Computer chess - Knowledge

2309:). Later he advised the team that created the chess program Kaissa at Moscow’s Institute of Control Sciences. Botvinnik had his own ideas to model a Chess Master's Mind. After publishing and discussing his early ideas on attack maps and trajectories at Moscow Central Chess Clubin 1966, he found Vladimir Butenko as supporter and collaborator. Butenko first implemented the 15x15 vector attacks board representation on a M-20 computer, determining trajectories. After Botvinnik introduced the concept of Zones in 1970, Butenko refused further cooperation and began to write his own program, dubbed Eureka. In the 70s and 80s, leading a team around Boris Stilman, Alexander Yudin, Alexander Reznitskiy, Michael Tsfasman and Mikhail Chudakov, Botvinnik worked on his own project 'Pioneer' - which was an Artificial Intelligence based chess project. In the 90s, Botvinnik already in his 80s, he worked on the new project 'CC Sapiens'. 3611: 1457:

the game is represented by a "tree", or digital data structure of choices (branches) corresponding to moves. The nodes of the tree were positions on the board resulting from the choices of move. The impossibility of representing an entire game of chess by constructing a tree from first move to last was immediately apparent: there are an average of 36 moves per position in chess and an average game lasts about 35 moves to resignation (60-80 moves if played to checkmate, stalemate, or other draw). There are 400 positions possible after the first move by each player, about 200,000 after two moves each, and nearly 120 million after just 3 moves each.

1251:, tried a piece sacrifice to achieve a strong tactical attack, a strategy known to be highly risky against computers who are at their strongest defending against such attacks. True to form, Fritz found a watertight defense and Kramnik's attack petered out leaving him in a bad position. Kramnik resigned the game, believing the position lost. However, post-game human and computer analysis has shown that the Fritz program was unlikely to have been able to force a win and Kramnik effectively sacrificed a drawn position. The final two games were draws. Given the circumstances, most commentators still rate Kramnik the stronger player in the match. 3640: 2075:

be drawn because of the fifty-move rule. One reason for this is that if the rules of chess were to be changed once more, giving more time to win such positions, it will not be necessary to regenerate all the tablebases. It is also very easy for the program using the tablebases to notice and take account of this 'feature' and in any case if using an endgame tablebase will choose the move that leads to the quickest win (even if it would fall foul of the fifty-move rule with perfect play). If playing an opponent not using a tablebase, such a choice will give good chances of winning within fifty moves.

1517:, which corresponds to building experience in human players. This allows modern programs to examine some lines in much greater depth than others by using forwards pruning and other selective heuristics to simply not consider moves the program assume to be poor through their evaluation function, in the same way that human players do. The only fundamental difference between a computer program and a human in this sense is that a computer program can search much deeper than a human player could, allowing it to search more nodes and bypass the 3619: 6306: 3648: 568: 2032:. After forty-five moves, Browne agreed to a draw, being unable to force checkmate or win the rook within the next five moves. In the final position, Browne was still seventeen moves away from checkmate, but not quite that far away from winning the rook. Browne studied the endgame, and played the computer again a week later in a different position in which the queen can win in thirty moves. This time, he captured the rook on the fiftieth move, giving him a winning position ( 2148:

today. The opening books stored in computer databases are most likely far more extensive than even the best prepared humans, and playing an early out-of-book move may result in the computer finding the unusual move in its book and saddling the opponent with a sharp disadvantage. Even if it does not, playing out-of-book may be much better for tactically sharp chess programs than for humans who have to discover strong moves in an unfamiliar variation over the board.

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the neural network. The evaluation putatively represents or approximates the value of the subtree below the evaluated node as if it had been searched to termination, i.e. the end of the game. During the search, an evaluation is compared against evaluations of other leaves, eliminating nodes that represent bad or poor moves for either side, to yield a node which by convergence, represents the value of the position with best play by both sides.

31: 2336:, before winning the ACM Championship again in 1975, 1976 and 1977. The type A implementation turned out to be just as fast: in the time it used to take to decide which moves were worthy of being searched, it was possible just to search all of them. In fact, Chess 4.0 set the paradigm that was and still is followed essentially by all modern Chess programs today, and that had been successfully started by the Russian ITEP in 1965. 688: 1461:

badness of the moves chosen. Searching and comparing operations on the tree were well suited to computer calculation; the representation of subtle chess knowledge in the evaluation function was not. The early chess programs suffered in both areas: searching the vast tree required computational resources far beyond those available, and what chess knowledge was useful and how it was to be encoded would take decades to discover.

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seen in Greenblatt's program. It was thus the first program with an integrated modern structure and became the model for all future development. Chess 4.5 played strong B-class and won the 3rd World Computer Chess Championship the next year. Northwestern University Chess and its descendants dominated computer chess until the era of hardware chess machines in the early 1980s.

1453:) when necessary is required to play well. Normal tournament rules give each player an average of three minutes per move. On average there are more than 30 legal moves per chess position, so a computer must examine a quadrillion possibilities to look ahead ten plies (five full moves); one that could examine a million positions a second would require more than 30 years. 2067:. Tablebases for all positions with six pieces are available. Some seven-piece endgames have been analyzed by Marc Bourzutschky and Yakov Konoval. Programmers using the Lomonosov supercomputers in Moscow have completed a chess tablebase for all endgames with seven pieces or fewer (trivial endgame positions are excluded, such as six white pieces versus a lone black 580:

everything from super-computers to smartphones. Hardware requirements for programs are minimal; the apps are no larger than a few megabytes on disk, use a few megabytes of memory (but can use much more, if it is available), and any processor 300Mhz or faster is sufficient. Performance will vary modestly with processor speed, but sufficient memory to hold a large

1833:, another kind of type B selective search. In 2007, an adaption of Monte Carlo tree search called Upper Confidence bounds applied to Trees or UCT for short was created by Levente Kocsis and Csaba Szepesvári. In 2011, Chris Rosin developed a variation of UCT called Predictor + Upper Confidence bounds applied to Trees, or PUCT for short. PUCT was then used in 1920::45). In addition to points for pieces, most handcrafted evaluation functions take many factors into account, such as pawn structure, the fact that a pair of bishops are usually worth more, centralized pieces are worth more, and so on. The protection of kings is usually considered, as well as the phase of the game (opening, middle or endgame). 600:. Playing strength, time controls, and other performance-related settings are adjustable from the GUI. Most GUIs also allow the player to set up and to edit positions, to reverse moves, to offer and to accept draws (and resign), to request and to receive move recommendations, and to show the engine's analysis as the game progresses. 2020:). This was despite not following the usual strategy to delay defeat by keeping the defending king and rook close together for as long as possible. Asked to explain the reasons behind some of the program's moves, Thompson was unable to do so beyond saying the program's database simply returned the best moves. 1805:

This would enable them to look further ahead ('deeper') at the most significant lines in a reasonable time. However, early attempts at selective search often resulted in the best move or moves being pruned away. As a result, little or no progress was made for the next 25 years dominated by this first

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record key moves that "refute" what appears to be a good move; these are typically tried first in variant positions (since a move that refutes one position is likely to refute another). The drawback is that transposition tables at deep ply depths can get quite large – tens to hundreds of millions of

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search algorithms, where at each ply the "best" move by the player is selected; one player is trying to maximize the score, the other to minimize it. By this alternating process, one particular terminal node whose evaluation represents the searched value of the position will be arrived at. Its value

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Chess machines/programs are available in several different forms: stand-alone chess machines (usually a microprocessor running a software chess program, but sometimes as a specialized hardware machine), software programs running on standard PCs, web sites, and apps for mobile devices. Programs run on

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running on present-day computing hardware could not solve the initial position in an acceptable amount of time. The difficulty in proving the latter lies in the fact that, while the number of board positions that could happen in the course of a chess game is huge (on the order of at least 10 to 10),

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chess are generally considered to be rather remote. It is widely conjectured that no computationally inexpensive method to solve chess exists even in the weak sense of determining with certainty the value of the initial position, and hence the idea of solving chess in the stronger sense of obtaining

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stored in a disk database. Opening books cover the opening moves of a game to variable depth, depending on opening and variation, but usually to the first 10-12 moves (20-24 ply). Since the openings have been studied in depth by the masters for centuries, and some are known to well into the middle

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as a substrate for their search algorithm, these additional selective search heuristics used in modern programs means that the program no longer does a "brute force" search. Instead they heavily rely on these selective search heuristics to extend lines the program considers good and prune and reduce

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Meanwhile, hardware continued to improve, and in 1974, brute force searching was implemented for the first time in the Northwestern University Chess 4.0 program. In this approach, all alternative moves at a node are searched, and none are pruned away. They discovered that the time required to simply

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search algorithm as calculations on the GPU are inherently parallel. The minimax and alpha-beta pruning algorithms used in computer chess are inherently serial algorithms, so would not work well with batching on the GPU. On the other hand, MCTS is a good alternative, because the random sampling used

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The earliest attempts at procedural representations of playing chess predated the digital electronic age, but it was the stored program digital computer that gave scope to calculating such complexity. Claude Shannon, in 1949, laid out the principles of algorithmic solution of chess. In that paper,

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while the best humans only gained roughly 2 points per year. The highest rating obtained by a computer in human competition was Deep Thought's USCF rating of 2551 in 1988 and FIDE no longer accepts human–computer results in their rating lists. Specialized machine-only Elo pools have been created for

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The first number refers to the number of moves which must be made by each engine, the second number refers to the number of minutes allocated to make all of these moves. The repeating time control means that the time is reset after each multiple of this number of moves is reached. For example, in a

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Many tablebases do not consider the fifty-move rule, under which a game where fifty moves pass without a capture or pawn move can be claimed to be a draw by either player. This results in the tablebase returning results such as "Forced mate in sixty-six moves" in some positions which would actually

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In the 1970s, most chess programs ran on super computers like Control Data Cyber 176s or Cray-1s, indicative that during that developmental period for computer chess, processing power was the limiting factor in performance. Most chess programs struggled to search to a depth greater than 3 ply. It

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This led naturally to what is referred to as "selective search" or "type B search", using chess knowledge (heuristics) to select a few presumably good moves from each position to search, and prune away the others without searching. Instead of wasting processing power examining bad or trivial moves,

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of pieces or other important sequence of moves ('lines'). He expected that adapting minimax to cope with this would greatly increase the number of positions needing to be looked at and slow the program down still further. He expected that adapting type A to cope with this would greatly increase the

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Of course, faster hardware and additional memory can improve chess program playing strength. Hyperthreaded architectures can improve performance modestly if the program is running on a single core or a small number of cores. Most modern programs are designed to take advantage of multiple cores to

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for each move); these Rebel won 3–1. Two were semi-blitz games (fifteen minutes for each side) that Rebel won as well (1½–½). Finally, two games were played as regular tournament games (forty moves in two hours, one hour sudden death); here it was Anand who won ½–1½. In fast games, computers played

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representing sequences of moves from the current position and attempt to execute the best such sequence during play. Such trees are typically quite large, thousands to millions of nodes. The computational speed of modern computers, capable of processing tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of

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Silver, David; Hubert, Thomas; Schrittwieser, Julian; Antonoglou, Ioannis; Lai, Matthew; Guez, Arthur; Lanctot, Marc; Sifre, Laurent; Kumaran, Dharshan; Graepel, Thore; Lillicrap, Timothy; Simonyan, Karen; Hassabis, Demis (2017). "Mastering Chess and Shogi by Self-Play with a General Reinforcement

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1975 – After nearly a decade of only marginal progress since the high-water mark of Greenblatt's MacHack VI in 1967, Northwestern University Chess 4.5 is introduced featuring full-width search, and innovations of bitboards and iterative deepening. It also reinstated a transposition table as first

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The output of the evaluation function is a single scalar, quantized in centipawns or other units, which is, in the case of handcrafted evaluation functions, a weighted summation of the various factors described, or in the case of neural network based evaluation functions, the output of the head of

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is a form of chess developed in 1998 by Kasparov where a human plays against another human, and both have access to computers to enhance their strength. The resulting "advanced" player was argued by Kasparov to be stronger than a human or computer alone. This has been proven in numerous occasions,

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In November–December 2006, World Champion Vladimir Kramnik played Deep Fritz. This time the computer won; the match ended 2–4. Kramnik was able to view the computer's opening book. In the first five games Kramnik steered the game into a typical "anti-computer" positional contest. He lost one game

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Other positions, long believed to be won, turned out to take more moves against perfect play to actually win than were allowed by chess's fifty-move rule. As a consequence, for some years the official FIDE rules of chess were changed to extend the number of moves allowed in these endings. After a

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chess ... clumsy, inefficient, diffuse, and just plain ugly", but humans lost to them by making "horrible blunders, astonishing lapses, incomprehensible oversights, gross miscalculations, and the like" much more often than they realized; "in short, computers win primarily through their ability to

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While at one time, playing an out-of-book move in order to put the chess program onto its own resources might have been an effective strategy because chess opening books were selective to the program's playing style, and programs had notable weaknesses relative to humans, that is no longer true

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skills built from experience. This enables them to examine some lines in much greater depth than others by simply not considering moves they can assume to be poor. More evidence for this being the case is the way that good human players find it much easier to recall positions from genuine chess

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in the early 1960s, Botvinnik had no choice but to investigate software move selection techniques; at the time only the most powerful computers could achieve much beyond a three-ply full-width search, and Botvinnik had no such machines. In 1965 Botvinnik was a consultant to the ITEP team in a

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So a limited lookahead (search) to some depth, followed by using domain-specific knowledge to evaluate the resulting terminal positions was proposed. A kind of middle-ground position, given good moves by both sides, would result, and its evaluation would inform the player about the goodness or

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of artificial intelligence (AI)". The procedural resolution of complexity became synonymous with thinking, and early computers, even before the chess automaton era, were popularly referred to as "electronic brains". Several different schema were devised starting in the latter half of the 20th

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By 1982, microcomputer chess programs could evaluate up to 1,500 moves a second and were as strong as mainframe chess programs of five years earlier, able to defeat a majority of amateur players. While only able to look ahead one or two plies more than at their debut in the mid-1970s, doing so

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Technological advances by orders of magnitude in processing power have made the brute force approach far more incisive than was the case in the early years. The result is that a very solid, tactical AI player aided by some limited positional knowledge built in by the evaluation function and

2300:, who wrote several works on the subject. Botvinnik’s interest in Computer Chess started in the 50s, favouring chess algorithms based on Shannon's selective type B strategy, as discussed along with Max Euwe 1958 in Dutch Television. Working with relatively primitive hardware available in the 1879:

and compare the possible positions, known as leaves. The algorithm that evaluates leaves is termed the "evaluation function", and these algorithms are often vastly different between different chess programs. Evaluation functions typically evaluate positions in hundredths of a pawn (called a

1778:, a system of defining upper and lower bounds on possible search results and searching until the bounds coincided, reduced the branching factor of the game tree logarithmically, but it still was not feasible for chess programs at the time to exploit the exponential explosion of the tree. 3628: 1817:, null move pruning, and other modern selective search heuristics. These heuristics had far fewer mistakes than earlier heuristics did, and was found to be worth the extra time it saved because it could search deeper and widely adopted by many engines. While many modern programs do use 1732:

entries. IBM's Deep Blue transposition table in 1996, for example was 500 million entries. Transposition tables that are too small can result in spending more time searching for non-existent entries due to threshing than the time saved by entries found. Many chess engines use

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pruning/extension rules began to match the best players in the world. It turned out to produce excellent results, at least in the field of chess, to let computers do what they do best (calculate) rather than coax them into imitating human thought processes and knowledge. In 1997

3631: 3627: 1947:. Piece-square tables are a set of 64 values corresponding to the squares of the chessboard, and there typically exists a piece-square table for every piece and colour, resulting in 12 piece-square tables and thus 768 inputs into the neural network. In addition, some engines use 5193:

Schrittwieser, Julian; Antonoglou, Ioannis; Hubert, Thomas; Simonyan, Karen; Sifre, Laurent; Schmitt, Simon; Guez, Arthur; Lockhart, Edward; Hassabis, Demis; Graepel, Thore; Lillicrap, Timothy (2020). "Mastering Atari, Go, chess and shogi by planning with a learned model".

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Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS) is a heuristic search algorithm which expands the search tree based on random sampling of the search space. A version of Monte Carlo tree search commonly used in computer chess is PUCT, Predictor and Upper Confidence bounds applied to Trees.

