99:
95:
summoned the council and had authority over its proceedings. Bede describes
Theodore as ‘the first of the archbishops whom the whole English Church consented to obey’. Theodore is depicted by Bede as an authority figure at Hertford, convening the synod and dictating to the notary Titill that which needed to be recorded.
170:
Theodore assembled the bishops ‘each in his own place’, likely according to seniority, as ruled in the eighth canon of the council. Theodore addressed the bishops, asking them ‘if they were willing to keep the canonical decrees’ of the fathers, to which they agree enthusiastically in unison. Then, he
287:
In being the first national synod, the
Council of Hertford acted as a precedent for future synods. These meetings were not as frequent as Theodore intended at Hertford, but later councils such as Hatfield clearly were influenced by the structures put in place at Hertford. Cubitt has emphasised that,
166:
As well as the decrees of the council, the synod text includes
Theodore's introduction, in which the proceedings are explained. This gives insight into the structuring of Anglo-Saxon synods, Rumble suggesting it is ‘unusual’ to have such a detailed account of the proceedings of an assembly recorded.
283:
The
Council of Hertford denotes the introduction of the English Church to ‘synodical government’, which was an established format on the Continent. The influential Synod of Whitby predates the Council of Hertford, but Whitby was specifically convened to discuss the controversial issue of the dating
229:
That clergy are not to ‘leave their own bishop nor wander about at will’. Clergy are not to be ‘received anywhere without letters commendatory from his own bishop’. The ‘receiver and the received’ risk excommunication if this is not obeyed. Godfrey has argued that chapters four and five, concerning
111:
The dating of the
Council of Hertford is contentious, as the date Bede attributes to the council contradicts the dating clause of the text of the council. Bede writes that the synod took place in 673, while the synod text asserts that the bishops met ‘on 24 September, in the first indiction’, which
86:
of
Northumbria was not present but was represented by proctors. As well as the bishops, ‘many teachers of the church’ attended, and Titill the notary was present to document the decisions made. Despite there being few bishops in attendance, these bishops came from across Anglo-Saxon England, so the
115:
There is debate over the cause of this dating confusion, but the historical consensus is that the synod of
Hertford occurred in 672 not 673. Kirby has argued that Bede mistakenly attributed the date of the council to 673 because he confused its date with the year of the death of King Egbert. Wood
94:
Bede records that King
Ecgfrith was present at the council. This information is absent from Bede's main account of the synod in IV.5, and details of Ecgfrith's role at Hertford are unknown. Despite Ecgfrith's presence, Hertford was ecclesiastical in focus. Bede attests that it was Theodore who
171:
presented a book of canons and highlighted ten chapters which were ‘specially necessary’. These chapters are discussed and then ratified by the attendees. Theodore then concluded by asserting the gravity of adherence to these canons, and warning of the consequences of disobedience.
208:
That bishops are not to interfere ‘in any way’ with monasteries, nor ‘forcibly’ take any monastic property. Rumble has emphasised that this decree still allowed the local bishop to participate in the election of abbots in his diocese thereby not disregarding the right given by the
57:
was present. The
Council of Hertford acted as a milestone in the organisation of the Anglo-Saxon Church, as the decrees passed by its delegates focused on issues of authority and structure within the church. The council helped achieve unification in the English Church.
266:
That ‘more bishops shall be created as the number of the faithful increases’. This measure was discussed but no decision was reached at this synod. This marked the introduction of
Theodore's plan to create more dioceses, a policy which he continually advocated.
187:
That Easter Day is to be kept ‘at the same time, namely on the Sunday after the fourteenth day of the moon of the first month’. This was confirming the English adherence to the Roman calculation of Easter, as decided at the
116:
more generally argues that Bede must have made some form of chronological mistake, while Levison and Harrison attribute the 673 date to Bede's use of Dionysiac Easter tables. Cubitt has argued that the
284:
of Easter. Thus, Hertford was the first instance in which the bishops convened to discuss general ecclesiastical issues, and so was the definitive beginning of an Anglo-Saxon conciliar tradition.
112:
was 672. Bede also records that the council occurred ‘in the third year of Ecgfrith’s reign’. As September 673 fell in the fourth year of his reign, Bede's ascription of 673 was likely erroneous.
