102:, which involves the direct translation of sentence after sentence as a way to learn the language. Those methods assumed that students aimed to master the target language and were willing to study for years before expecting to use the language in real life. However, those assumptions were challenged by adult learners, who were busy with work, and by schoolchildren who were less academically gifted and so could not devote years to learning before they could use the language. Educators realized that to motivate those students an approach with a more immediate reward was necessary, and they began to use CLT, an approach that emphasizes communicative ability and yielded better results.
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agreement, students may be seen to be in possession of "communicative competence" without being able to make full or even adequate use of the language. That individuals are proficient in a language does not necessarily entail that they can make full use of that language, which can limit an individual's potential with that language, especially if that language is an endangered language. That criticism largely has to do with the fact that CLT is often highly praised and is popular though it may not necessarily be the best method of language teaching.
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new language syllabus. Education was a high priority for the
Council of Europe, which set out to provide a syllabus that would meet the needs of European immigrants. Among the studies that it used in designing the course was one by a British linguist, D. A. Wilkins, that defined language using "notions" and "functions," rather than more traditional categories of grammar and vocabulary. The new syllabus reinforced the idea that language could not be adequately explained by grammar and syntax but instead relied on real interaction.
87:, led to migration in Europe and an increased number of people who needed to learn a foreign language for work or personal reasons. Meanwhile, more children were given the opportunity to learn foreign languages in school, as the number of secondary schools offering languages rose worldwide as part of a general trend of curriculum-broadening and modernization, with foreign-language study no longer confined to the elite academies. In Britain, the introduction of
157:, a method that was much more clinical in nature and relied less on direct communication. In Britain, applied linguists began to doubt the efficacy of situational language teaching, partly in response to Chomsky's insights into the nature of language. Chomsky had shown that the structural theories of language then prevalent could not explain the variety that is found in real communication. In addition, applied linguists like Christopher Candlin and
173:, which redefined what it meant to "know" a language. In addition to speakers having mastery over the structural elements of language, they must also be able to use those structural elements appropriately in a variety of speech domains. That can be neatly summed up by Hymes's statement: "There are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless." The idea of communicative competence stemmed from Chomsky's concept of the
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makes broad claims regarding the usefulness of CLT while citing little data, it uses a large amount of confusing vocabulary, and it assumes knowledge that is predominately not language-specific (such as the ability to make educated guesses) to be language-specific. Swan suggests that those theoretical issues lead to confusion in the application of CLT techniques.
135:'s syntactic concept of competence. Also, in 1966, American psychologist Jerome Bruner wrote that learners construct their own understanding of the world based on their experiences and prior knowledge, and teachers should provide scaffolding to promote this. Bruner appears to have been influenced by
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Ridge also notes that CLT has nonspecific requirements of its teachers, as there is no completely standard definition of what CLT is, which is especially true for the teaching of grammar, the formal rules governing the standardized version of the language in question. Some critics of CLT suggest that
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In doing this activity, students have the opportunity to speak with a number of classmates, while still being in a low-pressure situation, and talking to only one person at a time. After learning more about each other, and getting to share about themselves, students will feel more comfortable talking
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This is an activity that should be used primarily in the lower levels of language classes, because it will be most beneficial to lower-level speakers. Higher-level speakers should be having unpredictable conversations in the TL, where neither the questions nor the answers are scripted or expected. If
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of an ideal native speaker. Hymes did not make a concrete formulation of communicative competence, but subsequent authors, notably
Michael Canale, have tied the concept to language teaching. Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of three components: grammatical competence,
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calling for a holistic approach to learners teaching through meaningful material. American educator
Clifford Prator published a paper in 1965 calling for teachers to turn from an emphasis on manipulation (drills) towards communication where learners were free to choose their own words. In 1966, the
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Stephen Bax's critique of CLT has to do with the context of its implementation. Bax asserts that many researchers associate the use of CLT techniques with modernity and so the lack of CLT techniques as a lack of modernism. That way, those researchers consider teachers or school systems that fail to
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Students can feel overwhelmed in language classes, but this activity can take away from that feeling. Students are asked to focus on one piece of information only, which increases their comprehension of that information. Better comprehension leads to better communication with the rest of the group,
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Since this activity is not as structured as some of the others, it is important for instructors to add structure. If certain vocabulary should be used in students' conversations, or a certain grammar is necessary to complete the activity, then instructors should incorporate that into the scavenger
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CLT teachers choose classroom activities based on what they believe will be most effective for students developing communicative abilities in the target language (TL). Oral activities are popular among CLT teachers compared to grammar drills or reading and writing activities, because they include
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in creating new language syllabi. When communicative language teaching had effectively replaced situational language teaching as the standard by leading linguists, the
Council of Europe made an effort to once again bolster the growth of the new method, which led to the Council of Europe creating a
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Learners in environments using communication to learn and practice the target language by interactions with one another and the instructor, the study of "authentic texts" (those written in the target language for purposes other than language learning), and the use of the language both in class and