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in Hong Kong. This marks the first time a chess program running on commodity hardware defeats specialized chess machines and massive super-computers, indicating a shift in emphasis from brute computational power to algorithmic improvements in the evolution of chess

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dedicated chess computer. The USCF prohibits computers from competing in human tournaments except when represented by the chess systems' creators. The Fredkin Prize, offering $ 100,000 to the creator of the first chess machine to defeat the world chess champion, is

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in 2018 by Yu Nasu, and had to be first ported to a derivative of Stockfish called Stockfish NNUE on 31 May 2020, and integrated into the official Stockfish engine on 6 August 2020, before other chess programmers began to adopt neural networks into their engines.

1664:, forward pruning, search extensions and search reductions, are also used as well. These heuristics are triggered based on certain conditions in an attempt to weed out obviously bad moves (history moves) or to investigate interesting nodes (e.g. check extensions, 3460:. 4 running on a smartphone, wins Copa Mercosur, an International Master level tournament, scoring 9½/10 and earning a performance rating of 2900. A group of pseudonymous Russian programmers release the source code of Ippolit, an engine seemingly stronger than 3629: 855:

The sudden improvement without a theoretical breakthrough was unexpected, as many did not expect that Belle's ability to examine 100,000 positions a second—about eight plies—would be sufficient. The Spracklens, creators of the successful microcomputer program

660:, while GUIs may offer a variety of piece sets, board styles, or even 3D or animated pieces. Because recent engines are so capable, engines or GUIs may offer some way of handicapping the engine's ability, to improve the odds for a win by the human player. 3943:, meaning that determining the winning side in an arbitrary position of generalized chess provably takes exponential time in the worst case; however, this theoretical result gives no lower bound on the amount of work required to solve ordinary 8x8 chess. 3926:

a practically usable description of a strategy for perfect play for either side seems unrealistic today. However, it has not been proven that no computationally cheap way of determining the best move in a chess position exists, nor even that a traditional

6528:, American Mathematical Society's Proceeding of Symposia in Applied Mathematics: Mathematical Aspects of Artificial Intelligence, v. 55, pp 175–205, 1998. Based on paper presented at the 1996 Winter Meeting of the AMS, Orlando, Florida, Jan 9–11, 1996. 1810:

search all the moves was much less than the time required to apply knowledge-intensive heuristics to select just a few of them, and the benefit of not prematurely or inadvertently pruning away good moves resulted in substantially stronger performance.

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of IBM stated that "Computers don't have any sense of aesthetics... They play what they think is the objectively best move in any position, even if it looks absurd, and they can play any move no matter how ugly it is." Grandmasters Andrew Soltis and

1672:, etc.). These selective search heuristics have to be used very carefully however. Over extend and the program wastes too much time looking at uninteresting positions. If too much is pruned or reduced, there is a risk cutting out interesting nodes. 1376:

in the early years of the 20th century, scientists and theoreticians have sought to develop a procedural representation of how humans learn, remember, think and apply knowledge, and the game of chess, because of its daunting complexity, became the

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In the late 1970s to early 1990s, there was a competitive market for dedicated chess computers. This market changed in the mid-1990s when computers with dedicated processors could no longer compete with the fast processors in personal computers.

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wins the Mississippi State Championship with a perfect 5–0 score and a performance rating of 2258. In round 4 it defeats Joe Sentef (2262) to become the first computer to beat a master in tournament play and the first computer to gain a master

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Using "ends-and-means" heuristics a human chess player can intuitively determine optimal outcomes and how to achieve them regardless of the number of moves necessary, but a computer must be systematic in its analysis. Most players agree that

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iteration of the selective search paradigm. The best program produced in this early period was Mac Hack VI in 1967; it played at the about the same level as the average amateur (C class on the United States Chess Federation rating scale).

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while, the rule reverted to fifty moves in all positions – more such positions were discovered, complicating the rule still further, and it made no difference in human play, as they could not play the positions perfectly.

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Endgame play had long been one of the great weaknesses of chess programs because of the depth of search needed. Some otherwise master-level programs were unable to win in positions where even intermediate human players could force a win.

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wrote that "the only way a current computer program could ever win a single game against a master player would be for the master, perhaps in a drunken stupor while playing 50 games simultaneously, to commit some once-in-a-year blunder".

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Perhaps the most common type of chess software are programs that simply play chess. A human player makes a move on the board, the AI calculates and plays a subsequent move, and the human and AI alternate turns until the game ends. The

473:. Computer chess provides opportunities for players to practice even in the absence of human opponents, and also provides opportunities for analysis, entertainment and training. Computer chess applications that play at the level of a 3953:, played on a 5×5 board with approximately 10 possible board positions, has been solved; its game-theoretic value is 1/2 (i.e. a draw can be forced by either side), and the forcing strategy to achieve that result has been described. 2281:, which played a king and rook versus king ending, were too complex and limited to be useful for playing full games of chess. The field of mechanical chess research languished until the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s. 1346:, Argentina with 9 wins and 1 draw on August 4–14, 2009. Pocket Fritz 4 searches fewer than 20,000 positions per second. This is in contrast to supercomputers such as Deep Blue that searched 200 million positions per second. 1298:

Human–computer chess matches showed the best computer systems overtaking human chess champions in the late 1990s. For the 40 years prior to that, the trend had been that the best machines gained about 40 points per year in the

2361:, a brute-force machine capable of examining 500 million nodes per second, defeated World Champion Garry Kasparov, marking the first time a computer has defeated a reigning world chess champion in standard time control. 3332:. Chess programs running on personal computers surpass Mephisto's dedicated chess computers to win the Microcomputer Championship, marking a shift from dedicated chess hardware to software on multipurpose personal computers. 6685: 2027:

accepted the challenge. A queen versus rook position was set up in which the queen can win in thirty moves, with perfect play. Browne was allowed 2½ hours to play fifty moves, otherwise a draw would be claimed under the

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Historically, handcrafted evaluation functions consider material value along with other factors affecting the strength of each side. When counting up the material for each side, typical values for pieces are 1 point for a

1774:) would take about sixteen minutes, even in the "very optimistic" case that the chess computer evaluated a million positions every second. (It took about forty years to achieve this speed. A later search algorithm called 796:

predicted that a computer would defeat the world human champion by 1967. It did not anticipate the difficulty of determining the right order to evaluate moves. Researchers worked to improve programs' ability to identify

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rating of 2681. Fabien Letouzey releases the source code for Fruit 2.1, an engine quite competitive with the top closed-source engines of the time. This leads many authors to revise their code, incorporating the new

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A "chess engine" is software that calculates and orders which moves are the strongest to play in a given position. Engine authors focus on improving the play of their engines, often just importing the engine into a

6665: 2332:(1970–72), abandoned type B searching in 1973. The resulting program, Chess 4.0, won that year's championship and its successors went on to come in second in both the 1974 ACM Championship and that year's inaugural 3610: 587:

Most available commercial chess programs and machines can play at super-grandmaster strength (Elo 2700 or more), and take advantage of multi-core and hyperthreaded computer CPU architectures. Top programs such as

1566:(GUI) which provides the player with a chessboard they can see, and pieces that can be moved. Engines communicate their moves to the GUI using a protocol such as the Chess Engine Communication Protocol (CECP) or 877:

improved their play more than experts expected; seemingly minor improvements "appear to have allowed the crossing of a psychological threshold, after which a rich harvest of human error becomes accessible",

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What this means is that chess, like the common fruit fly, is a simple and more accessible and familiar paradigm to experiment with technology that can be used to produce knowledge about other, more complex

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games, breaking them down into a small number of recognizable sub-positions, rather than completely random arrangements of the same pieces. In contrast, poor players have the same level of recall for both.

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lead to the widespread adoption of neural networks in chess engines. However, AlphaZero influenced very few engines to begin using neural networks, and those tended to be new experimental engines such as

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have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs. One of the few chess grandmasters to devote himself seriously to computer chess was former

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do parallel search. Other programs are designed to run on a general purpose computer and allocate move generation, parallel search, or evaluation to dedicated processors or specialized co-processors.

3123: 2001:, starting with positions where the final result is known (e.g., where one side has been mated) and seeing which other positions are one move away from them, then which are one move from those, etc. 1880:

centipawn), where by convention, a positive evaluation favors White, and a negative evaluation favors Black. However, some evaluation function output win/draw/loss percentages instead of centipawns.

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were ported to computer chess in 2020, which did not require either the use of GPUs or libraries like CUDA at all. Even then, the neural networks used in computer chess are fairly shallow, and the

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First, with approximately thirty moves possible in a typical real-life position, he expected that searching the approximately 10 positions involved in looking three moves ahead for both sides (six

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For a current state-of-the art chess engine like Stockfish, a table base only provides a very minor increase in playing strength (approximately 3 Elo points for syzygy 6men as of Stockfish 15).

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There was speculation that interest in human–computer chess competition would plummet as a result of the 2006 Kramnik-Deep Fritz match. According to Newborn, for example, "the science is done".

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A naive implementation of the minimax algorithm can only search to a small depth in a practical amount of time, so various methods have been devised to greatly speed the search for good moves.

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is founded by chess programmers to organize computer chess championships and report on research and advancements on computer chess in their journal. Also that year, Applied Concepts released

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predicted more than 20; and others predicted that it would never happen. The most widely held opinion, however, stated that it would occur around the year 2000. In 1989, Levy was defeated by

1570:(UCI). By dividing chess programs into these two pieces, developers can write only the user interface, or only the engine, without needing to write both parts of the program. (See also 1247:

search. Fritz, however, won game 5 after a severe blunder by Kramnik. Game 6 was described by the tournament commentators as "spectacular". Kramnik, in a better position in the early

3471:, Topalov prepares by sparring against the supercomputer Blue Gene with 8,192 processors capable of 500 trillion (5 × 10) floating-point operations per second. Rybka developer, 5615: 6682: 2151:

In modern engine tournaments, opening books are used to force the engines to play intentionally unbalanced openings to reduce the draw rate and to add more variety to the games.

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in 1950. He predicted the two main possible search strategies which would be used, which he labeled "Type A" and "Type B", before anyone had programmed a computer to play chess.

801:, unusually high-scoring moves to reexamine when evaluating other branches, but into the 1970s most top chess players believed that computers would not soon be able to play at a 6652: 1657:, a system of defining upper and lower bounds on possible search results and searching until the bounds coincided, is typically used to reduce the search space of the program. 656:(GUI) are sometimes separate programs. Different engines can be connected to the GUI, permitting play against different styles of opponent. Engines often have a simple text 6642: 6672: 6632: 1200:

With increasing processing power and improved evaluation functions, chess programs running on commercially available workstations began to rival top-flight players. In 1998,

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and employs dozens of carefully tuned move selection heuristics; it becomes the first program to defeat a person in tournament play. Mac Hack VI played about C class level.

1623:. In theory, they examine all moves, then all counter-moves to those moves, then all moves countering them, and so on, where each individual move by one player is called a " 1208:, who at the time was ranked second in the world, by a score of 5–3. However, most of those games were not played at normal time controls. Out of the eight games, four were 6662: 3935:

after relatively few moves, in which case the search tree might encompass only a very small subset of the set of possible positions. It has been mathematically proven that

4657: 3630: 1509:

for leaf evaluation, which correspond to the human players' pattern recognition skills, and the use of machine learning techniques in training them, such as Texel tuning,

3067:, an American Computer scientist at Bell Labs and creator of the Unix operating system, writes his first chess-playing program called "chess" for the earliest version of 3113:

Released in 1977, Boris was one of the first chess computers to be widely marketed. It ran on a Fairchild F8 8-bit microprocessor with only 2.5 KiB ROM and 256 byte RAM.

1715:

in Monte Carlo tree search lends itself well to parallel computing, and is why nearly all engines which support calculations on the GPU use MCTS instead of alpha-beta.

1850:

was not until the hardware chess machines of the 1980s, that a relationship between processor speed and knowledge encoded in the evaluation function became apparent.

937:. This game was, in fact, the first time a reigning world champion had lost to a computer using regular time controls. However, Kasparov regrouped to win three and 767:

for children. Convekta provides a large number of training apps such as CT-ART and its Chess King line based on tutorials by GM Alexander Kalinin and Maxim Blokh.

3181:

line of dedicated chess computers begins a long streak of victories (1984–1990) in the World Microcomputer Championship using dedicated computers running programs

3156:, which is broadcast on German television. Levy and Chess 4.8, running on a CDC Cyber 176, the most powerful computer in the world, fought a grueling 89 move draw. 3127: 1603:. Methods include pieces stored in an array ("mailbox" and "0x88"), piece positions stored in a list ("piece list"), collections of bit-sets for piece locations (" 3034: 944:

In May 1997, an updated version of Deep Blue defeated Kasparov 3½–2½ in a return match. A documentary mainly about the confrontation was made in 2003, titled

1627:". This evaluation continues until a certain maximum search depth or the program determines that a final "leaf" position has been reached (e.g. checkmate). 5718: 5441: 3159:

1980 – Fidelity computers win the World Microcomputer Championships each year from 1980 through 1984. In Germany, Hegener & Glaser release their first

4018:

released its first Java client for playing chess online against other people inside one's webbrowser. This was probably one of the first chess web apps.

2525:

programming formalism. Because of the circumstances of the Second World War, however, they were not published, and did not come to light, until the 1970s.

3439: 1273: 1822:

lines the program considers bad, to the point where most of the nodes on the search tree are pruned away, enabling modern programs to search very deep.

702:

Chess databases allow users to search through a large library of historical games, analyze them, check statistics, and formulate an opening repertoire.

513:

nodes or more per second, along with extension and reduction heuristics that narrow the tree to mostly relevant nodes, make such an approach effective.

7086: 3119: 3004: 1471:(GUI) – how moves are entered and communicated to the user, how the game is recorded, how the time controls are set, and other interface considerations 449: 4041:

Another popular web app is tactics training. The now defunct Chess Tactics Server opened its site in 2006, followed by Chesstempo the next year, and

5370: 4684: 2203:

by playing the programs against each other. CCRL was founded in 2006 to promote computer-computer competition and tabulate results on a rating list.

1497:

and beginners look at around forty to fifty positions before deciding which move to play. What makes the former much better players is that they use

504:

Computer chess applications, whether implemented in hardware or software, utilize different strategies than humans to choose their moves: they use

3956:

Progress has also been made from the other side: as of 2012, all 7 and fewer pieces (2 kings and up to 5 other pieces) endgames have been solved.

2008:

The results of the computer analysis sometimes surprised people. In 1977 Thompson's Belle chess machine used the endgame tablebase for a king and

6512: 3339:, running on a 90Mhz Pentium PC, beats Deep Thought-2 dedicated chess machine, and programs running on several super-computers, to win the 8th 2511: 2206:

The organisation runs three different lists: 40/40 (40 minutes for every 40 moves played), 40/4 (4 minutes for every 40 moves played), and 40/4

899:

as a "state-of-the-art chess program" for the IBM PC with a "surprisingly high" level of play, and estimated its USCF rating as 1700 (Class B).

1364:

won't play computer chess because "he just loses all the time and there's nothing more depressing than losing without even being in the game."

516:

The first chess machines capable of playing chess or reduced chess-like games were software programs running on digital computers early in the

141: 5256: 4632: 2139:

Chess engines, like human beings, may save processing time as well as select strong variations as expounded by the masters, by referencing an

5523: 4793: 4023: 848:, but it achieved the first computer victory against a Master-class player at the tournament level by winning one of the six games. In 1980, 4161:

would have 4 minutes to make 40 moves, then a new 4 minutes would be allocated for the next 40 moves and so on, until the game was complete.

5623: 4432: 2305:

US-Soviet computer chess match which won a correspondence chess match against the Kotok-McCarthy-Program led by John McCarthy in 1967.(see

6752: 2113:

helped by generating the six piece ending tablebase where both sides had two Queens which was used heavily to aid analysis by both sides.

1650:

is backed up to the root, and that evaluation becomes the valuation of the position on the board. This search process is called minimax.

6468: 5419: 5394:

Chess, a subsection of chapter 25, Digital Computers Applied to Games, of Faster than Thought, ed. B. V. Bowden, Pitman, London (1953).

8315: 5986: 3753:

to run the chess programs created for Fidelity or Hegener & Glaser's Mephisto computers on modern 64-bit operating systems such as

3057: 903: 922:

in an exhibition match. Deep Thought, however, was still considerably below World Championship level, as the reigning world champion,

5662: 3931:

it is hard to rule out with mathematical certainty the possibility that the initial position allows either side to force a mate or a

3141:

in a six-game match by a score of 4½–1½. The computer's victory in game four is the first defeat of a human master in a tournament.