246:
That a synod is to occur ‘twice yearly’. However, this proposal prompted discussion and after ‘hindrances’ emerged, it was thus decided that the bishops were to meet annually on 1 August at
238:
That travelling bishops and clergy are to be ‘content with the hospitality offered them’, and not to exercise any ‘priestly function’ without the bishop of the diocese's permission.
102:
Map of Anglo-Saxon England, displaying the 'heptarchy': the seven kingdoms which existed from the fifth century until their unification in the tenth. Shows the location of Hertford.
230:
wandering clerics and monks, were significant because they indicated ‘the end of the migratory stage in the Conversion’, and the establishment of a stable diocesan system.
123:‘undoubtedly’ met in 679, so Bede's incorrect ascription of 680 indicates that his chronology was amiss and that the dating of the document of Hertford should be followed.
143:, but Cubitt argues Hertford in Hertfordshire is most likely, especially considering its prominence by the eleventh century. Geographically, Hertford is located near
154:(it had no bishop), whereas the Council was chaired by Bisi, bishop of the East Angles, in whose diocese lay another candidate for the venue of the Council, namely
221:
That monks are not to ‘wander from place to place’, meaning between monasteries. They may only do so if they have ‘letters dimissory from their own abbot’.
745:
46:
288:
while Greek and Roman councils acted as the ‘ultimate model’, the early Anglo-Saxon councils ‘set the style’ for future proceedings.
633:
Simon Keynes, ‘Church Councils, Royal Assemblies, and Anglo-Saxon Royal Diplomas’, in G. R. Owen-Crocker and B. W. Schneider (eds),
258:
That no bishop is to ‘claim precedence over another bishop out of ambition’, but that rank is according to ‘order of consecration’.
337:
Keynes, S., ‘Church Councils, Royal Assemblies, and Anglo-Saxon Royal Diplomas’, in G. R. Owen-Crocker and B. W. Schneider (eds),
53:
The council was attended by a number of bishops from across Anglo-Saxon England. Bede also records royal attendance, as King
755:
147:
and on the River Lea. So, Hertford was accessible for the attendees of the synod, who were travelling from across England.
760:
622:
200:
That ‘no bishop intrude into the diocese of another bishop’, and rather ‘be content’ with their own diocesan rule.
250:. The location of Clofesho is unknown, and Cubitt has demonstrated that in practice this ruling was not followed.
750:
150:
On the other hand, the country round Hertford, Hertfordshire, was then in the diocese of London, but
158:. There may not have been a settlement at Hertford, Hertfordshire, suitable to host such a meeting.
151:
155:
33:
54:
210:
682:
Alexander Rumble, ‘Introduction: Church Leadership and the Anglo-Saxons’, in A. Rumble (ed.),
135:
is a common name, it is uncertain exactly where the council occurred geographically. Four
8:
117:
358:
Rumble, A., ‘Introduction: Church Leadership and the Anglo-Saxons’, in A. Rumble (ed.),
37:
21:
618:
79:
189:
275:
Concerning marriage. Reasserting that ‘nothing be allowed but lawful wedlock’.
739:
144:
140:
66:
Besides Theodore, Bede records four other bishops being present. These were:
44:
is the historical source for this council, as he included its text in his
98:
247:
75:
29:
83:
402:, trans. and ed. R. Collins and J. McClure (Oxford, 2008), IV.5.
71:
67:
41:
306:, trans. and ed. R. Collins and J. McClure (Oxford, 2008)
684:
Leaders of the Anglo-Saxon Church: From Bede to Stigand
360:
Leaders of the Anglo-Saxon Church: From Bede to Stigand
635:
Kingship, Legislation and Power in Anglo-Saxon England
339:
Kingship, Legislation and Power in Anglo-Saxon England
604:
Cubitt, Anglo-Saxon Church Councils, pp. 300, 319-20.
344:Kirby, D. P., ‘Bede and Northumbrian Chronology’,
179:The chapters discussed are summarised as follows:
543:D. P. Kirby, ‘Bede and Northumbrian Chronology’,
737:
400:The Ecclesiastical History of the English People
304:The Ecclesiastical History of the English People
571:England and the Continent in the Eighth Century
556:Susan Wood, ‘Bede’s Northumbrian Dates Again’,
353:England and the Continent in the Eighth Century
584:The Framework of Anglo-Saxon History to AD 900
332:The Framework of Anglo-Saxon History to AD 900
365:Wood, S., ‘Bede’s Northumbrian Dates Again’,
595:Cubitt, Anglo-Saxon Church Councils, p. 256.
