695:
for the advantage of some other species cannot be explained by the theory of natural selection. But the conspicuous animal is greatly benefited by its
Warning Colours. If it resembled its surroundings like the members of the other class, it would be liable to a great deal of accidental or experimental tasting, and there would be nothing about it to impress the memory of an enemy, and thus to prevent the continual destruction of individuals. The object of Warning Colours is to assist the education of enemies, enabling them to easily learn and remember the animals which are to be avoided. The great advantage conferred upon the conspicuous species is obvious when it is remembered that such an easy and successful education means an education involving only a small sacrifice of life."
660:
496:
407:" in his chapter on coincident disruptive coloration, that "it is only when the pattern is considered in relation to the frog's normal attitude of rest that its remarkable nature becomes apparent... The attitude and very striking colour-scheme thus combine to produce an extraordinary effect, whose deceptive appearance depends upon the breaking up of the entire form into two strongly contrasted areas of brown and white. Considered separately, neither part resembles part of a frog. Together in nature the white configuration alone is conspicuous. This stands out and distracts the observer's attention from the true form and contour of the body and appendages on which it is superimposed".
1709:
487:
350:
282:
415:
593:
22:
2816:
2657:
146:. They described forms of mimicry that now carry their names, based on their observations of tropical butterflies. These highly specific patterns of coloration are readily explained by natural selection, since predators such as birds which hunt by sight will more often catch and kill insects that are less good mimics of distasteful models than those that are better mimics, but the patterns are otherwise hard to explain.
49:
244:; and so Darwinian field naturalists like Wallace, Bates and MĂĽller looked for clear evidence that natural selection actually occurred. Animal coloration, readily observable, soon provided strong and independent lines of evidence, from camouflage, mimicry and aposematism, that natural selection was indeed at work. The historian of science
694:
At first sight the existence of this group seems to be a difficulty in the way of the general applicability of the theory of natural selection. Warning
Colours appear to benefit the would-be enemies rather than the conspicuous forms themselves, and the origin and growth of a character intended solely
410:
Cott concluded that the effect was concealment "so long as the false configuration is recognized in preference to the real one". Such patterns embody, as Cott stressed, considerable precision as the markings must line up accurately for the disguise to work. Cott's description and in particular his
728:
In the case of prey animals like the Arctic hare, this is concealment from predators, reducing the chance of being seen and eaten, directly affecting survival. In the case of predators like the Arctic fox, camouflage provides concealment from prey, increasing the change of a successful hunt, and
628:
notes that this discovery "rather illogically" followed rather than preceded the accounts of
Batesian and MĂĽllerian mimicry, which both rely on the existence and effectiveness of warning coloration. The conspicuous colours and patterns of animals with strong defences such as toxins are
411:
drawings convinced biologists that the markings, and hence the camouflage, must have survival value (rather than occurring by chance); and further, as
Cuthill and Székely indicate, that the bodies of animals that have such patterns must indeed have been shaped by natural selection.
319:
change their colour seasonally, and gave "the obvious explanation", that it was for concealment. The modern ornithologist W. L. N. Tickell, reviewing proposed explanations of white plumage in birds, writes that in the ptarmigan "it is difficult to escape the conclusion that
699:
Poulton summed up his allegiance to
Darwinism as an explanation of Batesian mimicry in one sentence: "Every step in the gradually increasing change of the mimicking in the direction of specially protected form, would have been an advantage in the struggle for existence".
1539:
707:
commented that
Poulton used his book to complain about experimentalists' lack of attention to what field naturalists (like Wallace, Bates, and Poulton) could readily see were adaptive features. Bowler added that "The fact that the adaptive significance of coloration
122:
was published in 1859, arguing from circumstantial evidence that selection by human breeders could produce change, and that since there was clearly a struggle for existence, that natural selection must be taking place. But he lacked an explanation either for
458:, whereas in a clean rural wood with paler trunks, pale moths survived better than dark ones. The implication was that survival was caused by camouflage against suitable backgrounds, where predators hunting by sight (insect-eating birds, such as the
712:(sic) widely challenged indicates just how far anti-Darwinian feeling had developed. Only field naturalists such as Poulton refused to give in, convinced that their observations showed the validity of selection, whatever the theoretical problems."
