
253:
252:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
191:
190:
185:
175:
174:
173:
168:
163:
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
123:
122:
121:
116:
114:Constantinople
111:
109:2nd Adrianople
106:
104:1st Adrianople
101:
96:
91:
80:
79:
76:
75:
64:
63:
56:
49:
41:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1609:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1541:
1538:
1534:
1531:
1527:
1525:0-19-515954-3
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1499:
1498:
1486:
1480:
1471:
1462:
1455:
1449:
1442:
1439:
1433:
1418:
1416:9789077922736
1412:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1378:
1377:
1369:
1367:
1351:
1349:9781473880221
1345:
1341:
1340:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1275:
1273:
1263:
1256:
1253:
1247:
1232:
1230:9780812200287
1226:
1222:
1221:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1197:
1196:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1162:
1160:9780472112463
1156:
1152:
1151:
1143:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1119:Philip Schaff
1113:
1105:
1099:
1092:
1087:
1080:
1075:
1069:
1065:
1058:
1056:
1051:
1038:
1032:
1025:
1021:
1014:
1010:
1002:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
987:Aquae Flaviae
984:
975:
966:
964:
960:
956:
950:
940:
937:
933:
923:
921:
917:
913:
903:
901:
897:
893:
883:
881:
880:
875:
871:
867:
857:
855:
854:Edward Gibbon
848:Frozen Rhine?
845:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
818:
809:
800:
796:
794:
793:
788:
784:
780:
770:
768:
767:Peter Heather
763:
759:
755:
751:
742:
728:
726:
722:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
701:
697:
693:
689:
684:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
597:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
565:
563:
560:and northern
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
530:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
480:Ravenna (476)
478:
476:
473:
471:
470:Ravenna (475)
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
429:
426:
424:
421:
420:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
313:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
295:
292:
291:
290:
287:
283:
280:
278:
275:
274:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
251:
248:
247:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
189:
186:
184:
181:
180:
179:
176:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
158:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
86:
85:
82:
81:
77:
72:
62:
57:
55:
50:
48:
43:
42:
39:
33:
26:
21:
1539:
1536:
1515:
1504:
1501:
1484:
1479:
1470:
1461:
1448:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1420:. Retrieved
1406:
1396:
1384:. Retrieved
1375:
1353:. Retrieved
1338:
1308:. Retrieved
1288:
1284:
1262:
1254:
1251:
1246:
1234:. Retrieved
1219:
1198:. Chapter 9.
1193:
1164:. Retrieved
1149:
1142:
1130:. Retrieved
1126:
1112:
1103:
1098:
1090:
1086:
1077:
1063:
1036:
1031:
1023:
1013:
980:
952:
931:
929:
909:
889:
877:
863:
851:
814:
797:
790:
776:
747:
723:
705:
687:
685:
601:Saint Jerome
599:A letter by
598:
571:
527:
503:
501:
413:Camp Cannini
343:Vicus Helena
277:Hippo Regius
194:
141:Gildonic War
119:Thessalonica
1422:4 September
1386:4 September
1355:5 September
1339:The Vandals
1310:2 September
1236:2 September
1166:4 September
1132:4 September
932:New History
762:Guy Halsall
637:Burgundians
558:Scandinavia
460:Arles (471)
428:Arles (458)
306:Arles (435)
250:Arles (425)
146:Pictish War
89:Marcianople
1551:Categories
1073:0705409740
1047:References
916:Radagaisus
826:Noviomagus
754:Radagaisus
681:Strasbourg
669:Thérouanne
645:Pannonians
617:Sarmatians
508:barbarians
465:Rome (472)
408:Garigliano
393:Agrigentum
378:Rome (455)
205:Rome (410)
1537:Britannia
1502:Britannia
1438:Britannia
1305:162494914
1121:) (409).
1026:(c. 409).
995:Gallaecia
969:Aftermath
879:foederati
787:Godigisel
605:Bethlehem
582:chronicle
574:time line
542:Britannia
435:Cartagena
383:Aylesford
166:Pollentia
1514:(2006).
1102:Jerome,
999:Toulouse
991:Gunderic
983:Hydatius
874:Claudian
870:Alaric I
866:Stilicho
822:Nijmegen
803:Location
792:Alamanni
781:and the
641:Alemanni
586:Arcadius
562:Germania
485:Soissons
450:Cape Bon
363:Aquileia
316:Narbonne
282:Carthage
215:Massilia
188:Faesulae
183:Florence
131:Frigidus
99:Dibaltum
1494:Sources
955:Illyria
834:Colonia
830:Cologne
783:Vandals
736:Motives
725:Orosius
719:Photius
715:Zosimus
711:Sozomen
686:In his
673:Tournai
629:Herules
613:Vandals
594:kalends
529:limites
512:Vandals
445:Bergamo
440:Orleans
398:Corsica
235:Tarraco
94:Willows
25:Lorelei
1522:
1413:
1346:
1303:
1257:(1995)
1227:
1157:
1070:
959:Tuscia
936:Marcus
912:consul
828:) and
779:Franks
677:Speyer
661:Amiens
657:Rheims
633:Saxons
625:Gepids
590:Probus
353:Asemus
294:Rimini
272:Africa
262:MĂ©rida
171:Verona
1557:Rhine
1380:(PDF)
1301:S2CID
838:Trier
665:Arras
653:Worms
649:Mainz
621:Alans
609:Quadi
546:Rhine
520:Suebi
516:Alans
490:Badon
475:Pavia
455:DĂ©ols
373:Milan
368:Padua
200:Ostia
1520:ISBN
1424:2020
1411:ISBN
1388:2020
1357:2020
1344:ISBN
1312:2020
1238:2020
1225:ISBN
1168:2020
1155:ISBN
1134:2020
1068:ISBN
1005:Note
760:and
750:Huns
717:and
696:lost
679:and
588:and
538:Gaul
518:and
502:The
348:Utus
161:Asti
126:Save
1582:406
1293:doi
1255:110
985:of
576:of
1553::
1540:31
1505:29
1441:31
1405:.
1365:^
1320:^
1299:.
1287:.
1283:.
1271:^
1203:^
1177:^
1125:.
1076:.
1054:^
902:.
721:.
713:,
675:,
671:,
667:,
663:,
659:,
655:,
651:,
639:,
635:,
631:,
627:,
623:,
619:,
615:,
611:,
564:.
514:,
1528:.
1426:.
1390:.
1359:.
1314:.
1295::
1289:2
1240:.
1170:.
1136:.
840:(
832:(
824:(
60:e
53:t
46:v
34:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