680:

have a Handicap and Fun mode for limiting the current engine or changing the percentage of mistakes it makes or changing its style.

7872: 6558: 100: 6507:, Stanford University Department of Computer Science, Technical Report CS 106, Stanford Artificial Intelligence Project Memo AI-65 8330: 8290: 6225: 5782: 3280:

1989 – Deep Thought demolishes David Levy in a 4-game match 0–4, bringing to an end his famous series of wagers starting in 1968.

954: 934: 1217:

better than humans, but at classical time controls – at which a player's rating is determined – the advantage was not so clear.

8310: 3722: 3679: 3203:

based on an engine by David Kittinger, the first edition of what was to become the world's best selling line of chess programs.

1464:

The developers of a chess-playing computer system must decide on a number of fundamental implementation issues. These include:

442: 2144:

game, the valuations of specific variations by the masters will usually be superior to the general heuristics of the program.

8575: 8305: 6123: 4595: 4405: 4319: 3975:(GUI) developed by someone else. Engines communicate with the GUI by standardized protocols such as the nowadays ubiquitous 3536:

These chess playing systems include custom hardware with approx. dates of introduction (excluding dedicated microcomputers):

2983: 707: 592:

have surpassed even world champion caliber players. Most chess programs comprise a chess engine connected to a GUI, such as

64: 6398:(This book actually covers computer chess from the early days through the first match between Deep Blue and Garry Kasparov.) 5106: 3678:

Chess Challenger, a line of chess computers sold by Fidelity Electronics from 1977 to 1992. These models won the first four

1372:

Since the era of mechanical machines that played rook and king endings and electrical machines that played other games like

7862: 3493: 2547:

publishes "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", one of the first papers on the algorithmic methods of computer chess.

2468: 2407: 1940: 1875:

For most chess positions, computers cannot look ahead to all possible final positions. Instead, they must look ahead a few

910:

predicted that a chess program could become world champion within five years; tournament director and International Master

771: 111: 6018: 116: 8250: 8113: 8103: 7867: 6175: 5395: 4055:

took their chess game database online in 1998. Another early chess game databases was Chess Lab, which started in 1999.

3053: 2329: 2326: 946: 6310: 4883: 828:

In the late 1970s chess programs suddenly began defeating highly skilled human players. The year of Hearst's statement,

8388: 7858: 7853: 5911: 5885:

Aviezri Fraenkel; D. Lichtenstein (1981), "Computing a perfect strategy for n×n chess requires time exponential in n",

5379: 4943: 3038: 2954: 2169: 2002: 1305: 7181: 5326: 2348:, entered and won the North American Computer Chess Championship over the dominant Northwestern University Chess 4.7. 1382:

century to represent knowledge and thinking, as applied to playing the game of chess (and other games like checkers):

559:. The field is now considered a scientifically completed paradigm, and playing chess is a mundane computing activity. 8325: 8225: 8118: 8088: 6418: 6392: 6365: 6344: 3707: 3340: 3306: 3083: 2333: 2097:

Endgame databases featured prominently in 1999, when Kasparov played an exhibition match on the Internet against the

1600: 435: 6717: 6200: 5275:"Efficiently Updatable Neural-Network-based Evaluation Function for computer Shogi (Unofficial English Translation)" 3745:

sells mid-range units of intermediate strength. They bought out Hegener & Glaser and its Mephisto brand in 1994.

1913: 1749: 520:

age (1950s). The early programs played so poorly that even a beginner could defeat them. Within 40 years, in 1997,

8295: 8285: 8203: 8093: 6843: 6838: 4810: 3675:

Boris in 1977 and Boris Diplomat in 1979, chess computers including pieces and board, sold by Applied Concepts Inc.

2253:

The idea of creating a chess-playing machine dates back to the eighteenth century. Around 1769, the chess playing

783: 529: 1736:, searching to deeper levels on the opponent's time, similar to human beings, to increase their playing strength. 1480:

Search techniques – how to identify the possible moves and select the most promising ones for further examination;

1288:), and drew the next four. In the final game, in an attempt to draw the match, Kramnik played the more aggressive 862:, estimated that 90% of the improvement came from faster evaluation speed and only 10% from improved evaluations. 8280: 8270: 6791: 3728:

Novag sold a line of tactically strong computers, including the Constellation, Sapphire, and Star Diamond brands.

3599:

2019 (similar hardware to its predecessor AlphaZero, non-specific to Chess or e.g. Go), learns the rules of Chess

3266: 3153: 3138: 3019: 2322: 927: 706:(for PC) is a common program for these purposes amongst professional players, but there are alternatives such as 525: 5079: 8275: 8265: 8260: 6928: 6890: 6286: 4889: 4259: 4067:, but eventually, decided to give up on software, and instead focus on their online database starting in 2002. 2165: 1280:

5½–½ in a six-game match (though Adams' preparation was far less thorough than Kramnik's for the 2002 series).

895:'s statement that "tactically they are freer from error than the average human player". The magazine described 6141: 5344: 5298: 2492:. Presented as a chess-playing automaton, it is secretly operated by a human player hidden inside the machine. 8410: 8320: 8255: 7836: 7598: 7149: 3761:, Ed Schröder has also adapted three of the Hegener & Glaser Mephisto's he wrote to work as UCI engines. 3565: 3512: 3468: 3246: 2964:

1957 – The first programs that can play a full game of chess are developed, one by Alex Bernstein and one by

2176:, FGRL, and IPON maintain rating lists allowing fans to compare the strength of engines. Various versions of 2086:

of hard disk space for all five-piece endings. To cover all the six-piece endings requires approximately 1.2

1356:

Players today are inclined to treat chess engines as analysis tools rather than opponents. Chess grandmaster

919: 236: 4459: 3464:. This becomes the basis for the engines Robbolito and Ivanhoe, and many engine authors adopt ideas from it. 2554:

is first to publish a program, developed on paper, that was capable of playing a full game of chess (dubbed

2226:

are used (as opposed to the engine's own book) up to a limit of 12 moves into the game alongside 4 or 5 man

2128:. It is also significantly smaller in size than other formats, with 7-piece tablebases taking only 18.4 TB. 1813:

In the 1980s and 1990s, progress was finally made in the selective search paradigm, with the development of

7674: 7154: 5965: 4914: 1590: 1538: 1474: 1277: 852:

began often defeating Masters. By 1982 two programs played at Master level and three were slightly weaker.

505: 106: 6102: 6000: 5719:"The 7th World Computer-Chess Championship: Report on the tournament, Madrid, Spain, November 23-27, 1992" 3983:

and Franz Huber. There are others, like the Chess Engine Communication Protocol developed by Tim Mann for

3377:, a protocol for GUIs to talk to engines that would gradually become the main form new engines would take. 1781:

Second, it ignored the problem of quiescence, trying to only evaluate a position that is at the end of an

8424: 8373: 8083: 5030: 4768:

Lomonosov website allowing registered user to access 7-piece tablebase, and a forum with positions found.

3836:, American computer scientist and world correspondence chess champion, design supervisor of HiTech (1988) 3750: 2472: 1925: 1510: 1327: 892: 692: 131: 5682: 5492: 4576: 1304:

rating machines, but such numbers, while similar in appearance, are not directly compared. In 2016, the

1272:, a dedicated chess computer with custom hardware and sixty-four processors and also winner of the 14th 8497: 8475: 8383: 8368: 8032: 7984: 7979: 7969: 7637: 7315: 7159: 6336: 5940: 5062: 4539: 4526: 4085:

offered the content of the training program, Chess Mentor, to their customers online. Top GMs such as

4019: 3858: 3359: 3348: 2017: 1905: 793: 231: 181: 6606: 6142:"Chessbase Online, Searching a high quality database of Chessgames. Free Chess Games.ChessBase-Online" 6048: 4777: 3277:

for performance in this tournament of 2745 (USCF scale) was the highest obtained by a computer player.

1486:– how to evaluate the value of a board position, if no further search will be done from that position. 8570: 8429: 8363: 8213: 8108: 7957: 6353: 3976: 3718: 3374: 3177: 3160: 3149: 3134: 3075: 3030: 2994: 2503: 2443:, which were not compatible with existing chess engines. The vast majority of chess engines only use 2440: 2391: 2098: 1936: 1703: 1567: 1446: 1409: 661: 572: 251: 6077: 3999:. Engines designed for one operating system and protocol may be ported to other OS's or protocols. 3881:, American Professor or Computer Science and International Chess Master, developed Kopec-Bratko test 2398:

of chess engines since the late 1980s, with programs such as NeuroChess, Morph, Blondie25, Giraffe,

1228:

were able to draw matches against former world champion Garry Kasparov and classical world champion

8405: 8378: 8220: 7942: 7335: 7330: 7287: 7186: 4107: 3972: 3223: 2444: 1562: 1546: 1542: 1468: 891:

wrote that "Computers—mainframes, minis, and micros—tend to play ugly, inelegant chess", but noted

756: 745: 653: 7021: 6549: 5420:"Chessville – Early Computer Chess Programs – by Bill Wall – Bill Wall's Wonderful World of Chess" 4790: 8565: 8514: 8044: 7709: 6588: 3639: 2318: 2278: 1830: 1727:

are used to record positions that have been previously evaluated, to save recalculation of them.

1681: 1433: 1398: 829: 191: 7055: 6749: 6314: 6305: 3995:

has its own proprietary protocol, and at one time Millennium 2000 had another protocol used for

3939:(chess played with an arbitrarily large number of pieces on an arbitrarily large chessboard) is 714:

for PC, Gerhard Kalab's Chess PGN Master for Android or Giordano Vicoli's Chess-Studio for iOS.

8098: 8027: 7325: 7171: 7076: 6921: 6853: 4102: 3769:

These programs can be run on MS-DOS, and can be run on 64-bit Windows 10 via emulators such as

3590: 2958: 2946:

is the first program to play a chess-like game, developed by Paul Stein and Mark Wells for the

1952: 1929: 1775: 1654: 1636: 1557: 1534: 1514: 1425: 1394: 1285: 789: 657: 366: 301: 126: 6487: 4835: 4564: 4373: 2536:

describes how a chess program could be developed using a depth-limited minimax search with an

2116:

The most popular endgame tablebase is syzygy which is used by most top computer programs like

2023:

Most grandmasters declined to play against the computer in the queen versus rook endgame, but

584:(up to several gigabytes or more) is more important to playing strength than processor speed. 8230: 8153: 8039: 7739: 7734: 7421: 7144: 7103: 6885: 6493: 6427: 4620: 3927: 3827: 3540: 2485: 2345: 2266: 1960: 1763:" approach, examining every possible position for a fixed number of moves using a pure naive 1240: 849: 813: 802: 556: 509: 211: 146: 20: 6593: 6480: 5670: 1853:

It has been estimated that doubling the computer speed gains approximately fifty to seventy

7947: 7884: 7843: 7804: 7586: 7576: 7506: 7320: 7251: 7176: 7061: 6860: 6598: 6539: 5549: 5509: 5213: 3932: 3797: 3130:, a dedicated chess computer in a wooden box with plastic chess pieces and a folding board. 2459:, which none of the engines had access to. Thus the vast majority of chess engines such as 2294: 1948: 1723:

Many other optimizations can be used to make chess-playing programs stronger. For example,

806: 624: 517: 411: 2410:

in the summer of 2020. Efficiently updatable neural networks were originally developed in

2051:

formats have been released including the Edward Tablebase, the De Koning Database and the

1577:

Developers have to decide whether to connect the engine to an opening book and/or endgame

8: 8395: 8175: 7927: 7814: 7784: 7754: 7726: 7699: 7642: 7543: 7511: 7471: 7426: 7139: 7081: 6956: 6904: 6899: 6826: 6784: 6410: 5616:"Rybka disqualified and banned from World Computer Chess Championships | ChessVibes" 5510:"Oral History of Peter Jennings | Mastering the Game | Computer History Museum" 4859: 4015: 3980: 3547: 3370: 3023: 3008: 2537: 2448: 2436: 2395: 1998: 1956: 1870: 1724: 1707: 1506: 1498: 1483: 1319: 737: 581: 391: 136: 96: 89: 7937: 5761: 5274: 5217: 3721:, a line of chess computers sold by Hegener & Glaser. The units won six consecutive 2071:). In all of these endgame databases it is assumed that castling is no longer possible. 1318:

continue to improve. In 2009, chess engines running on slower hardware have reached the

684:

also has a Friend Mode where during the game it tries to match the level of the player.

8502: 8400: 8143: 7952: 7593: 7481: 7444: 7093: 6961: 6760: 6759:– a full lecture featuring Murray Campbell (IBM Deep Blue Project), Edward Feigenbaum, 5807: 5667:ƎUИИ Efficiently Updatable Neural-Network based Evaluation Functions for Computer Shogi 5589: 5470: 5454: 5407: 5365: 5237: 5203: 5173: 5152: 5092: 4229: 4003: 3310: 3193: 2423: 2262: 2223: 2140: 1944: 1760: 1711: 1599:

used to represent each chess position is key to the performance of move generation and

1437: 1243:– play conservatively for a long-term advantage the computer is not able to see in its 821: 809: 764: 733: 176: 121: 6221: 5786: 5638: 5601: 4964: 4506: 4202:"Is chess the drosophila of artificial intelligence? A social history of an algorithm" 3894:, chairman of the computer chess committee for the Association for Computing Machinery 2882: 2861: 2632: 2611: 2406:, neural networks did not become widely adopted by chess engines until the arrival of 844:

level became the first to win a human tournament. Levy won his bet in 1978 by beating

744:

Chess Tutor based on the Step coursebooks of Rob Brunia and Cor Van Wijgerden. Former

676:

of the engine (via UCI's uci_limitstrength and uci_elo parameters). Some versions of

8485: 8358: 8170: 8128: 8059: 8011: 7994: 7974: 7826: 7764: 7704: 7679: 7526: 7491: 7486: 7466: 7454: 7297: 7265: 7231: 7211: 7048: 7042: 7003: 6870: 6414: 6388: 6361: 6340: 5980: 5898: 5435: 5375: 5241: 5229: 4724: 4221: 4112: 3897: 3884: 3839: 3660: 3519: 3508: 3486: 3427: 3419: 3274: 3098: 2868: 2618: 2464: 2297: 2290: 2270: 2200: 2177: 2117: 1976: 1876: 1854: 1818: 1814: 1795: 1786:

number of positions needing to be looked at and slow the program down still further.

1771: 1661: 1624: 1450: 1417: 1236: 1205: 752: 616: 589: 537: 486: 406: 186: 6700: 5863:

Shannon gave estimates of 10 and 10 respectively, smaller than the estimates in the

2889: 2875: 2854: 2839: 2832: 2825: 2818: 2811: 2804: 2689: 2682: 2675: 2668: 2661: 2654: 2639: 2625: 2604: 1493:

interviewed a number of chess players of varying strengths, and concluded that both

8480: 8353: 8195: 8138: 8049: 7999: 7848: 7794: 7789: 7779: 7694: 7615: 7605: 7581: 7548: 7120: 7034: 6808: 5894: 5257:"Efficiently Updatable Neural-Network-based Evaluation Function for computer Shogi" 5221: 4334: 4213: 4122: 4071: 3940: 3848: 3781: 3689: 3504: 3446: 3381: 3287:

lost in a simul to Hegener & Glaser's Mephisto Portorose M68030 chess computer.

3258: 3207: 3145: 2943: 2928: 2432: 2185: 2160: 2121: 2079: 2060: 2048: 1921: 1838: 1782: 1728: 1699: 1695: 1490: 1421: 1413: 1405: 1373: 1289: 1248: 1229: 798: 741: 628: 498: 490: 356: 316: 6127: 4986: 4745: 4599: 4233: 3643:

Milton Bradley Grandmaster (1983), the first commercial self-moving chess computer

3618: 2975:

1958 – NSS becomes the first chess program to use the alpha–beta search algorithm.