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addresses both the theoretical and practical problems with CLT. He mentions that CLT is not an altogether cohesive subject but one in which theoretical understandings (by linguists) and practical understandings (by language teachers) differ greatly. Criticism of the theory of CLT includes that it
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Instructors need to be aware of the differences between a conversation and an utterance. Students may use the same utterances repeatedly when doing this activity and not actually have a creative conversation. If instructors do not regulate what kinds of conversations students are having, then the
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Learners converse about personal experiences with partners, and instructors teach topics outside of the realm of traditional grammar to promote language skills in all types of situations. That method also claims to encourage learners to incorporate their personal experiences into their language
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Further critique of CLT techniques in classroom teaching can be attributed to Elaine Ridge. One of her criticisms of CLT is that it falsely implies that there is a general consensus regarding the definition of "communicative competence," which CLT claims to facilitate. Because there is no such
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Where confusion in the application of CLT techniques is readily apparent is in classroom settings. Swan suggests that CLT techniques often suggest prioritizing the "function" of a language (what one can do with the language knowledge one has) over the "structure" of a language (the grammatical
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movement. It proposed that published materials stifle the communicative approach. As such, the aim of the Dogme approach to language teaching is to focus on real conversations about practical subjects in which communication is the engine of learning. The idea behind the Dogme approach is that
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Instructors should not overlook the fact that their students need to be prepared to communicate effectively for this activity. They need to know certain vocabulary words, certain structures of grammar, etc. If the students have not been well prepared for the task at hand, then they will not
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systems of the language). That priority can leave learners with serious gaps in their knowledge of the formal aspects of their target language. Swan also suggests that in CLT techniques, the languages that a student might already know are not valued or employed in instructional techniques.
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Completing information gap activities improves students' abilities to communicate about unknown information in the TL. These abilities are directly applicable to many real-world conversations, where the goal is to find out some new piece of information, or simply to exchange information.
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active conversation and creative, unpredicted responses from students. Activities vary based on the level of language class they are used in. They promote collaboration, fluency, and comfort in the TL. The six activities listed and explained below are commonly used in CLT classrooms.
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use CLT techniques as outdated and suggest that their students learn the target language "in spite of" the absence of CLT techniques, as if CLT were the only way to learn a language, and everyone who fails to implement its techniques is ignorant and cannot teach the target language.
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This activity, since it is highly structured, allows for the instructor to more closely monitor students' responses. It can zone in on one specific aspect of grammar or vocabulary, while still being a primarily communicative activity and giving the students communicative benefits.
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CLT also positions the teacher as a facilitator, rather than an instructor. Furthermore, the approach is a non-methodical system that does not use a textbook series to teach the target language but works on developing sound oral and verbal skills prior to reading and writing.
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A survey of communicative competence by
Bachman (1990) divides competency into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and
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All the students that are
Partner B are given a sheet of paper with a time-table on it. The boxes that are empty on Partner A's time-table are filled in on Partner B's. There are also empty boxes on Partner B's time-table, but they are filled in on Partner
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Respect is key with this activity. If a student does not feel like their opinion is respected by the instructor or their peers, then they will not feel comfortable sharing, and they will not receive the communicative benefits of this activity.
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Instructors should be sure to monitor that each student is contributing equally to the group effort. It takes a good instructor to design the activity well, so that students will contribute equally, and benefit equally from the activity.
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The rise of CLT in the 1970s and the early 1980s was partly in response to the lack of success with traditional language teaching methods and partly by the increase in demand for language learning. In Europe, the advent of the
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the method does not put enough emphasis on the teaching of grammar and instead allows students to produce utterances, despite being grammatically incorrect, as long as the interlocutor can get some meaning from them.
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communication can lead to explanation, which leads to further learning. That approach is the antithesis of situational language teaching, which emphasizes learning by text and prioritizes grammar over communication.
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observed that the current model of language learning was ineffective in classrooms. They saw a need for students to develop communicative skill and functional competence in addition to mastering language structures.
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This activity gives students the chance to improve their communication skills in the TL in a low-pressure situation. Most students are more comfortable speaking in pairs rather than in front of the entire class.
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The instructor defines the goal of the students' conversation. (E.g., the speaker is asking for directions, the speaker is ordering coffee, the speaker is talking about a movie they recently saw, etc.)
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Opinion sharing is a great way to get more introverted students to open up and share their opinions. If a student has a strong opinion about a certain topic, then they will speak up and share.
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The development of communicative language teaching was bolstered by these academic ideas. Before the growth of communicative language teaching, the primary method of language teaching was
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All the students that are
Partner A are given a sheet of paper with a time-table on it. The time-table is filled in half-way, but some of the boxes are empty.