340:
that become white in winter. Days with snow cover halved between 1997 and 2007, and as few as 20 percent of the weasels had white winter coats. This was shown to be a result of natural selection by predators making use of camouflage mismatch.
466:
carefully repeated the experiment. The results were published posthumously in 2012, vindicating
Kettlewell's work as "the most direct evidence", and "one of the clearest and most easily understood examples of Darwinian evolution in action".
228:. Darwin's theory radically altered popular and scientific opinion about the development of life. However, he lacked evidence and explanations for some critical components of the evolutionary process. He could not explain the source of
560:, Bates realized that unrelated Amazonian butterflies resembled each other when they lived in the same areas, but had different coloration in different locations in the Amazon, something that could only have been caused by adaptation.
324:
brown summer plumage becomes a liability in snow, and white plumage is therefore another cryptic adaptation." All the same, he notes, "in spite of winter plumage, many
Ptarmigan in NE Iceland are killed by
394:
In particular, they argue, "Coincident
Disruptive Coloration" (one of Cott's categories) "made Cott's drawings the most compelling evidence for natural selection enhancing survival through
1983:
86:, at a time when little direct evidence was available. Three major functions of coloration were discovered in the second half of the 19th century, and subsequently used as
645:
of the potential prey, providing a strong selective advantage. The existence of unequivocal warning coloration is therefore clear evidence of natural selection at work.
179:, used all the forms of coloration to argue the case for natural selection. Cott described many kinds of camouflage, and in particular his drawings of coincident
866:
1968:
686:, renamed Wallace's concept of warning colours "aposematic" coloration, as well as supporting Darwin's then unpopular theories of natural selection and
577:, too, in which two or more distasteful species that share one or more predators have come to mimic each other's warning signals, was clearly adaptive;
169:, especially plumage and pelage that changed with the seasons, suggested an obvious explanation as an adaptation for concealment. Poulton's 1890 book,
356:'s drawings of 'coincident disruptive coloration' formed "persuasive arguments" for natural selection. Left: active; right: at rest, marks coinciding.
2134:
462:
used in the experiment) selectively caught and killed the less well-camouflaged moths. The results were intensely controversial, and from 2001
1993:
1808:
1256:
1973:
1958:
544:
who first noted the effect in 1861, "provides numerous excellent examples of natural selection" at work. The evolutionary entomologist
454:. He presented results showing that in a polluted urban wood with dark tree trunks, dark moths survived better than pale ones, causing
729:
again improving survival chances. Thus whether the camouflage is defensive or aggressive, it would be favoured by natural selection.
3003:
2885:
2009:
183:
in frogs convinced other biologists that these deceptive markings were products of natural selection. Kettlewell experimented on
2392:
2201:
1573:
1435:
1189:
1157:
1124:
1002:
962:
916:
285:
Convergent evolution of snow camouflage in Arctic hare, ermine, and ptarmigan provided early evidence for natural selection.
1606:
858:
841:
2332:
1834:
2852:
2398:
690:. Poulton's explanations of coloration are emphatically Darwinian. For example, on aposematic coloration he wrote that
815:
On the Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
659:
2554:
132:
1656:
361:
1883:
2404:
1870:
1181:
950:
819:
379:
349:
2780:
2465:
2350:
2656:
2410:
2344:
2189:
2177:
1919:
1688:
1623:
1116:
1106:
733:
named the two cases "general protective resemblance" and "general aggressive resemblance" respectively.