8445: 8419: 8240: 8235: 8185: 8123: 7932: 7907: 7892: 7689: 7647: 7630: 7531: 7449: 7411: 7389: 7374: 7305: 7282: 7241: 7236: 7115: 7098: 6938: 6756: 6689: 6679: 6669: 6659: 6649: 6639: 6626: 6610: 6535:, Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence, v. 28, pp. 27–30, 2000. 6328: 5864: 5066: 4797: 3854: 3423: 3415: 3015: 2990: 2489: 2374: 2258: 2219: 2211: 2029: 2016:

and was able to draw that theoretically lost ending against several masters (see

1213: 711: 545: 331: 159: 7714: 7625: 6541:

Theo and Octopus at the 2006 World Championship for Automated Reasoning Programs

4633:"World chess champion Magnus Carlsen: 'The computer never has been an opponent'" 841: 8544: 8460: 8208: 8054: 7917: 7912: 7749: 7744: 7610: 7568: 7538: 7367: 7310: 7198: 7166: 7132: 7125: 7110: 7071: 7066: 6993: 6988: 6777: 6714: 6616: 6500: 6026: 5872: 5829: 5466: 5225: 4127: 3946: 3891: 3807: 3786: 3647: 3497: 3363: 3352: 3284: 2979: 2562: 2544: 2529: 2507: 2460: 2411: 2306: 2274: 2247: 2181: 2125: 2110: 2052: 1997:

against king. Such endgame tablebases are generated in advance using a form of

1893: 1889: 1753: 1608: 1596: 1518: 1361: 1349: 1309: 1255: 1221: 933:

that Kasparov lost his first game to a computer at tournament time controls in

923: 907: 858: 812:

that no chess computer would be able to beat him within ten years, and in 1976

748: 608: 567: 501:, and other free open source applications are available for various platforms. 351: 341: 336: 204: 163: 76: 6737: 6333:

Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion

6171: 3851:, Russian computer scientist, first elaborated the alphabeta pruning algorithm 2499:

automaton – which also has a human chess player hidden inside.

2214:) is switched off and timing is adjusted to the AMD64 X2 4600+ (2.4 GHz) 1826: 1360:

stated in 2016 "The computers are just much too good" and that world champion

926:, demonstrated in two strong wins in 1989. It was not until a 1996 match with 8559: 8519: 8509: 8492: 8165: 8148: 8075: 7964: 7922: 7902: 7684: 7666: 7657: 7620: 7553: 7476: 7461: 7416: 7399: 7394: 7384: 7216: 6978: 6916: 6721: 6579: 5080:

http://kirill-kryukov.com/chess/discussion-board/viewtopic.php?f=7&t=2808

4893: 4580: 4217: 4090: 4086: 3916: 3833: 3802: 3791: 3758: 3703: 3580: 3574: 3472: 3411: 3403: 3336: 3295: 3262: 3242: 3234: 3186: 3079: 3049: 3045:

that no computer program would win a chess match against him within 10 years.

3042: 2419: 2358: 2189: 2173: 2102: 2064: 2024: 2013: 1986: 1951:

in their evaluation function. Neural networks are usually trained using some

1901: 1801:

Employ forward pruning; i.e. only look at a few good moves for each position.

1357: 1269: 1225: 1201: 930: 911: 864: 729: 681: 677: 665: 541: 533: 478: 421: 396: 381: 311: 246: 6620: 5915: 5827:

The size of the state space and game tree for chess were first estimated in

5740: 4201: 4182: 2522: 1235:

In October 2002, Vladimir Kramnik and Deep Fritz competed in the eight-game

8539: 8465: 8450: 8180: 8006: 7989: 7897: 7831: 7774: 7769: 7501: 7496: 7436: 7379: 7270: 7226: 6998: 6983: 6973: 6909: 6875: 6848: 6816: 6694: 6517: 6481:

New Architectures in Computer Chess – Thesis on How to Build A Chess Engine

5868: 5233: 4306: 4225: 4158: 4056: 3965: 3865: 3685: 3664: 3457: 3362:, a highly modified version of the original, wins a six-game match against 3322: 3302: 3291: 3238: 3219: 3064: 2475:

methods pioneered by AlphaZero are still extremely rare in computer chess.

2379: 2373:

asked experts to characterize the playing style of computer chess engines.

2301: 2196: 2195:

CCRL (Computer Chess Rating Lists) is an organisation that tests computer

2106: 2090:. It is estimated that a seven-piece tablebase requires between 50 and 200 2068: 2009: 1994: 1990: 1909: 1897: 1885: 1669: 1571: 1533:

standards. Nearly all of today's programs can read and write game moves as

1494: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1323: 1315: 938: 915: 817: 649: 604: 521: 376: 269: 216: 24: 4765: 4038:

has long had a downloadable client, and added a web-based client in 2013.

2269:, became famous before being exposed as a hoax. Before the development of 1239:

match, which ended in a draw. Kramnik won games 2 and 3 by "conventional"

7819: 7809: 7558: 7521: 7404: 7015: 7010: 6968: 6821: 6196: 4117: 4078:

added a play Fritz web app, as well as My Games for storing one's games.

4064: 3996: 3922: 3903: 3878: 3812: 3696: 3593:

for neural networks, but the hardware is not specific to Chess or games)

3507:(LCZero v0.21.1-nT40.T8.610), a chess engine based on AlphaZero, defeats 3407: 3392: 3329: 3270: 3254: 3198: 3182: 2551: 2518: 1665: 1258:, another chess computer program, in New York City. The match ended 3–3. 1209: 837: 725: 474: 291: 281: 6584: 6459: 5696: 3651:

Novag Super Constellation (1984), known for its human-like playing style

3622:

Fidelity Voice Chess Challenger (1979), the first talking chess computer

3214:, releasing the first chess database program. Stuart Cracraft releases 941:

two of the remaining five games of the match, for a convincing victory.

8455: 7516: 7352: 7342: 7275: 7259: 6951: 6732: 4658:"20 Years Later, Humans Still No Match For Computers On The Chessboard" 4338: 3869: 3754: 3450: 3385: 3253:

in the Software Toolworks Championship, ahead of former world champion

3250: 3168: 3102: 2789: 2782: 2775: 2768: 2761: 2754: 2739: 2732: 2725: 2718: 2711: 2704: 2447:, and computing and processing information on the GPUs require special 2243: 2227: 1378: 1300: 673: 552: 482: 361: 296: 226: 7022: 3511:

19050918 in a 100-game match with the final score 53.5 to 46.5 to win

8470: 7799: 7759: 7362: 7357: 7246: 7221: 6946: 6402: 6282: 5683:

https://cd.tcecbeta.club/archive.html?season=15&div=sf&game=1

5192: 5157: 4082: 4075: 4060: 4052: 4046: 4042: 4035: 4031: 4027: 3992: 3984: 3950: 3732: 3586: 3482: 3396: 3314: 3215: 3211: 3000:

1966–67 – The first chess match between computer programs is played.

2555: 2427: 2399: 2344:

In 1978, an early rendition of Ken Thompson's hardware chess machine

2284: 2254: 1834: 1733: 1691: 1620: 1578: 1262: 1244: 845: 833: 760: 718: 703: 635:

which can be downloaded (or source code otherwise obtained) from the

632: 597: 494: 416: 401: 346: 321: 306: 276: 8348: 4320:"Heuristic problem solving: The next advance in operations research" 4267: 4002:

Chess engines are regularly matched against each other at dedicated

3442:

tournament and very quickly afterwards becomes the strongest engine.

2109:

endgame was reached with the World Team fighting to salvage a draw.

1552:

Starting in the late 1990s, programmers began to develop separately

54: 30: 8158: 7206: 6149: 5208: 5178: 5170: 4780:

An example chess position found from the Lomonosov chess tablebase.

3988: 3559: 2947: 2933: 2207: 2091: 2087: 2083: 1790:

Shannon suggested that type B programs would use two improvements:

1645:

One particular type of search algorithm used in computer chess are

1604: 687: 636: 593: 524:

running on super-computers or specialized hardware were capable of

466: 221: 6764: 6727: 6463: 5034: 2382:

stated that computers are more likely to retreat than humans are.

571:

Computer chess IC bearing the name of developer Frans Morsch (see

6880: 6631:

GameDev.net – Chess Programming by François-Dominic Laramée Part

4937: 3273:, making it the first computer to beat a GM in a tournament. Its 2435:, which began specifically to replicate the AlphaZero paper. The 1912:

is sometimes given an arbitrarily high value such as 200 points (

1764: 1646: 1640: 1390: 612: 171: 6264: 6098: 6004: 5961: 4485: 3739:

processors running modern engines and emulating classic engines.

3655: 1985:

To solve this problem, computers have been used to analyze some

7347: 5884: 5602:"Challenger uses supercomputer at the world chess championship" 5349: 5282: 4791:

http://rybkaforum.net/cgi-bin/rybkaforum/topic_show.pl?tid=9380

4246: 3873: 3770: 3742: 3736: 3731:

Phoenix Chess Systems makes limited edition units based around

3596: 3553: 3230: 3087: 3001: 2965: 2452: 2403: 1932:

are usually used to optimise handcrafted evaluation functions.

1560:

which calculates which moves are strongest in a position) or a

1545:, but today users expect chess programs to understand standard 1331: 620: 371: 326: 286: 256: 241: 6246: 5321: 5319: 4621:

Pocket Fritz 4 searches less than 20,000 positions per second.

4430: 4293: 3715:

Excalibur Electronics sells a line of beginner strength units.

1767:. Shannon believed this would be impractical for two reasons. 1521:

to a much greater extent than is possible with human players.

6800: 5639:"A Gross Miscarriage of Justice in Computer Chess (part one)" 3842:, Soviet electrical engineer and world chess champion, wrote 3461: 3435: 3109: 2932:. This simplified version of chess was played in 1956 by the 2496: 2056: 721:

allow players to play against one another over the internet.

696: 669: 470: 386: 6513:

Brute force or intelligence? The slow rise of computer chess

5936: 5697:"Fidelity Chess Challenger 1 – World's First Chess Computer" 5059: 4026:

opened up a web server to replace their email-based system.

1844: 1220:

In the early 2000s, commercially available programs such as

6865: 6724:– for playing chess against Ken Thompson's endgame database 6052: 5316: 4280: 3830:, a Soviet and Israeli mathematician and computer scientist 3774: 3068: 2969: 2456: 2439:

used in AlphaZero's evaluation function required expensive

1529:

Computer chess programs usually support a number of common

887: 71: 6603: 6073: 3321:, the first book based on endgame tablebases developed by 1939:. The most common evaluation function in use today is the 1916:) to ensure that a checkmate outweighs all other factors ( 1660:

In addition, various selective search heuristics, such as

1477:– how a single position is represented in data structures; 1330:

6 tournament with a performance rating 2898: chess engine

788:

After discovering refutation screening—the application of

544:

is not currently possible for modern computers due to the

6580:

List of chess engine ratings and game files in PGN format

3699:

engine, was also used in the TASC R30 dedicated computer.

2370: 2215: 8534: 6769: 6613:– blog following the creation of a computer chess engine 5590:

International Paderborn Computer Chess Championship 2005

5422:. Archive.is. Archived from the original on 21 July 2012 5149:

Giraffe: Using Deep Reinforcement Learning to Play Chess

3692:-based dedicated computer, which could run two engines: 2467:

continued to use handcrafted evaluation functions until

2317:

One developmental milestone occurred when the team from

2312: 873:

find and exploit miscalculations in human initiatives".

485:. Standalone chess-playing machines are also available. 6099:"Chess Puzzles - Improve Your Chess by Solving Tactics" 5716: 2517:

1941 – Predating comparable work by at least a decade,

2055:

Tablebase which is used by many chess programs such as

642: 540:, declared: "the science has been done". Nevertheless, 16:

Computer hardware and software capable of playing chess

6385:

Kasparov versus Deep Blue: Computer Chess Comes of Age

3328:

1993 – Deep Thought-2 loses a four-game match against

3122:, the first dedicated chess computer to be sold. The 1537:(PGN), and can read and write individual positions as 5912:"CoffeeHouse: The Internet Chess Club Java Interface" 5374:(Kindle ed.). Penguin Press. 2019. p. 174. 5338: 5336: 4789:

The Rybka Lounge / Computer Chess / Tablebase sizes,

4022:

followed soon after with a similar client. In 2004,

3659:

DGT Centaur (2019), a modern chess computer based on

1943:, which is a shallow neural network whose inputs are 1710:

and policy (move selection), and therefore require a

34:

1990s pressure-sensory chess computer with LCD screen

5093:

http://adamsccpages.blogspot.co.uk/2012/05/ccrl.html

4507:"Chess News – Adams vs Hydra: Man 0.5 – Machine 5.5" 4367: 4365: 4363: 4361: 4359: 4357: 4355: 4189:. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. 3706:, in 1992 became the first microcomputer to win the 562: 546:

game's extremely large number of possible variations

6313: by Chess Programming Wiki available under the 5008: 4540:"Once Again, Machine Beats Human Champion at Chess" 3414:) wins 8½–3½ against a strong human team formed by 2078:The Nalimov tablebases, which use state-of-the-art 6561:, Games of No Chance, MSRI Publications, Volume 29 5342: 5333: 4682: 3175:1984 – The German Company Hegener & Glaser's 3005:Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics 2285:Early software age: selective search and Botvinnik 1619:Computer chess programs consider chess moves as a 1541:(FEN). Older chess programs often only understood 914:predicted ten years; the Spracklens predicted 15; 6499: 5762:"Dedicated as UCI | Home of the Dutch Rebel" 5371:Possible Minds: Twenty-five Ways of Looking at AI 4527:Once Again, Machine Beats Human Champion at Chess 4460:"Chess Championship: Machines Play, People Watch" 4352: 3605: 792:to optimizing move evaluation—in 1957, a team at 465:includes both hardware (dedicated computers) and 8557: 6750:The History of Computer Chess: An AI Perspective 5455:David Bronstein v M-20, replay at Chessgames.com 5440:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 4399: 4397: 4395: 3478:2011 – The ICGA strips Rybka of its WCCC titles. 2570: 2210:(same time control but Chess960). Pondering (or 959: 6585:Mastering the Game: A History of Computer Chess 6460:Mastering the Game: A History of Computer Chess 5717:van den Herik, H.J.; Herschberg, I. S. (1992). 5134:A Self-Learning, Pattern-Oriented Chess Program 5033:. Ingo Bauer. November 16, 2016. Archived from 4652: 4650: 4431:Flock, Emil; Silverman, Jonathan (March 1984). 3900:, American computer scientist and mathematician 3522:evaluation, noticeably increasing its strength. 3391:2003 – Kasparov draws a six-game match against 3298:wins the World Microcomputer Chess Championship 3118:1977 – In March, Fidelity Electronics releases 3105:, the first game for microcomputers to be sold. 1698:uses MCTS instead of minimax. Such engines use 1386:search based (brute force vs selective search) 672:may have a built in mechanism for reducing the 6738:The Strongest Computer Chess Engines Over Time 5828: 5465: 4457: 3906:, English computer scientist and mathematician 3485:, a neural net-based digital automaton, beats 3137:wins the bet made 10 years earlier, defeating 2565:develops a program that solves chess problems. 2192:dominate the rating lists in the early 2020s. 2154: 6785: 6172:"Java chess games: Database search, analysis" 4676: 4451: 4392: 4371: 4024:International Correspondence Chess Federation 3887:, Soviet computer scientist and mathematician 3823:Well-known computer chess theorists include: 3749:Recently, some hobbyists have been using the 1935:Most modern evaluation functions make use of 1505:The equivalent of this in computer chess are 443: 5345:"official-stockfish / Stockfish, NNUE merge" 4647: 4577:Deep Thought wins Fredkin Intermediate Prize 4403: 3475:, accuses Ippolit of being a clone of Rybka. 2385: 6469:Bill Wall's Computer Chess History Timeline 6352: 6283:"Chess Lessons - Learn with Online Courses" 5821: 4989:. Home of the Dutch Rebel. January 30, 2021 4317: 3614:Boris Diplomat (1979) travel chess computer 3058:North American Computer Chess Championships 2978:1962 – The first program to play credibly, 2351: 2325:series of programs and won the first three 2273:, serious trials based on automata such as 2033: 1917: 1858: 1524: 532:had attained the same capability. In 2006, 6792: 6778: 6432:"Programming a Computer for Playing Chess" 5834:"Programming a Computer for Playing Chess" 5630: 5516: 4919:, Computerschach und Spiele, 18 March 2007 4916:Computerschach und Spiele – Eternal Rating 4722: 4424: 4260:"Chess Assistant Chess Website:: About Us" 3283:1990 – On April 25, former world champion 2521:develops computer chess algorithms in his 1675: 904:North American Computer Chess Championship 777: 450: 436: 23:. For chess played over the Internet, see 5741:"Download | Home of the Dutch Rebel" 5493:"Appendix CHESS 4.5: Competition in 1976" 5459: 5408:A game played by Turing's chess algorithm 5368:: Will Computers Become Our Overlords?". 5207: 5177: 5156: 4966:BayesianElo Ratinglist of WBEC Ridderkerk 4199: 4049:added a tactics trainer web app in 2015. 3635:Speech output from Voice Chess Challenger 3571:Deep Thought 2 (Deep Blue prototype)~1994 3489:28–0, with 72 draws, in a 100-game match. 3210:and physicist Matthias Wüllenweber found 2339: 1845:Knowledge versus search (processor speed) 1611:positions for compact long-term storage. 477:or higher are available on hardware from 6701:""How REBEL Plays Chess" by Ed Schröder" 6695:Colin Frayn's Computer Chess Theory Page 6604:Computer Chess Information and Resources 6559:Mathematical Sciences Research Institute 5131: 4811:"7-piece Syzygy tablebases are complete" 4619:Stanislav Tsukrov, Pocket Fritz author. 4590: 4588: 4307:https://www.facebook.com/chessstudioapp/ 4180: 3654: 3646: 3638: 3625: 3617: 3609: 3124:International Computer Chess Association 3108: 3097:1976 – In December, Canadian programmer 2242: 1584: 686: 566: 551:Computer chess was once considered the " 29: 6763:, John McCarthy, and Monty Newborn. at 6547: 6426: 6382: 6373: 5272: 5254: 5140: 5054: 5052: 4710: 4703: 3723:World Microcomputer Chess Championships 3680:World Microcomputer Chess Championships 1081: 1032: 935:Deep Blue versus Kasparov, 1996, game 1 8558: 6551:Multilinear Algebra and Chess Endgames 6544:, Seattle, Washington, August 18, 2006 6486:Coles, L. Stephen (October 30, 2002), 6441:, Ser.7, Vol. 41 (314), archived from 5985:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 5186: 4613: 4374:"Computer chess bad-human chess worse" 3309:, the first time a microcomputer beat 1718: 1212:games (five minutes plus five seconds 1025: 1011: 652:, which calculates the moves, and the 6773: 6485: 5266: 5104: 4585: 4372:Hapgood, Fred (23–30 December 1982). 4150: 4030:started offering Live Chess in 2007. 3531: 2469:efficiently updatable neural networks 2408:efficiently updatable neural networks 2313:Later software age: full-width search 1970: 1095: 1088: 1074: 1067: 1060: 1053: 1046: 1039: 1018: 1004: 995: 724:Chess training programs teach chess. 526:defeating even the best human players 112:Efficiently updatable neural networks 41:This article is part of the series on 6489:Computer Chess: The Drosophila of AI 6401: 6222:"Play Chess Online - Shredder Chess" 5636: 5343:Joost VandeVondele (July 25, 2020). 5296: 5248: 5049: 4778:"Who wins from this? (chess puzzle)" 4565:Computer Chess: The Drosophila of AI 4059:had initially tried to compete with 3818: 3583:, predecessor was called Brutus 2002 3494:Efficiently updatable neural network 3395:and draws a four-game match against 3086:which is won by the Russian program 2364: 2037: 1989:positions completely, starting with 1941:efficiently updatable neural network 1614: 1404:Evaluations in search based schema ( 1342:won the Copa Mercosur tournament in 955:Deep Blue vs. Kasparov, 1996, game 1 868:stated in 1982 that computers "play 772:software for handling chess problems 643:Types and features of chess software 6327: 6001:"Play Daily (Correspondence) Chess" 5937:"FICS - Free Internet Chess Server" 5299:"Release stockfish-nnue-2020-05-30" 5146: 4683:Wheland, Norman D. (October 1978). 4596:"Pocket Fritz 4 wins Copa Mercosur" 4063:by releasing a NICBase program for 4045:added its Tactics Trainer in 2008. 3695:"The King", which later became the 3257:and several grandmasters including 3241:, wins a match against grandmaster 3054:Association for Computing Machinery 2495:1868 – Charles Hooper presents the 2277:of 1912, built by Spanish engineer 2238: 2018:Philidor position#Queen versus rook 1367: 1353:such as at Freestyle Chess events. 947:Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine 710:(Scid) for Windows, Mac or Linux, 536:, Professor of Computer Science at 13: 6474: 5637:Riis, Dr. Søren (2 January 2012). 5108:Learning to Play the Game of Chess 4944:Swedish Chess Computer Association 4070:One could play against the engine 3526: 3496:(NNUE) evaluation is invented for 3384:draws an eight-game match against 3341:World Computer Chess Championships 2512:King and Rook versus King endgames 2289:Since then, chess enthusiasts and 1924:techniques such as Texel turning, 1864: 1306:Swedish Chess Computer Association 1261:In November 2003, Kasparov played 708:Shane's Chess Information Database 14: 8587: 6623:about "anti-computer style" chess 6599:"Computer Chess" by Edward Winter 6573: 6505:A program to play chess end games 5694: 5147:Lai, Matthew (4 September 2015), 4892:, 12 October 2008, archived from 4009: 3708:World Computer Chess Championship 3307:World Computer Chess Championship 3084:World Computer Chess Championship 3007:(ITEP) defeats Kotok-McCarthy at 2334:World Computer Chess Championship 2222:as a benchmark. Generic, neutral 1630: 1447:looking at least five moves ahead 1276:in 2005, defeated seventh-ranked 1254:In January 2003, Kasparov played 563:Availability and playing strength 8533: 8204:List of strong chess tournaments 6309: This article incorporates 6304: 5673:(Japanese with English abstract) 5669:. Ziosoft Computer Shogi Club, 4529:New York Times, December 5, 2006 4318:Simon, H.A.; Newell, A. (1958). 3959: 3910: 3222:' to be bundled with a separate 2888: 2881: 2874: 2867: 2860: 2853: 2838: 2831: 2824: 2817: 2810: 2803: 2788: 2781: 2774: 2767: 2760: 2753: 2738: 2731: 2724: 2717: 2710: 2703: 2688: 2681: 2674: 2667: 2660: 2653: 2638: 2631: 2624: 2617: 2610: 2603: 2321:, which was responsible for the 1094: 1087: 1080: 1073: 1066: 1059: 1052: 1045: 1038: 1031: 1024: 1017: 1010: 1003: 997: 728:had playthrough tutorials by IM 117:Handcrafted evaluation functions 53: 7182:Gökyay Association Chess Museum 6594:ACM Computer Chess by Bill Wall 6501:Huberman (Liskov), Barbara Jane 6289:from the original on 2007-12-14 6275: 6257: 6239: 6228:from the original on 2006-12-05 6214: 6203:from the original on 2002-10-08 6189: 6178:from the original on 1999-02-19 6164: 6134: 6116: 6105:from the original on 2008-02-18 6091: 6080:from the original on 2007-06-13 6066: 6041: 6011: 5993: 5968:from the original on 2004-08-31 5954: 5943:from the original on 1998-12-12 5929: 5904: 5878: 5800: 5775: 5754: 5733: 5710: 5688: 5676: 5656: 5608: 5594: 5583: 5574: 5565: 5556: 5542: 5502: 5485: 5448: 5412: 5401: 5388: 5357: 5290: 5164: 5125: 5098: 5085: 5072: 5023: 5001: 4979: 4957: 4930: 4907: 4876: 4852: 4828: 4803: 4783: 4771: 4759: 4738: 4716: 4635:. Deutsche Welle. 16 April 2016 4625: 4570: 4558: 4532: 4520: 4499: 4478: 4181:Sreedhar, Suhas (2 July 2007). 4140: 3764: 3351:loses a six-game match against 3029:1968 – Scottish chess champion 2997:running an early chess program. 2134: 1955:algorithm, in conjunction with 1389:Search in search based schema ( 530:programs running on desktop PCs 6533:Deep Blue's contribution to AI 5808:"Dr. Robert Hyatt's home page" 5550:"GNU's Bulletin, vol. 1 no. 2" 5297:Noda, Hisayori (30 May 2020). 4890:Chess Engines Grand Tournament 4404:Douglas, J R (December 1978). 4311: 4300: 4286: 4274: 4252: 4240: 4193: 4174: 3606:Commercial dedicated computers 3269:. It also defeats grandmaster 3011:by telegraph over nine months. 840:American Chess Championship's 508:to build, search and evaluate 1: 8302:Computer chess championships 6627:A guide to Endgame Tablebases 5327:"Introducing NNUE Evaluation" 5091:Adam's Computer Chess Pages, 4598:. Chess.co.uk. Archived from 4509:. ChessBase.com. 28 June 2005 4406:"Chess 4.7 versus David Levy" 4168: 3469:World Chess Championship 2010 3192:1986 – Software Country (see 3148:organizes a match between IM 1759:Type A programs would use a " 8576:Game artificial intelligence 6019:"Play Chess Online for Free" 5899:10.1016/0097-3165(81)90016-9 5136:, vol. 12, ICCA Journal 4074:online from 2006. In 2015, 3921:The prospects of completely 3402:2004 – a team of computers ( 2510:, a machine that could play 2330:Computer Chess Championships 2233: 2005:was a pioneer in this area. 1857:points in playing strength ( 1706:in order to calculate their 1591:Board representation (chess) 816:and professor of psychology 810:David Levy made a famous bet 784:Human–computer chess matches 7: 8084:Bishop and knight checkmate 6407:Secrets of Pawnless Endings 5580:Selective Search. June 1990 5530:. January 1981. p. 292 4725:"Endgame Tablebases Online" 4685:"A Computer Chess Tutorial" 4458:Stinson, Craig (Jan 1982). 4247:http://scid.sourceforge.net 4096: 3751:Multi Emulator Super System 3445:2006 – The world champion, 3373:and Rudolf Huber draft the 2478: 2473:deep reinforcement learning 2161:Chess engine § Ratings 2155:Computer chess rating lists 1926:stochastic gradient descent 1511:stochastic gradient descent 132:Stochastic gradient descent 10: 8592: 8247:Other world championships 6733:Computer Chess Club Forums 6617:Defending Humanity's Honor 6378:, Academic Press, New York 6360:, Computer Science Press, 6337:Princeton University Press 6321: 5273:Yu Nasu (April 28, 2018). 5255:Yu Nasu (April 28, 2018). 5226:10.1038/s41586-020-03051-4 4746:"Open chess diary 301–320" 4093:have contributed lessons. 4020:Free Internet Chess Server 3963: 3914: 2158: 1974: 1906:Chess piece relative value 1868: 1743: 1679: 1634: 1588: 1581:or leave this to the GUI. 794:Carnegie Mellon University 781: 182:Principal variation search 18: 8528: 8438: 8341: 8194: 8094:Opposite-coloured bishops 8074: 8020: 7883: 7725: 7665: 7656: 7567: 7435: 7296: 7197: 7033: 6937: 6807: 6799: 6356:; Newborn, Monty (1991), 5810:. Cis.uab.edu. 2004-02-01 5604:. Chessbase. 25 May 2010. 5132:Levinson, Robert (1989), 5105:Thurn, Sebastian (1995), 5060:http://ccrl.chessdom.com/ 4433:"SPOC / The Chess Master" 4206:Social Studies of Science 3977:Universal Chess Interface 3375:Universal Chess Interface 2504:Leonardo Torres y Quevedo 2441:graphics processing units 2418:Some people, such as the 2386:Neural network revolution 2082:techniques, require 7.05 1704:graphics processing units 1568:Universal Chess Interface 1286:overlooking a mate in one 662:Universal Chess Interface 8221:World Chess Championship 7187:World Chess Hall of Fame 6743: 6557:, Berkeley, California: 6358:How Computers Play Chess 6146:www.chessbase-online.com 5887:J. Combin. Theory Ser. A 4218:10.1177/0306312711424596 4157:40/4 time control, each 4133: 4108:History of chess engines 4004:chess engine tournaments 3973:graphical user interface 3857:, the lead developer of 3518:2020 - NNUE is added to 3249:shares first place with 3224:graphical user interface 2445:central processing units 2352:Microcomputer revolution 1563:graphical user interface 1547:algebraic chess notation 1539:Forsyth–Edwards Notation 1525:Graphical user interface 1469:Graphical user interface 1265:. The match ended 2–2. 654:graphical user interface 8515:Simultaneous exhibition 8425:Chess newspaper columns 8114:Rook and bishop vs rook 8104:Queen and pawn vs queen 6765:Computer History Museum 6589:Computer History Museum 6548:Stiller, Lewis (1996), 6538:Newborn, Monty (2006). 6531:Newborn, Monty (2000). 6524:Newborn, Monty (1996). 6511:Lasar, Matthew (2011). 6464:Computer History Museum 6383:Newborn, Monty (1997), 6374:Newborn, Monty (1975), 5078:CCRL Discussion Board, 4281:http://www.exachess.com 3591:Tensor Processing Units 3319:Secrets of Rook Endings 3294:based on Ed Schröder's 2451:in the backend such as 2319:Northwestern University 2279:Leonardo Torres Quevedo 2034:Levy & Newborn 1991 1918:Levy & Newborn 1991 1859:Levy & Newborn 1991 1831:Monte Carlo tree search 1752:on chess search was by 1682:Monte Carlo tree search 1676:Monte Carlo tree search 1543:long algebraic notation 1399:Monte Carlo tree search 1308:rated computer program 881:wrote. While reviewing 830:Northwestern University 778:Computers versus humans 603:There are thousands of 192:Monte Carlo tree search 19:For the 2013 film, see 7970:Richter–Veresov Attack 7958:Queen's Indian Defence 6728:Chess programming wiki 6439:Philosophical Magazine 6124:"Chess Tactics Online" 6049:"Chess Tactics Server" 5867:table, which are from 5841:Philosophical Magazine 5011:. FastGM's Rating List 4766:http://tb7.chessok.com 4200:Ensmenger, N. (2012). 