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Although CLT has been extremely influential in the field of language teaching, it is not universally accepted and has been subject to significant critique.
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was writing about learning by doing, and later that learning should be based on the learner's interests and experiences. In 1963, American psychologist
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Opinion sharing is a content-based activity, whose purpose is to engage students' conversational skills, while talking about something they care about.
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According to CLT, the goal of language education is the ability to communicate in the target language. This is in contrast to previous views in which
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The partners must work together to ask about and supply each other with the information they are both missing, to complete each other's time-tables.
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The instructor introduces a topic and asks students to contemplate their opinions about it. (E.g., dating, school dress codes, global warming)
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is a collaborative activity, whose purpose is for students to effectively obtain information that was previously unknown to them, in the TL.
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Role-play is an oral activity usually done in pairs, whose main goal is to develop students' communicative abilities in a certain setting.
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Prator, Clifford H. "Development of a
Manipulation-Communication Scale. NAFSA Studies and Papers." English Language Series 10 (1965).
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competence, and strategic competence. Canale (1983) refined the model by adding discourse competence, which contains the concepts of
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The instructor gives students a sheet with instructions on it. (e.g. Find someone who has a birthday in the same month as yours.)
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The members of the group discuss the information they have found, with each other and put it all together to complete the task.
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An interview is an oral activity done in pairs, whose main goal is to develop students' interpersonal skills in the TL.
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Canale, M.; Swain, M. (1980). "Theoretical Bases of
Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing".
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Canale, M.; Swain, M. (1980). "Theoretical Bases of
Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing".
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Each member of the group takes a designated amount of time to work on the part of the task to which they are assigned.
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Group work is a collaborative activity whose purpose is to foster communication in the TL, in a larger group setting.
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214:" competence. Strategic competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication strategies.
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Communicative competence : theory and classroom practice : texts and contexts in second language learning
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learning environment and to focus on the learning experience, in addition to the learning of the target language.
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The instructor sets the scene: where is the conversation taking place? (E.g., in a café, in a park, etc.)
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Communicative competence: theory and classroom practice: texts and contexts in second language learning
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Mitchell, Rosamond (1994). "The communicative approach to language teaching". In Swarbick, Ann (ed.).
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The increased demand included many learners who struggled with traditional methods such as
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The class is paired up. One partner in each pair is Partner A, and the other is Partner B.
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A scavenger hunt is a mingling activity that promotes open interaction between students.
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Savignon, Sandra J. (2000). "Communicative language teaching". In Byram, Michael (ed.).
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Students go around the classroom asking and answering questions about each other.
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749:(3nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–24, 84–85.
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Nunan, David (1991-01-01). "Communicative Tasks and the Language Curriculum".
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The instructor gives each student the same set of questions to ask a partner.
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Savignon, Sandra J. (1 September 1987). "Communicative language teaching".
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Bax, S. (2003). "The end of CLT: A context approach to language teaching".
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Swan, M. (1985). "A critical look at the Communicative Approach (2)".
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Swan, M. (1985). "A critical look at the Communicative Approach (1)".
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Communicative Language Teaching in Action: Putting Principles to Work
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students might not be truly improving their communication skills.
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Students take turns asking and answering the questions in pairs.
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The students converse in pairs for a designated amount of time.
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studied how language functions are expressed through grammar.
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which improves students' communicative abilities in the TL.
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The instructor gives each group the same task to complete.
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Students are assigned a group of no more than six people.
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Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning
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Already in the late 19th century, the American educator
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List of countries where English is an official language
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Most commonly learned foreign languages in the U.S.
996:"Communicative language teaching: Time for review?"
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830:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 84–92.
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1497:
1492:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1341:
1339:
1338:
1336:Whole language
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1222:
1220:
1214:
1213:
1206:
1205:
1198:
1191:
1183:
1176:
1175:
1166:
1157:
1151:
1138:
1110:(2): 279–295.
1099:
1093:
1077:
1068:
1065:
1048:
1042:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1019:
983:
951:
921:
914:
885:
878:
843:
836:
815:
804:(4): 235–242.
788:
762:
755:
730:
717:
708:
699:
690:
681:
668:
661:
630:
619:(3): 278–287.
600:
571:
548:
519:(2): 279–295.