79:
2273:
2267:
1844:
1683:
1565:
1559:
1511:
954:
944:
237:
1708:
495:
236:
that could pass traits faithfully from one generation to the next. This made his theory vulnerable;
2928:
2709:
1859:
1599:
813:
654:
516:
204:
118:
2902:
2249:
2159:
1802:
451:
441:
184:
2845:
2790:
2678:
2641:
2303:
2219:
1794:
1788:
1678:
1535:
1212:
1208:
772:
763:
730:
682:
677:
669:
664:
630:
601:
171:
154:
2673:
1421:
1147:
994:
983:
2800:
2547:
2416:
2386:
2368:
2165:
1765:
1651:
1353:
1143:
1110:
395:
296:
180:
150:
37:
1149:
Darwinism - An Exposition Of The Theory Of Natural Selection - With Some Of Its Applications
902:
2880:
2861:
2775:
2760:
2754:
2714:
2503:
2225:
1668:
1646:
1541:
The Colours of Animals, their meaning and use, especially considered in the case of insects
1296:
1047:
786:
642:
586:
582:
388:
241:
225:
176:
2631:
1753:
574:
569:
486:
281:
103:
8:
3008:
2953:
2897:
2743:
2589:
2122:
1953:
1948:
1933:
1661:
1592:
1427:
1261:
1178:
The Eclipse of Darwinism: anti-Darwinian evolutionary theories in the decades around 1900
455:
437:
402:
371:
188:
135:
were accordingly considered by biologists, threatening to undermine Darwinian evolution.
87:
1300:
1051:
879:
414:
2998:
2948:
2907:
2892:
2765:
2693:
2683:
2646:
2579:
2509:
2213:
2078:
2019:
1914:
1758:
1480:
1455:
1451:
1397:
1373:"Selective bird predation on the peppered moth: the last experiment of Michael Majerus"
1372:
1317:
1284:
1237:
908:
883:
621:
541:
447:
421:
claimed that changes in the frequencies of light and dark morphs of the peppered moth,
418:
162:
139:
52:
2923:
2838:
2795:
2738:
2665:
2626:
2604:
2237:
2153:
1963:
1829:
1673:
1641:
1569:
1507:
1485:
1431:
1402:
1347:
1322:
1185:
1153:
1120:
1075:
1070:
1035:
998:
958:
922:
912:
831:
823:
751:
638:
592:
229:
213:
124:
83:
75:
25:
138:
Some of the first evidence was provided by Darwin's contemporaries, the naturalists
3013:
2819:
2688:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2599:
2540:
2309:
2243:
1839:
1748:
1698:
1475:
1467:
1392:
1384:
1312:
1304:
1065:
1055:
978:
875:
854:
687:
537:
532:
423:
291:
2514:
2072:
2031:
1978:
1878:
1693:
1555:
1173:
940:
704:
506:
463:
337:
276:
245:
217:
166:
33:
2571:
578:
143:
21:
2943:
2636:
2380:
2291:
2025:
1854:
1849:
1733:
1636:
1308:
990:
809:
581:
described the effect in 1879, in an account notable for being the first use of
333:
316:
199:
113:
64:
29:
1257:"White-furred animals could die out because of climate change, study suggests"
165:, sought evidence that natural selection was taking place. Wallace noted that
2992:
2471:
2195:
2090:
2084:
1909:
1738:
1285:"Climate change is affecting mortality of weasels due to camouflage mismatch"
1102:
926:
835:
383:
provided "persuasive arguments for the survival value of coloration, and for
367:
2933:
2785:
2770:
2519:
2279:
2171:
2102:
2055:
2049:
2037:
1864:
1503:
1489:
1471:
1406:
1388:
1368:
1343:
1326:
1079:
1060:
1031:
743:
625:
545:
1544:. Kegan Paul, Trench & Trübner. pp. 160–161, 220, and whole book.
2977:
2938:
2733:
2719:
2594:
2584:
2231:
2183:
2043:
1899:
1821:
767:
615:
308:
107:
2967:
2830:
2724:
2444:
2261:
2128:
1631:
1615:
1241:
887:
596:
384:
304:
265:
249:
248:
wrote that Darwin's theory "was also extended to the broader topics of
221:
91:
2255:
2096:
553:
459:
374:
353:
326:
209:
158:
68:
900:
641:
that the animal is not worth attacking. This directly increases the
2338:
1904:
634:
233:
128:
99:
56:
41:
2972:
2962:
2728:
2563:
2477:
2449:
2374:
1743:
1728:
747:
549:
511:
476:
321:
253:
95:
827:
256:, and this was its greatest triumph in explaining adaptations".