4103:List of chess software 3667: 3652: 3644: 3636: 3623: 3615: 3114: 2394:have been used in the 2340:Rise of chess machines 2250: 2047:Over the years, other 1953:reinforcement learning 1930:reinforcement learning 1837:in 2017, and later in 1558:command-line interface 1535:Portable Game Notation 1515:reinforcement learning 1426:reinforcement learning 1338:4 on the mobile phone 699: 658:command-line interface 576: 302:Dragon by Komodo Chess 127:Reinforcement learning 35: 8231:Candidates Tournament 8119:Rook and pawn vs rook 8089:King and pawn vs king 8040:List of chess gambits 7943:King's Indian Defence 7621:Isolated Queen's Pawn 7145:List of chess players 7087:Top player comparison 6886:Internet chess server 6715:"Play chess with God" 6526:Outsearching Kasparov 6269:mygames.chessbase.com 5847:(314), archived from 5571:Newborn (1997) p. 159 5471:"Ken, Unix and Games" 5172:Learning Algorithm". 3828:Georgy Adelson-Velsky 3702:Gideon, a version of 3658: 3650: 3642: 3634: 3621: 3613: 3449:, is defeated 4–2 by 3426:, who had an average 3112: 3037:bet with AI pioneers 2486:Wolfgang von Kempelen 2246: 1961:unsupervised learning 1900:, and 9 points for a 1680:Further information: 1635:Further information: 1585:Board representations 1241:anti-computer tactics 759:for Android and iOS. 690: 570: 557:knowledge engineering 147:Unsupervised learning 65:Board representations 33: 21:Computer Chess (film) 7948:Nimzo-Indian Defence 7844:Scandinavian Defense 7805:Semi-Italian Opening 7710:King's Indian Attack 7599:first-move advantage 7252:Threefold repetition 7177:Bobby Fischer Center 7062:Charlemagne chessmen 7056:Göttingen manuscript 7020: 6861:Correspondence chess 4987:"Gambit Rating List" 4939:The SSDF Rating List 4727:. Kirill-kryukov.com 3933:threefold repetition 3589:2017 (used Google's 3218:, one of the first ' 3024:transposition tables 2968:programmers using a 2437:deep neural networks 2396:evaluation functions 2295:World Chess Champion 1949:deep neural networks 1725:transposition tables 1708:evaluation functions 1507:evaluation functions 1475:Board representation 807:International Master 555:of AI", the edge of 518:vacuum-tube computer 97:Deep neural networks 90:Evaluation functions 8176:Two knights endgame 7928:Bogo-Indian Defence 7815:Two Knights Defense 7755:Nimzowitsch Defence 7445:Artificial castling 7082:Soviet chess school 6957:Dubrovnik chess set 6411:Gambit Publications 6251:fritz.chessbase.com 6029:on 17 December 2013 5218:2020Natur.588..604S 5037:on January 25, 2019 4946:, 26 September 2008 4860:"TCEC Openings FAQ" 4327:Operations Research 4270:on August 20, 2008. 4183:"Checkers, Solved!" 4016:Internet Chess Club 3981:Stefan Meyer-Kahlen 3928:alpha–beta searcher 3548:bit-slice processor 3371:Stefan Meyer-Kahlen 3082:organize the first 3056:organize the first 3009:Stanford University 2989:1963 – Grandmaster 2538:evaluation function 1999:retrograde analysis 1957:supervised learning 1945:piece-square tables 1871:Evaluation function 1719:Other optimizations 1601:position evaluation 1499:pattern recognition 753:Play Magnus company 738:Stefan Meyer-Kahlen 664:(UCI) engines such 582:transposition table 469:capable of playing 137:Supervised learning 122:Piece-square tables 8406:endgame literature 7953:Old Indian Defense 7863:Accelerated Dragon 7735:Alekhine's Defence 7467:Checkmate patterns 7336:symbols in Unicode 7331:annotation symbols 7094:Geography of chess 6962:Staunton chess set 6755:2006-06-14 at the 6688:2011-08-07 at the 6678:2011-09-20 at the 6668:2011-09-19 at the 6658:2011-09-19 at the 6648:2011-09-27 at the 6638:2011-09-18 at the 6609:2019-01-18 at the 6494:Dr. Dobb's Journal 6428:Shannon, Claude E. 6023:play.chessbase.com 5620:www.chessvibes.com 5524:"New Restrictions" 5366:Venki Ramakrishnan 5069:, 14 November 2021 5065:2022-01-21 at the 4796:2017-06-27 at the 4544:The New York Times 4439:. pp. 288–294 4380:. pp. 827–830 4339:10.1287/opre.6.1.1 4294:"Chess PGN Master" 4081:Starting in 2007, 3668: 3653: 3645: 3637: 3624: 3616: 3532:Dedicated hardware 3467:2010 – Before the 3194:Software Toolworks 3115: 3078:, Ben Mittman and 3022:et al. introduces 3020:Richard Greenblatt 2982:, is published at 2424:Venki Ramakrishnan 2291:computer engineers 2251: 2094:of storage space. 1971:Endgame tablebases 1776:alpha–beta pruning 1655:Alpha–beta pruning 1637:Alpha–beta pruning 1438:endgame tablebases 1418:genetic algorithms 1334:13 running inside 822:Indiana University 790:alpha–beta pruning 765:Fritz and Chesster 757:Magnus Trainer app 734:Larry Christiansen 700: 577: 177:Alpha-beta pruning 36: 8553: 8552: 8430:Chess periodicals 8359:Chess in the arts 8291:Chess composition 8129:Philidor position 8070: 8069: 8012:Trompowsky Attack 7995:Semi-Slav Defence 7885:Queen's Pawn Game 7765:Four Knights Game 7740:Caro–Kann Defence 7705:Zukertort Opening 7492:Discovered attack 7212:Cheating in chess 7049:Versus de scachis 5783:"More DOS oldies" 5626:on 30 March 2014. 5562:Hsu (2002) p. 292 5202:(7839): 604–609. 4546:. 5 December 2006 4113:Computer checkers 3937:generalized chess 3898:Claude E. Shannon 3885:Alexander Kronrod 3840:Mikhail Botvinnik 3819:Notable theorists 3798:Kasparov's Gambit 3757:. The author of 3632: 3420:Ruslan Ponomariov 3226:(GUI), chesstool. 3099:Peter R. Jennings 2961:search algorithm. 2925: 2924: 2365:Super-human chess 2298:Mikhail Botvinnik 2271:digital computing 2099:rest of the world 2012:against king and 1977:Endgame tablebase 1896:, 5 points for a 1888:, 3 points for a 1819:alpha-beta search 1815:quiescence search 1796:quiescence search 1765:minimax algorithm 1729:Refutation tables 1662:quiescence search 1615:Search techniques 1292:and was crushed. 1237:Brains in Bahrain 1206:Viswanathan Anand 1193: 1192: 799:killer heuristics 717:Programs such as 695:, a component of 538:McGill University 506:heuristic methods 475:chess grandmaster 460: 459: 187:Quiescence search 166:search algorithms 47:Chess programming 8583: 8571:Electronic games 8540:Chess portal 8538: 8537: 8481:Leela Chess Zero 8412:Oxford Companion 8364:early literature 8354:Chess aesthetics 8099:Pawnless endgame 8050:Bongcloud Attack 8028:List of openings 8000:Chigorin Defense 7938:Grünfeld Defence 7849:Sicilian Defence 7795:Ponziani Opening 7790:Philidor Defence 7785:Petrov's Defence 7727:King's Pawn Game 7700:Larsen's Opening 7663: 7662: 7024: 6794: 6787: 6780: 6771: 6770: 6711: 6707: 6705: 6619:, an article by 6569: 6568: 6566: 6556: 6508: 6496: 6456: 6455: 6453: 6447: 6436: 6423: 6397: 6379: 6370: 6349: 6329:Hsu, Feng-hsiung 6308: 6298: 6297: 6295: 6294: 6279: 6273: 6272: 6261: 6255: 6254: 6243: 6237: 6236: 6234: 6233: 6218: 6212: 6211: 6209: 6208: 6197:"NICBase Online" 6193: 6187: 6186: 6184: 6183: 6168: 6162: 6161: 6159: 6157: 6148:. Archived from 6138: 6132: 6131: 6126:. Archived from 6120: 6114: 6113: 6111: 6110: 6095: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6085: 6070: 6064: 6063: 6061: 6060: 6051:. Archived from 6045: 6039: 6038: 6036: 6034: 6025:. Archived from 6015: 6009: 6008: 6003:. Archived from 5997: 5991: 5990: 5984: 5976: 5974: 5973: 5958: 5952: 5951: 5949: 5948: 5933: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5923: 5914:. Archived from 5908: 5902: 5901: 5882: 5876: 5862: 5861: 5859: 5853: 5838: 5825: 5819: 5818: 5816: 5815: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5795: 5794: 5785:. Archived from 5779: 5773: 5772: 5770: 5769: 5758: 5752: 5751: 5749: 5748: 5737: 5731: 5730: 5714: 5708: 5707: 5705: 5703: 5695:Sousa, Ismenio. 5692: 5686: 5680: 5674: 5660: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5649: 5634: 5628: 5627: 5622:. Archived from 5612: 5606: 5605: 5598: 5592: 5587: 5581: 5578: 5572: 5569: 5563: 5560: 5554: 5553: 5546: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5520: 5514: 5513: 5506: 5500: 5499: 5497: 5489: 5483: 5482: 5463: 5457: 5452: 5446: 5445: 5439: 5431: 5429: 5427: 5416: 5410: 5405: 5399: 5392: 5386: 5385: 5361: 5355: 5354: 5340: 5331: 5330: 5329:. 6 August 2020. 5323: 5314: 5313: 5311: 5309: 5294: 5288: 5287: 5279: 5270: 5264: 5263: 5261: 5252: 5246: 5245: 5211: 5190: 5184: 5183: 5181: 5168: 5162: 5161: 5160: 5144: 5138: 5137: 5129: 5123: 5122: 5121: 5119: 5113: 5102: 5096: 5089: 5083: 5076: 5070: 5056: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5042: 5027: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5016: 5005: 4999: 4998: 4996: 4994: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4975: 4973: 4961: 4955: 4954: 4953: 4951: 4934: 4928: 4927: 4926: 4924: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4880: 4874: 4873: 4871: 4870: 4856: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4846: 4832: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4822: 4817:. 19 August 2018 4807: 4801: 4800:, 19th June 2012 4787: 4781: 4775: 4769: 4763: 4757: 4756: 4754: 4753: 4742: 4736: 4735: 4733: 4732: 4723:Kirill Kryukov. 4720: 4714: 4707: 4701: 4700: 4698: 4696: 4680: 4674: 4673: 4671: 4669: 4654: 4645: 4644: 4642: 4640: 4629: 4623: 4617: 4611: 4610: 4608: 4607: 4592: 4583: 4574: 4568: 4567:October 30, 2002 4562: 4556: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4536: 4530: 4524: 4518: 4517: 4515: 4514: 4503: 4497: 4496: 4494: 4493: 4486:"Rebel vs Anand" 4482: 4476: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4455: 4449: 4448: 4446: 4444: 4428: 4422: 4421: 4419: 4417: 4401: 4390: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4369: 4350: 4349: 4347: 4345: 4324: 4315: 4309: 4304: 4298: 4297: 4290: 4284: 4283:ExaChess for Mac 4278: 4272: 4271: 4266:. Archived from 4264:www.convekta.com 4256: 4250: 4244: 4238: 4237: 4197: 4191: 4190: 4178: 4162: 4154: 4148: 4144: 4123:Computer Othello 3941:EXPTIME-complete 3849:Alexander Brudno 3782:Chessmaster 2000 3633: 3505:Leela Chess Zero 3447:Vladimir Kramnik 3382:Vladimir Kramnik 3267:Mikhail Gurevich 3259:Samuel Reshevsky 3208:Frederic Friedel 3146:Frederic Friedel 3120:Chess Challenger 2944:Los Alamos chess 2929:Los Alamos chess 2892: 2885: 2878: 2871: 2864: 2857: 2842: 2835: 2828: 2821: 2814: 2807: 2792: 2785: 2778: 2771: 2764: 2757: 2742: 2735: 2728: 2721: 2714: 2707: 2692: 2685: 2678: 2671: 2664: 2657: 2642: 2635: 2628: 2621: 2614: 2607: 2571: 2433:Leela Chess Zero 2239:Pre-computer age 2186:Leela Chess Zero 2122:Leela Chess Zero 2101:. A seven piece 2049:endgame database 1922:Machine learning 1839:Leela Chess Zero 1696:Leela Chess Zero 1491:Adriaan de Groot 1422:gradient descent 1406:machine learning 1368:Computer methods 1290:Sicilian Defence 1230:Vladimir Kramnik 1098: 1097: 1091: 1090: 1084: 1083: 1077: 1076: 1070: 1069: 1063: 1062: 1056: 1055: 1049: 1048: 1042: 1041: 1035: 1034: 1028: 1027: 1021: 1020: 1014: 1013: 1007: 1006: 1001: 1000: 960: 805:level. In 1968, 639:free of charge. 629:Leela Chess Zero 491:Leela Chess Zero 452: 445: 438: 357:Leela Chess Zero 57: 38: 37: 8591: 8590: 8586: 8585: 8584: 8582: 8581: 8580: 8556: 8555: 8554: 8549: 8532: 8524: 8434: 8420:Chess libraries 8337: 8241:FIDE Grand Prix 8236:Chess World Cup 8190: 8186:Wrong rook pawn 8124:Lucena position 8066: 8016: 7933:Catalan Opening 7908:English Defence 7893:Budapest Gambit 7879: 7837:Austrian Attack 7721: 7690:English Opening 7652: 7648:School of chess 7631:Minority attack 7563: 7532:Queen sacrifice 7431: 7292: 7288:White and Black 7283:Touch-move rule 7242:Perpetual check 7237:Fifty-move rule 7193: 7029: 7026: 6933: 6803: 6798: 6757:Wayback Machine 6746: 6709: 6703: 6699: 6690:Wayback Machine 6680:Wayback Machine 6670:Wayback Machine 6660:Wayback Machine 6650:Wayback Machine 6640:Wayback Machine 6611:Wayback Machine 6576: 6564: 6562: 6554: 6477: 6475:Further reading 6451: 6449: 6445: 6434: 6421: 6395: 6368: 6347: 6324: 6301: 6292: 6290: 6281: 6280: 6276: 6263: 6262: 6258: 6245: 6244: 6240: 6231: 6229: 6220: 6219: 6215: 6206: 6204: 6195: 6194: 6190: 6181: 6179: 6170: 6169: 6165: 6155: 6153: 6140: 6139: 6135: 6122: 6121: 6117: 6108: 6106: 6097: 6096: 6092: 6083: 6081: 6074:"Chess Tactics" 6072: 6071: 6067: 6058: 6056: 6047: 6046: 6042: 6032: 6030: 6017: 6016: 6012: 5999: 5998: 5994: 5978: 5977: 5971: 5969: 5962:"Archived copy" 5960: 5959: 5955: 5946: 5944: 5935: 5934: 5930: 5921: 5919: 5910: 5909: 5905: 5883: 5879: 5871:'s thesis. See 5865:Game complexity 5857: 5855: 5851: 5836: 5826: 5822: 5813: 5811: 5806: 5805: 5801: 5792: 5790: 5781: 5780: 5776: 5767: 5765: 5760: 5759: 5755: 5746: 5744: 5739: 5738: 5734: 5715: 5711: 5701: 5699: 5693: 5689: 5681: 5677: 5661: 5657: 5647: 5645: 5635: 5631: 5614: 5613: 5609: 5600: 5599: 5595: 5588: 5584: 5579: 5575: 5570: 5566: 5561: 5557: 5548: 5547: 5543: 5533: 5531: 5522: 5521: 5517: 5508: 5507: 5503: 5495: 5491: 5490: 5486: 5464: 5460: 5453: 5449: 5433: 5432: 5425: 5423: 5418: 5417: 5413: 5406: 5402: 5393: 5389: 5382: 5363: 5362: 5358: 5341: 5334: 5325: 5324: 5317: 5307: 5305: 5295: 5291: 5277: 5271: 5267: 5259: 5253: 5249: 5191: 5187: 5169: 5165: 5145: 5141: 5130: 5126: 5117: 5115: 5111: 5103: 5099: 5090: 5086: 5077: 5073: 5067:Wayback Machine 5057: 5050: 5040: 5038: 5029: 5028: 5024: 5014: 5012: 5007: 5006: 5002: 4992: 4990: 4985: 4984: 4980: 4971: 4969: 4963: 4962: 4958: 4949: 4947: 4936: 4935: 4931: 4922: 4920: 4913: 4912: 4908: 4899: 4897: 4896:on 1 March 2012 4882: 4881: 4877: 4868: 4866: 4858: 4857: 4853: 4844: 4842: 4834: 4833: 4829: 4820: 4818: 4809: 4808: 4804: 4798:Wayback Machine 4788: 4784: 4776: 4772: 4764: 4760: 4751: 4749: 4744: 4743: 4739: 4730: 4728: 4721: 4717: 4708: 4704: 4694: 4692: 4681: 4677: 4667: 4665: 4656: 4655: 4648: 4638: 4636: 4631: 4630: 4626: 4618: 4614: 4605: 4603: 4594: 4593: 4586: 4575: 4571: 4563: 4559: 4549: 4547: 4538: 4537: 4533: 4525: 4521: 4512: 4510: 4505: 4504: 4500: 4491: 4489: 4484: 4483: 4479: 4469: 4467: 4456: 4452: 4442: 4440: 4429: 4425: 4415: 4413: 4402: 4393: 4383: 4381: 4370: 4353: 4343: 4341: 4322: 4316: 4312: 4305: 4301: 4292: 4291: 4287: 4279: 4275: 4258: 4257: 4253: 4245: 4241: 4198: 4194: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4166: 4165: 4155: 4151: 4145: 4141: 4136: 4099: 4012: 3968: 3962: 3919: 3913: 3855:Feng-hsiung Hsu 3821: 3767: 3626: 3608: 3546:Bebe, a strong 3534: 3529: 3527:Categorizations 3424:Sergey Karjakin 3416:Veselin Topalov 3233:, developed by 2991:David Bronstein 2939: 2938: 2937: 2481: 2426:, believe that 2392:neural networks 2388: 2375:Murray Campbell 2367: 2354: 2342: 2315: 2287: 2267:Farkas Kempelen 2241: 2236: 2220:Crafty 19.17 BH 2212:permanent brain 2163: 2157: 2137: 2030:fifty-move rule 1979: 1973: 1937:neural networks 1914:Shannon's paper 1873: 1867: 1865:Leaf evaluation 1847: 1746: 1721: 1684: 1678: 1643: 1633: 1617: 1593: 1587: 1527: 1484:Leaf evaluation 1434:knowledge based 1410:neural networks 1370: 1198: 1197: 1196: 1195:Final position 1100: 1099: 1092: 1085: 1078: 1071: 1064: 1057: 1050: 1043: 1036: 1029: 1022: 1015: 1008: 998: 957: 786: 780: 712:Chess Assistant 645: 565: 456: 427: 426: 272: 262: 261: 207: 205:Chess computers 197: 196: 167: 152: 151: 92: 82: 81: 67: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8589: 8579: 8578: 8573: 8568: 8566:Computer chess 8551: 8550: 8548: 8547: 8542: 8529: 8526: 8525: 8523: 8522: 8517: 8512: 8507: 8506: 8505: 8500: 8490: 8489: 8488: 8483: 8478: 8473: 8463: 8461:Chess composer 8458: 8453: 8448: 8442: 8440: 8436: 8435: 8433: 8432: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8416: 8415: 8408: 8403: 8393: 8392: 8391: 8386: 8381: 8376: 8371: 8366: 8356: 8351: 8345: 8343: 8339: 8338: 8336: 8335: 8334: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8316:North American 8313: 8308: 8300: 8299: 8298: 8293: 8288: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8245: 8244: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8218: 8217: 8216: 8209:Chess Olympiad 8206: 8200: 8198: 8192: 8191: 