502:
501:
499:
496:
495:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
468:
463:
458:
453:
446:
443:
414:
411:
402:
401:
398:
395:
384:
383:Scavenger hunt
381:
373:
372:
369:
358:
355:
346:
345:
342:
338:
335:
321:
318:
309:
308:
305:
302:
299:
296:
285:
282:
273:
272:
269:
258:
255:
246:
245:
242:
239:
228:
225:
219:
216:
123:sociolinguist
107:
104:
85:European Union
75:
72:
70:
67:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1610:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1425:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1403:Interlanguage
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1362:Back-chaining
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1311:Suggestopedia
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1261:Direct Method
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1199:
1197:
1192:
1190:
1185:
1184:
1181:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1154:
1148:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1096:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1029:
1014:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
990:
988:
979:
975:
971:
967:
960:
958:
956:
947:
943:
939:
935:
928:
926:
917:
911:
907:
900:
898:
896:
894:
892:
890:
881:
875:
871:
864:
862:
860:
858:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
839:
833:
829:
822:
820:
811:
807:
803:
799:
792:
784:
780:
776:
769:
767:
758:
752:
748:
741:
739:
737:
735:
727:
721:
712:
703:
694:
685:
678:
672:
664:
658:
654:
647:
645:
643:
641:
639:
637:
635:
626:
622:
618:
614:
607:
605:
596:
590:
582:
578:
574:
568:
564:
557:
555:
553:
544:
540:
536:
532:
527:
522:
518:
514:
507:
503:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
448:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
423:
418:
410:
406:
399:
396:
393:
392:
391:
388:
380:
376:
370:
367:
366:
365:
362:
354:
350:
343:
339:
336:
333:
332:
331:
328:
326:
317:
313:
306:
303:
300:
297:
294:
293:
292:
289:
281:
277:
270:
267:
266:
265:
262:
254:
250:
243:
240:
237:
236:
235:
232:
224:
215:
213:
212:illocutionary
207:
204:
199:
196:
191:
189:
185:
181:
176:
172:
168:
163:
160:
156:
151:
149:
144:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
121:
117:
116:David Ausubel
113:
103:
101:
96:
94:
90:
86:
82:
66:
62:
60:
55:
51:
47:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
1381:Key concepts
1276:Focal Skills
1235:
1170:
1161:
1142:
1107:
1103:
1084:
1072:
1052:
1033:
1003:
999:
972:(2): 76–87.
969:
965:
937:
933:
905:
869:
827:
801:
797:
791:
774:
746:
725:
720:
711:
702:
693:
684:
676:
671:
652:
616:
612:
562:
516:
512:
506:
439:
435:
431:
427:
422:Michael Swan
419:
416:
407:
403:
389:
386:
377:
374:
363:
360:
351:
347:
329:
323:
314:
310:
290:
287:
278:
274:
263:
260:
251:
247:
233:
230:
221:
208:
200:
192:
164:
152:
145:
137:Lev Vygotsky
133:Noam Chomsky
119:
109:
97:
77:
63:
56:
52:
48:
31:
27:
23:
19:
18:
1531:Jim Cummins
1218:Methodology
966:ELT Journal
934:ELT Journal
613:ELT Journal
44:interaction
1555:Statistics
1526:Pit Corder
1516:Betty Azar
1509:Key people
1427:Assessment
1367:Dictogloss
1306:Silent way
498:References
284:Group work
257:Interviews
167:Dell Hymes
125:Dell Hymes
112:John Dewey
69:Background
26:), or the
1536:Rod Ellis
1112:CiteSeerX
589:cite book
581:476481905
521:CiteSeerX
413:Criticism
390:Example:
364:Example:
330:Example:
291:Example:
264:Example:
234:Example:
227:Role-play
188:coherence
34:), is an
1592:Category
1055:: 1–47.
940:: 2–12.
777:: 1–47.
445:See also
184:cohesion
36:approach
1454:DIALANG
1134:3587464
543:3587464
1149:
1132:
1114:
1091:
1040:
912:
876:
834:
753:
659:
579:
569:
541:
523:
409:hunt.
1500:TESOL
1474:UCLES
1469:TOEIC
1464:TOEFL
1459:IELTS
1130:JSTOR
539:JSTOR
473:(LdL)
1147:ISBN
1089:ISBN
1038:ISBN
910:ISBN
874:ISBN
832:ISBN
751:ISBN
657:ISBN
595:link
577:OCLC
567:ISBN
341:A's.
186:and
1122:doi
1057:doi
1008:doi
974:doi
942:doi
806:doi
779:doi
621:doi
531:doi
38:to
24:CLT
1594::
1128:.
1120:.
1108:25
1106:.
1006:.
1004:21
1002:.
998:.
986:^
970:39
968:.
954:^
938:39
936:.
924:^
888:^
846:^
818:^
802:26
800:.
765:^
733:^
633:^
617:57
615:.
603:^
591:}}
587:{{
575:.
551:^
537:.
529:.
517:25
515:.
190:.
32:CA
1202:e
1195:t
1188:v
1155:.
1136:.
1124::
1097:.
1063:.
1059::
1046:.
1016:.
1010::
980:.
976::
948:.
944::
918:.
882:.
840:.
812:.
808::
785:.
781::
759:.
665:.
627:.
623::
597:)
583:.
545:.
533::
210:"
30:(
22:(
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