516:Cubitt, Anglo-Saxon Church Councils, p. 249.
47:Ecclesiastical History of the English People
730:Cubitt, Anglo-Saxon Church Councils, p. 82.
708:Cubitt, Anglo-Saxon Church Councils, p. 53.
646:Cubitt, Anglo-Saxon Church Councils, p. 88.
439:Anglo-Saxon Church Councils, c.650-c.850
318:Anglo-Saxon Church Councils, c.650-c.850
97:
617:, p. 91. Hodder and Stoughton, London.
738:
673:Bede, Ecclesiastical History, III.25.
534:Bede, Ecclesiastical History, p. 401.
20:was the first general council of the
310:
90:In the chronological summary of his
746:Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England
664:Bede, Ecclesiastical History, IV.5.
655:Bede, Ecclesiastical History, IV.5.
525:Bede, Ecclesiastical History, IV.5.
507:Bede, Ecclesiastical History, IV.5.
498:Bede, Ecclesiastical History, IV.5.
489:Bede, Ecclesiastical History, IV.2.
13:
586:(Cambridge, 1976), pp. 84-5, 97-8.
296:
14:
772:
719:The Church in Anglo-Saxon England
697:The Church in Anglo-Saxon England
387:The Church in Anglo-Saxon England
325:The Church in Anglo-Saxon England
78:, bishop of the West Saxons; and
24:. It was convened in Anglo-Saxon
341:(Suffolk, 2013), pp. 17–182
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87:council was national in scope.
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362:(Suffolk, 2012), pp. 1–24
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36:has been proposed), in 672 by
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70:, bishop of the East Angles;
478:Anglo-Saxon Church Councils,
61:
40:, Archbishop of Canterbury.
7:
756:7th-century church councils
615:The Hertfordshire Landscape
369:98 (1983), pp. 280–296
348:78 (1963), pp. 514–527
126:
10:
777:
573:(Oxford, 1998), pp. 265-7.
558:English Historical Review
545:English Historical Review
367:English Historical Review
346:English Historical Review
106:
761:History of Hertfordshire
613:Munby, Lionel M. (1977)
373:
174:
156:Hartford, Cambridgeshire
34:Hartford, Cambridgeshire
686:(Suffolk, 2012), p. 19.
637:(Suffolk, 2013), p. 19.
560:98 (1983), pp. 280-296.
452:Ecclesiastical History,
426:Ecclesiastical History,
389:(London, 1962), p. 131.
92:Ecclesiastical History,
74:, bishop of Rochester;
55:Ecgfrith of Northumbria
751:7th century in England
465:Ecclesiastical History
441:(London, 1995), p. 62.
413:Ecclesiastical History
103:
101:
82:, bishop of Mercia.
211:Rule of St Benedict
152:that see was vacant
28:most likely modern
18:Council of Hertford
582:Kenneth Harrison,
547:78 (1963), p. 520.
437:Catherine Cubitt,
104:
42:The Venerable Bede
38:Theodore of Tarsus
22:Anglo-Saxon Church
569:Wilhelm Levison,
334:(Cambridge, 1976)
311:Secondary sources
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327:(London, 1962)
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320:(London, 1995)
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351:Levison, W.,
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323:Godfrey, J.,
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254:Chapter Eight
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242:Chapter Seven
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204:Chapter Three
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145:Ermine Street
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141:Domesday Book
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131:As Hertford (
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721:, pp. 132-3.
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316:Cubitt, C.,
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279:Significance
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262:Chapter Nine
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225:Chapter Five
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271:Chapter Ten
234:Chapter Six
196:Chapter Two
183:Chapter One
162:Proceedings
118:Council of
740:Categories
330:Harrison,
292:References
137:Heortfords
133:Herutford)
120:Haethfield
26:Herutford,
717:Godfrey,
699:, p. 132.
695:Godfrey,
62:Attendees
476:Cubitt,
248:Clofesho
192:in 664.
127:Location
80:Winfrith
76:Leuthere
30:Hertford
467:, V.24.
415:, IV.5.
84:Wilfrid
621:
480:p. 50.
463:Bede,
450:Bede,
424:Bede,
411:Bede,
398:Bede,
302:Bede,
107:Dating
454:IV.5.
428:V.24.
374:Notes
175:Creed
72:Putta
32:(but
619:ISBN
68:Bisi
16:The
742::
213:.
49:.
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