8189: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8162: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8141: 8133: 8132: 8131: 8126: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8101: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8080: 8078: 8072: 8071: 8068: 8067: 8065: 8064: 8063: 8062: 8060:Scholar's mate 8057: 8052: 8042: 8037: 8036: 8035: 8024: 8022: 8018: 8017: 8015: 8014: 8009: 8004: 8003: 8002: 7997: 7992: 7987: 7982: 7975:Queen's Gambit 7972: 7967: 7962: 7961: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7918:Benoni Defence 7913:Indian Defence 7910: 7905: 7900: 7895: 7889: 7887: 7881: 7880: 7878: 7877: 7876: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7856: 7846: 7841: 7840: 7839: 7829: 7827:Owen's Defence 7824: 7823: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7757: 7752: 7750:Modern Defence 7747: 7745:French Defence 7742: 7737: 7731: 7729: 7723: 7722: 7720: 7719: 7718: 7717: 7712: 7702: 7697: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7680:Bird's Opening 7677: 7671: 7669: 7660: 7654: 7653: 7651: 7650: 7645: 7640: 7635: 7634: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7611:Pawn structure 7608: 7603: 7602: 7601: 7591: 7590: 7589: 7579: 7573: 7571: 7565: 7564: 7562: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7535: 7534: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7458: 7457: 7455:Alekhine's gun 7447: 7441: 7439: 7433: 7432: 7430: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7408: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7377: 7372: 7371: 7370: 7368:Half-open file 7360: 7355: 7350: 7345: 7340: 7339: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7311:Chess notation 7308: 7302: 7300: 7294: 7293: 7291: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7279: 7278: 7268: 7266:Pawn promotion 7263: 7256: 7255: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7224: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7203: 7201: 7195: 7194: 7192: 7191: 7190: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7169: 7167:Women in chess 7164: 7163: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7142: 7137: 7136: 7135: 7130: 7129: 7128: 7123: 7113: 7108: 7107: 7106: 7091: 7090: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7077:Hypermodernism 7074: 7072:Romantic chess 7069: 7067:Lewis chessmen 7064: 7059: 7052: 7039: 7037: 7031: 7030: 7028: 7027: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7007: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6966: 6965: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6943: 6941: 6935: 6934: 6932: 6931: 6926: 6925: 6924: 6914: 6913: 6912: 6907: 6905:world rankings 6897: 6896: 6895: 6894: 6893: 6883: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6857: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6834:Computer chess 6831: 6830: 6829: 6819: 6813: 6811: 6805: 6804: 6797: 6796: 6789: 6782: 6774: 6768: 6767: 6745: 6742: 6741: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720:2012-11-29 at 6712: 6697: 6692: 6629: 6624: 6614: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6582: 6575: 6574:External links 6572: 6571: 6570: 6545: 6536: 6529: 6522: 6509: 6497: 6483: 6476: 6473: 6472: 6471: 6466: 6457: 6448:on 6 July 2010 6424: 6419: 6399: 6393: 6380: 6376:Computer Chess 6371: 6366: 6350: 6345: 6323: 6320: 6300: 6299: 6274: 6256: 6238: 6213: 6188: 6163: 6152:on 11 May 2000 6133: 6130:on 2015-05-04. 6115: 6090: 6065: 6040: 6010: 6007:on 2007-10-06. 5992: 5953: 5928: 5903: 5893:(2): 199–214, 5877: 5873:Shannon number 5854:on 6 July 2010 5830:Claude Shannon 5820: 5799: 5774: 5753: 5732: 5709: 5687: 5685:TCEC season 15 5675: 5655: 5643:Chessbase News 5629: 5607: 5593: 5582: 5573: 5564: 5555: 5541: 5515: 5501: 5484: 5467:Dennis Ritchie 5458: 5447: 5411: 5400: 5387: 5381:978-0525557999 5380: 5356: 5332: 5315: 5289: 5265: 5262:(in Japanese). 5247: 5185: 5163: 5139: 5124: 5097: 5095:, 19 June 2012 5084: 5082:, 19 June 2012 5071: 5048: 5022: 5000: 4978: 4956: 4929: 4906: 4875: 4864:tcec-chess.com 4851: 4827: 4802: 4782: 4770: 4758: 4737: 4715: 4702: 4675: 4646: 4624: 4612: 4584: 4569: 4557: 4531: 4519: 4498: 4477: 4450: 4423: 4391: 4351: 4310: 4299: 4285: 4273: 4251: 4239: 4192: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4164: 4163: 4149: 4138: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4131: 4130: 4128:Computer shogi 4125: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4098: 4095: 4011: 4010:Chess web apps 4008: 3964:Main article: 3961: 3958: 3947:Martin Gardner 3915:Main article: 3912: 3909: 3908: 3907: 3901: 3895: 3892:Monroe Newborn 3888: 3882: 3876: 3862: 3852: 3846: 3837: 3831: 3820: 3817: 3816: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3789: 3787:Colossus Chess 3784: 3766: 3763: 3747: 3746: 3740: 3729: 3726: 3716: 3713: 3712: 3711: 3700: 3683: 3676: 3607: 3604: 3603: 3602: 3601: 3600: 3584: 3578: 3572: 3569: 3563: 3557: 3551: 3544: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3524: 3523: 3516: 3501: 3498:computer shogi 3490: 3479: 3476: 3465: 3454: 3443: 3432: 3400: 3389: 3378: 3367: 3364:Garry Kasparov 3356: 3353:Garry Kasparov 3345: 3333: 3326: 3299: 3288: 3285:Anatoly Karpov 3281: 3278: 3227: 3204: 3190: 3173: 3165: 3157: 3142: 3131: 3107: 3106: 3095: 3091: 3072: 3061: 3046: 3027: 3012: 2998: 2987: 2980:Kotok-McCarthy 2976: 2973: 2962: 2951: 2926: 2923: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2912: 2909: 2906: 2903: 2900: 2897: 2896: 2893: 2886: 2879: 2872: 2865: 2858: 2851: 2847: 2846: 2843: 2836: 2829: 2822: 2815: 2808: 2801: 2797: 2796: 2793: 2786: 2779: 2772: 2765: 2758: 2751: 2747: 2746: 2743: 2736: 2729: 2722: 2715: 2708: 2701: 2697: 2696: 2693: 2686: 2679: 2672: 2665: 2658: 2651: 2647: 2646: 2643: 2636: 2629: 2622: 2615: 2608: 2601: 2597: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2589: 2586: 2583: 2580: 2577: 2574: 2569: 2568: 2567: 2566: 2563:Dietrich Prinz 2559: 2548: 2545:Claude Shannon 2541: 2530:Norbert Wiener 2526: 2515: 2508:El Ajedrecista 2500: 2493: 2480: 2477: 2412:computer shogi 2387: 2384: 2366: 2363: 2353: 2350: 2341: 2338: 2314: 2311: 2307:Kotok-McCarthy 2286: 2283: 2275:El Ajedrecista 2248:El Ajedrecista 2240: 2237: 2235: 2232: 2156: 2153: 2136: 2133: 2111:Eugene Nalimov 1975:Main article: 1972: 1969: 1869:Main article: 1866: 1863: 1846: 1843: 1803: 1802: 1799: 1754:Claude Shannon 1745: 1742: 1720: 1717: 1677: 1674: 1632: 1631:Minimax search 1629: 1616: 1613: 1597:data structure 1589:Main article: 1586: 1583: 1526: 1523: 1519:horizon effect 1488: 1487: 1481: 1478: 1472: 1442: 1441: 1431: 1430: 1429: 1402: 1369: 1366: 1362:Magnus Carlsen 1350:Advanced Chess 1194: 1191: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1179: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1157: 1153: 1152: 1149: 1145: 1144: 1141: 1137: 1136: 1133: 1129: 1128: 1125: 1121: 1120: 1117: 1113: 1112: 1109: 1105: 1104: 1101: 1093: 1086: 1079: 1072: 1065: 1058: 1051: 1044: 1037: 1030: 1023: 1016: 1009: 1002: 996: 994: 990: 989: 987: 984: 981: 978: 975: 972: 969: 966: 963: 958: 953: 952: 924:Garry Kasparov 908:Monroe Newborn 782:Main article: 779: 776: 770:There is also 749:Magnus Carlsen 746:World Champion 691:Screenshot of 644: 641: 564: 561: 479:supercomputers 463:Computer chess 458: 457: 455: 454: 447: 440: 432: 429: 428: 425: 424: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 273: 268: 267: 264: 263: 260: 259: 254: 249: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 208: 203: 202: 199: 198: 195: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 168: 158: 157: 154: 153: 150: 149: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 93: 88: 87: 84: 83: 80: 79: 74: 68: 63: 62: 59: 58: 50: 49: 43: 42: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8588: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8569: 8567: 8564: 8563: 8561: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8536: 8531: 8530: 8527: 8521: 8520:Solving chess 8518: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8510:Chess prodigy 8508: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8495: 8494: 8493:Chess problem 8491: 8487: 8484: 8482: 8479: 8477: 8474: 8472: 8469: 8468: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8452: 8449: 8447: 8444: 8443: 8441: 8437: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8414: 8413: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8401:opening books 8399: 8398: 8397: 8394: 8390: 8389:short stories 8387: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8365: 8362: 8361: 8360: 8357: 8355: 8352: 8350: 8347: 8346: 8344: 8342:Art and media 8340: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8301: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8289: 8287: 8284: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8248: 8246: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8223: 8222: 8219: 8215: 8212: 8211: 8210: 8207: 8205: 8202: 8201: 8199: 8197: 8193: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8160: 8157: 8155: 8154:triangulation 8152: 8150: 8149:Tarrasch rule 8147: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8136: 8134: 8130: 8127: 8125: 8122: 8121: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8109:Queen vs pawn 8107: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8081: 8079: 8077: 8073: 8061: 8058: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8047: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8034: 8031: 8030: 8029: 8026: 8025: 8023: 8019: 8013: 8010: 8008: 8005: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7993: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7977: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7965:London System 7963: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7923:Modern Benoni 7921: 7919: 7916: 7915: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7903:Dutch Defence 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7890: 7888: 7886: 7882: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7851: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7838: 7835: 7834: 7833: 7830: 7828: 7825: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7780:King's Gambit 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7762: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7732: 7730: 7728: 7724: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7708: 7707: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7695:Grob's Attack 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7685:Dunst Opening 7683: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7675:Benko Opening 7673: 7672: 7670: 7668: 7667:Flank opening 7664: 7661: 7659: 7655: 7649: 7646: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7613: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7600: 7597: 7596: 7595: 7592: 7588: 7585: 7584: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7574: 7572: 7570: 7566: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7533: 7530: 7529: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7456: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7442: 7440: 7438: 7434: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7422:Transposition 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7382: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7369: 7366: 7365: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7341: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7303: 7301: 7299: 7295: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7277: 7274: 7273: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7229: 7228: 7225: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7204: 7202: 7200: 7196: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7174: 7173: 7172:Chess museums 7170: 7168: 7165: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7147: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7140:Notable games 7138: 7134: 7131: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7118: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7105: 7102: 7101: 7100: 7097: 7096: 7095: 7092: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7057: 7053: 7051: 7050: 7046: 7045: 7044: 7041: 7040: 7038: 7036: 7032: 7025: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6971: 6970: 6967: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6949: 6948: 6945: 6944: 6942: 6940: 6936: 6930: 6929:World records 6927: 6923: 6920: 6919: 6918: 6915: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6902: 6901: 6900:Rating system 6898: 6892: 6889: 6888: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6878: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6836: 6835: 6832: 6828: 6825: 6824: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6814: 6812: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6795: 6790: 6788: 6783: 6781: 6776: 6775: 6772: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6754: 6751: 6748: 6747: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6723: 6722:archive.today 6719: 6716: 6713: 6710:(268 KB) 6702: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6687: 6684: 6681: 6677: 6674: 6671: 6667: 6664: 6661: 6657: 6654: 6651: 6647: 6644: 6641: 6637: 6634: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6622: 6618: 6615: 6612: 6608: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6577: 6560: 6553: 6552: 6546: 6543: 6542: 6537: 6534: 6530: 6527: 6523: 6520: 6519: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6495: 6491: 6490: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6478: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6461: 6458: 6444: 6440: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6422: 6420:1-901983-65-X 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6394:0-387-94820-1 6390: 6386: 6381: 6377: 6372: 6369: 6367:0-7167-8121-2 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6348: 6346:0-691-09065-3 6342: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6325: 6319: 6318: 6316: 6312: 6307: 6288: 6284: 6278: 6270: 6266: 6260: 6252: 6248: 6242: 6227: 6223: 6217: 6202: 6198: 6192: 6177: 6173: 6167: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6137: 6129: 6125: 6119: 6104: 6100: 6094: 6079: 6075: 6069: 6055:on 2006-04-08 6054: 6050: 6044: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6014: 6006: 6002: 5996: 5988: 5982: 5967: 5963: 5957: 5942: 5938: 5932: 5918:on 1997-06-20 5917: 5913: 5907: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5881: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5835: 5831: 5824: 5809: 5803: 5789:on 2018-12-03 5788: 5784: 5778: 5763: 5757: 5742: 5736: 5729:(4): 208–209. 5728: 5724: 5720: 5713: 5698: 5691: 5684: 5679: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5659: 5644: 5640: 5633: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5611: 5603: 5597: 5591: 5586: 5577: 5568: 5559: 5551: 5545: 5529: 5525: 5519: 5511: 5505: 5494: 5488: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5469:(June 2001). 5468: 5462: 5456: 5451: 5443: 5437: 5421: 5415: 5409: 5404: 5397: 5391: 5383: 5377: 5373: 5372: 5367: 5360: 5352: 5351: 5346: 5339: 5337: 5328: 5322: 5320: 5304: 5300: 5293: 5285: 5284: 5276: 5269: 5258: 5251: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5189: 5180: 5175: 5167: 5159: 5154: 5150: 5143: 5135: 5128: 5110: 5109: 5101: 5094: 5088: 5081: 5075: 5068: 5064: 5061: 5055: 5053: 5036: 5032: 5026: 5010: 5004: 4988: 4982: 4968: 4967: 4960: 4945: 4941: 4940: 4933: 4918: 4917: 4910: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4886: 4879: 4865: 4861: 4855: 4841: 4837: 4836:"Useful data" 4831: 4816: 4812: 4806: 4799: 4795: 4792: 4786: 4779: 4774: 4767: 4762: 4747: 4741: 4726: 4719: 4712: 4706: 4691:. p. 168 4690: 4686: 4679: 4663: 4659: 4653: 4651: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4602:on 2011-09-30 4601: 4597: 4591: 4589: 4582: 4581:Hans Berliner 4578: 4573: 4566: 4561: 4545: 4541: 4535: 4528: 4523: 4508: 4502: 4487: 4481: 4465: 4461: 4454: 4438: 4434: 4427: 4411: 4407: 4400: 4398: 4396: 4379: 4378:New Scientist 4375: 4368: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4360: 4358: 4356: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4321: 4314: 4308: 4303: 4295: 4289: 4282: 4277: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4255: 4248: 4243: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4196: 4188: 4187:IEEE Spectrum 4184: 4177: 4173: 4160: 4153: 4143: 4139: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4100: 4094: 4092: 4091:Walter Browne 4088: 4087:Sam Shankland 4084: 4079: 4077: 4073: 4068: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4048: 4044: 4039: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4014:In 1997, the 4007: 4005: 4000: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3979:developed by 3978: 3974: 3967: 3960:Chess engines 3957: 3954: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3918: 3917:Solving chess 3911:Solving chess 3905: 3902: 3899: 3896: 3893: 3889: 3886: 3883: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3860: 3856: 3853: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3841: 3838: 3835: 3834:Hans Berliner 3832: 3829: 3826: 3825: 3824: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3779: 3778: 3776: 3772: 3762: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3744: 3741: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3727: 3724: 3720: 3717: 3714: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3698: 3694: 3693: 3691: 3687: 3684: 3681: 3677: 3674: 3673: 3672: 3666: 3663:running on a 3662: 3657: 3649: 3641: 3620: 3612: 3598: 3595: 3594: 3592: 3588: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3576: 3573: 3570: 3567: 3564: 3561: 3558: 3555: 3552: 3549: 3545: 3542: 3539: 3538: 3537: 3521: 3517: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3477: 3474: 3473:Vasik Rajlich 3470: 3466: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3365: 3361: 3360:Deep(er) Blue 3357: 3354: 3350: 3347:1996 – IBM's 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3331: 3327: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3305:wins the 7th 3304: 3300: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3286: 3282: 3279: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3263:Walter Browne 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3243:Arnold Denker 3240: 3236: 3235:Hans Berliner 3232: 3228: 3225: 3221: 3220:chess engines 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3202: 3200: 3195: 3191: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3179: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3116: 3111: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3080:Monty Newborn 3077: 3073: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3050:Monty Newborn 3047: 3044: 3043:Donald Michie 3040: 3039:John McCarthy 3036: 3032: 3028: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3010: 3006: 3003: 2999: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2960: 2956: 2955:John McCarthy 2952: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2940: 2935: 2931: 2930: 2921: 2919: 2916: 2913: 2910: 2907: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2898: 2894: 2891: 2887: 2884: 2880: 2877: 2873: 2870: 2866: 2863: 2859: 2856: 2852: 2849: 2848: 2844: 2841: 2837: 2834: 2830: 2827: 2823: 2820: 2816: 2813: 2809: 2806: 2802: 2799: 2798: 2794: 2791: 2787: 2784: 2780: 2777: 2773: 2770: 2766: 2763: 2759: 2756: 2752: 2749: 2748: 2744: 2741: 2737: 2734: 2730: 2727: 2723: 2720: 2716: 2713: 2709: 2706: 2702: 2699: 2698: 2694: 2691: 2687: 2684: 2680: 2677: 2673: 2670: 2666: 2663: 2659: 2656: 2652: 2649: 2648: 2644: 2641: 2637: 2634: 2630: 2627: 2623: 2620: 2616: 2613: 2609: 2606: 2602: 2599: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2587: 2584: 2581: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2572: 2564: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2546: 2542: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2498: 2494: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2482: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2420:Royal Society 2416: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2383: 2381: 2376: 2372: 2362: 2360: 2349: 2347: 2337: 2335: 2331: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2310: 2308: 2303: 2299: 2296: 2292: 2282: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2261:, created by 2260: 2256: 2249: 2245: 2231: 2229: 2225: 2224:opening books 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2202: 2198: 2197:chess engines 2193: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2162: 2152: 2149: 2145: 2142: 2132: 2129: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2114: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2072: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2045: 2041: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2026: 2025:Walter Browne 2021: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2006: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1987:chess endgame 1983: 1978: 1968: 1964: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1881: 1878: 1872: 1862: 1860: 1856: 1851: 1842: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1820: 1816: 1811: 1807: 1800: 1797: 1793: 1792: 1791: 1787: 1784: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1768: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1755: 1751: 1741: 1737: 1735: 1730: 1726: 1716: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1688: 1683: 1673: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1658: 1656: 1651: 1648: 1642: 1638: 1628: 1626: 1622: 1612: 1610: 1609:huffman coded 1606: 1602: 1598: 1592: 1582: 1580: 1575: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1564: 1559: 1555: 1550: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1522: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1503: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1452: 1448: 1439: 1435: 1432: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1387: 1385: 1384: 1383: 1380: 1375: 1365: 1363: 1359: 1358:Andrew Soltis 1354: 1351: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1316:Chess engines 1313: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1296: 1293: 1291: 1287: 1281: 1279: 1278:Michael Adams 1275: 1271: 1266: 1264: 1259: 1257: 1252: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1218: 1215: 1214:Fischer delay 1211: 1207: 1203: 1189: 1186: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1171: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1162: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1150: 1147: 1146: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1134: 1131: 1130: 1126: 1123: 1122: 1118: 1115: 1114: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1102: 992: 991: 988: 985: 982: 979: 976: 973: 970: 967: 964: 962: 961: 956: 951: 949: 948: 942: 940: 936: 932: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 912:Michael Valvo 909: 905: 900: 898: 894: 890: 889: 884: 880: 879:New Scientist 874: 871: 867: 866: 865:New Scientist 861: 860: 853: 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 826: 823: 819: 815: 814:Senior Master 811: 808: 804: 800: 795: 791: 785: 775: 773: 768: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 730:Josh Waitzkin 727: 722: 720: 715: 713: 709: 705: 698: 694: 689: 685: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 640: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 605:chess engines 601: 599: 595: 591: 585: 583: 574: 569: 560: 558: 554: 549: 547: 543: 542:solving chess 539: 535: 534:Monty Newborn 531: 527: 523: 522:chess engines 519: 514: 511: 507: 502: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 453: 448: 446: 441: 439: 434: 433: 431: 430: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 274: 271: 270:Chess engines 266: 265: 258: 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 209: 206: 201: 200: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 169: 165: 161: 156: 155: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 102: 98: 95: 94: 91: 86: 85: 78: 75: 73: 70: 69: 66: 61: 60: 56: 52: 51: 48: 45: 44: 40: 39: 32: 26: 22: 8466:Chess engine 8451:Chess boxing 8411: 8181:Wrong bishop 8033:theory table 8007:Torre Attack 7990:Slav Defence 7898:Colle System 7873:Scheveningen 7832:Pirc Defence 7775:Italian Game 7770:Giuoco Piano 7715:Réti Opening 7638:Piece values 7626:Maróczy Bind 7587:the exchange 7577:Compensation 7507:Interference 7497:Double check 7271:Time control 7258: 7232:by agreement 7160:grandmasters 7104:South Africa 7054: 7047: 7023:Score sheets 6969:Chess pieces 6876:Online chess 6833: 6822:Chess titles 6817:Chess theory 6563:, retrieved 6550: 6540: 6532: 6525: 6518:Ars Technica 6516: 6504: 6488: 6450:, retrieved 6443:the original 6438: 6406: 6387:, Springer, 6384: 6375: 6357: 6332: 6315:CC BY-SA 3.0 6303: 6302: 6291:. Retrieved 6277: 6268: 6259: 6250: 6241: 6230:. Retrieved 6216: 6205:. Retrieved 6191: 6180:. Retrieved 6166: 6154:. Retrieved 6150:the original 6145: 6136: 6128:the original 6118: 6107:. Retrieved 6093: 6082:. Retrieved 6068: 6057:. Retrieved 6053:the original 6043: 6031:. Retrieved 6027:the original 6022: 6013: 6005:the original 5995: 5970:. Retrieved 5956: 5945:. Retrieved 5931: 5920:. Retrieved 5916:the original 5906: 5890: 5886: 5880: 5875:for details. 5869:Victor Allis 5856:, retrieved 5849:the original 5844: 5840: 5823: 5812:. Retrieved 5802: 5791:. Retrieved 5787:the original 5777: 5766:. Retrieved 5764:. Rebel13.nl 5756: 5745:. Retrieved 5743:. Rebel13.nl 5735: 5726: 5723:ICCA Journal 5722: 5712: 5702:25 September 5700:. Retrieved 5690: 5678: 5666: 5658: 5646:. Retrieved 5642: 5632: 5624:the original 5619: 5610: 5596: 5585: 5576: 5567: 5558: 5544: 5532:. Retrieved 5527: 5518: 5504: 5487: 5478: 5475:ICGA Journal 5474: 5461: 5450: 5424:. Retrieved 5414: 5403: 5390: 5369: 5359: 5348: 5306:. Retrieved 5302: 5292: 5281: 5268: 5250: 5199: 5195: 5188: 5166: 5158:1509.01549v1 5148: 5142: 5133: 5127: 5116:, retrieved 5107: 5100: 5087: 5074: 5039:. Retrieved 5035:the original 5025: 5015:December 12, 5013:. Retrieved 5003: 4993:December 12, 4991:. Retrieved 4981: 4970:, retrieved 4965: 4959: 4948:, retrieved 4938: 4932: 4921:, retrieved 4915: 4909: 4898:, retrieved 4894:the original 4884: 4878: 4867:. Retrieved 4863: 4854: 4843:. Retrieved 4839: 4830: 4819:. Retrieved 4814: 4805: 4785: 4773: 4761: 4750:. Retrieved 4740: 4729:. Retrieved 4718: 4711:Shannon 1950 4705: 4693:. Retrieved 4688: 4678: 4666:. Retrieved 4661: 4637:. Retrieved 4627: 4615: 4604:. Retrieved 4600:the original 4572: 4560: 4548:. Retrieved 4543: 4534: 4522: 4511:. Retrieved 4501: 4490:. Retrieved 4480: 4468:. Retrieved 4463: 4453: 4441:. Retrieved 4436: 4426: 4414:. Retrieved 4412:. p. 84 4409: 4382:. Retrieved 4377: 4342:. Retrieved 4330: 4326: 4313: 4302: 4288: 4276: 4268:the original 4263: 4254: 4242: 4209: 4205: 4195: 4186: 4176: 4152: 4142: 4080: 4069: 4057:New In Chess 4051: 4040: 4013: 4001: 3969: 3966:Chess engine 3955: 3945: 3936: 3920: 3866:Robert Hyatt 3843: 3822: 3768: 3765:DOS programs 3748: 3686:ChessMachine 3669: 3665:Raspberry Pi 3566:Deep Thought 3535: 3458:Pocket Fritz 3323:Ken Thompson 3318: 3303:ChessMachine 3292:ChessMachine 3247:Deep Thought 3239:Carl Ebeling 3197: 3176: 3164:established. 3065:Ken Thompson 3060:in New York. 3033:makes a 500 2957:invents the 2927: 2533: 2417: 2389: 2380:Susan Polgar 2368: 2355: 2343: 2316: 2302:Soviet Union 2288: 2252: 2205: 2194: 2164: 2150: 2146: 2141:opening book 2138: 2135:Opening book 2130: 2115: 2096: 2077: 2073: 2046: 2042: 2022: 2007: 2003:Ken Thompson 1984: 1980: 1965: 1934: 1882: 1874: 1852: 1848: 1824: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1788: 1780: 1769: 1758: 1747: 1738: 1722: 1689: 1685: 1666:passed pawns 1659: 1652: 1644: 1618: 1594: 1576: 1572:chess engine 1561: 1553: 1551: 1530: 1528: 1504: 1489: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1443: 1371: 1355: 1348: 1344:Buenos Aires 1340:HTC Touch HD 1336:Pocket Fritz 1324:mobile phone 1314: 1297: 1294: 1282: 1267: 1260: 1253: 1234: 1219: 1199: 945: 943: 920:Deep Thought 916:Ken Thompson 902:At the 1982 901: 896: 893:Robert Byrne 886: 882: 878: 875: 869: 863: 857: 854: 827: 818:Eliot Hearst 787: 769: 723: 716: 701: 650:chess engine 646: 602: 586: 578: 550: 515: 503: 483:smart phones 462: 461: 237:Deep Thought 217:ChessMachine 142:Texel tuning 101:Transformers 46: 25:Online chess 8396:Chess books 8196:Tournaments 8055:Fool's mate 7820:Vienna Game 7810:Scotch Game 7643:Prophylaxis 7559:Zwischenzug 7544:Undermining 7512:Overloading 7472:Combination 7321:descriptive 7016:Chess table 7011:Chess clock 6827:Grandmaster 6354:Levy, David 5858:30 December 5648:19 February 5308:12 December 5118:12 December 5114:, MIT Press 5041:February 3, 4815:lichess.org 4748:. Xs4all.nl 4466:. p. 6 4443:8 September 4344:10 February 4212:(1): 5–30. 4118:Computer Go 4065:Windows 3.x 3997:ChessGenius 3904:Alan Turing 3879:Danny Kopec 3813:Socrates II 3697:Chessmaster 3408:Deep Junior 3393:Deep Junior 3330:Bent Larsen 3290:1991 – The 3271:Bent Larsen 3255:Mikhail Tal 3199:Chessmaster 3196:) released 3183:ChessGenius 3016:Mac Hack VI 2993:defeats an 2552:Alan Turing 2534:Cybernetics 2519:Konrad Zuse 2080:compression 2036::144–48), ( 1827:Rémi Coulom 1761:brute force 1750:first paper 1690:DeepMind's 1668:on seventh 1436:(PARADISE, 1320:grandmaster 838:Paul Masson 755:released a 726:Chessmaster 528:. By 2006, 292:CuckooChess 282:Chess Tiger 8560:Categories 8503:joke chess 8456:Chess club 8144:opposition 7606:Middlegame 7594:Initiative 7517:Pawn storm 7482:Deflection 7353:Key square 7343:Fianchetto 7276:Fast chess 7260:En passant 6952:chessboard 6761:David Levy 6621:Tim Krabbé 6403:Nunn, John 6293:2007-12-14 6232:2006-12-05 6207:2002-10-08 6182:2019-07-08 6156:11 January 6109:2008-02-18 6084:2007-06-13 6059:2006-04-08 6033:11 January 5972:2004-08-31 5947:2019-07-08 5922:2019-07-08 5814:2010-04-03 5793:2018-12-02 5768:2022-08-31 5747:2022-08-31 5534:18 October 5426:1 December 5209:1911.08265 5179:1712.01815 4950:20 October 4900:21 October 4885:CEGT 40/20 4869:2023-10-12 4845:2023-10-12 4821:2023-10-02 4752:2010-04-03 4731:2010-04-03 4695:17 October 4606:2010-04-03 4513:2010-04-03 4492:2010-04-03 4488:. Rebel.nl 4416:17 October 4384:22 January 4169:References 3890:Professor 3870:Cray Blitz 3868:developed 3864:Professor 3755:Windows 10 3577:1996, 1997 3515:season 15. 3451:Deep Fritz 3386:Deep Fritz 3366:, 3.5-2.5. 3311:mainframes 3251:Tony Miles 3169:Cray Blitz 3150:David Levy 3135:David Levy 3103:Microchess 3076:David Levy 3031:David Levy 2959:alpha–beta 2936:computer. 2523:Plankalkül 2228:tablebases 2159:See also: 1579:tablebases 1395:alpha-beta 1379:Drosophila 1301:Elo rating 1249:middlegame 674:Elo rating 553:Drosophila 362:MChess Pro 297:Deep Fritz 227:Cray Blitz 8486:Stockfish 8476:Deep Blue 8471:AlphaZero 8379:paintings 8171:Tablebase 8135:Strategy 8045:Irregular 7800:Ruy Lopez 7760:Open Game 7527:Sacrifice 7487:Desperado 7390:connected 7363:Open file 7358:King walk 7316:algebraic 7247:Stalemate 7222:Checkmate 6947:Chess set 6939:Equipment 5242:208158225 4639:26 August 4083:Chess.com 4076:Chessbase 4061:Chessbase 4053:Chessbase 4047:Chessbase 4043:Chess.com 4036:Playchess 4032:Chessbase 4028:Chess.com 3993:Chessbase 3985:GNU Chess 3951:Minichess 3861:(1986–97) 3859:Deep Blue 3733:StrongARM 3661:Stockfish 3587:AlphaZero 3575:Deep Blue 3520:Stockfish 3509:Stockfish 3487:Stockfish 3483:AlphaZero 3438:wins the 3397:X3D Fritz 3349:Deep Blue 3317:releases 3315:John Nunn 3216:GNU Chess 3212:Chessbase 3154:Chess 4.8 3139:Chess 4.7 3101:releases 2950:computer. 2556:Turochamp 2465:Stockfish 2449:libraries 2428:AlphaZero 2400:AlphaZero 2369:In 2016, 2359:Deep Blue 2265:inventor 2263:Hungarian 2255:automaton 2218:by using 2190:Fat Fritz 2178:Stockfish 2118:Stockfish 2038:Nunn 2002 1841:in 2018. 1835:AlphaZero 1825:In 2006, 1794:Employ a 1734:pondering 1692:AlphaZero 1621:game tree 1605:bitboards 1322:level. 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