48:
2356:
2328:
2297:
2285:
2207:
389:
a time when natural selection was far from universally accepted
300:
1283:
Atmeh, Kamal; Andruszkiewicz, Anna; Zub, Karol (24 May 2018).
589:
to show how powerful the effect of natural selection would be.
1584:
1276:
312:
60:
232:
in traits within a species, and did not have a mechanism of
191:; this provided compelling evidence of Darwinian evolution.
2532:
1230:
Waterbirds: The International Journal of Waterbird Biology
332:
More recently, decreasing snow cover in Poland, caused by
2362:
401:
Cott explained, while discussing "a little frog known as
1036:"Mimicry: An interface between psychology and evolution"
985:
Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory
1534:
1366:
1207:
1282:
1142:
1969:
List of countries that prohibit camouflage clothing
344:
16:
Early evidence for Darwinism from animal coloration
982:
1228:Tickell, W. L. N. (March 2003). "White Plumage".
2990:
556:theory not attributable to Darwin." Inspired by
1450:
901:Hall, Brian K.; HallgrĂmsson, Benedikt (2008).
663:Warning coloration of the "Brazilian Skunk" in
1530:
1528:
1101:
2846:
2548:
1600:
1342:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1367:Cook, L. M.; Grant, B. S.; Saccheri, I. J.;
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1014:
189:adapted as pollution changed the environment
1809:Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom
1525:
1338:
1336:
2853:
2839:
2555:
2541:
1974:Middle East Command Camouflage Directorate
1959:Camouflage clothing in Trinidad and Tobago
1607:
1593:
1564:. University of California Press. p.
1203:
1201:
1112:Animal Camouflage: Mechanisms and Function
1086:
842:The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online
427:were direct evidence of natural selection.
370:and A. Székely, the English zoologist and
336:, is reflected in a reduced percentage of
2876:Coloration evidence for natural selection
2749:Coloration evidence for natural selection
2190:Six-Color Desert Pattern (Chocolate Chip)
1479:
1396:
1316:
1138:
1136:
1069:
1059:
1011:
847:
2860:
1413:
1360:
1333:
867:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
853:
658:
620:In 1867, in a letter to Darwin, Wallace
591:
540:, named for the 19th century naturalist
413:
348:
280:
47:
20:
1502:
1254:
1227:
1221:
1198:
770:some years later, in 1890, in his book
648:
366:In the words of camouflage researchers
2991:
1554:
1172:
1133:
1030:
977:
939:
808:
446:Between 1953 and 1956, the geneticist
431:
2834:
2536:
1588:
131:, both essential to the theory. Many
1456:"The coevolution of warning signals"
1419:
2333:Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform
880:10.1146/annurev.es.01.110170.000245
299:considered the white coloration of
59:'s small spikes (left) into modern
13:
2689:Pouyannian (with pseudocopulation)
1460:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
270:
14:
3025:
1724:As evidence for natural selection
1217:. p. Foldout after page 339.
946:Evolution: The History of an Idea
2815:
2814:
2655:
2590:Aristotelian/Distraction display
1835:Lucien-Victor Guirand de Scévola
1707:
1657:Coincident disruptive coloration
1561:Evolution:The History of an Idea
750:'s discussion of the effects of
494:
485:
362:Coincident disruptive coloration
345:Coincident disruptive coloration
3004:History of evolutionary biology
1548:
1496:
1444:
1248:
779:
757:
736:
722:
391:within evolutionary biology."
240:were being explored during the
187:, showing that the species had
2405:Operational Camouflage Pattern
1871:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1614:
1349:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1255:Knapton, Sarah (24 May 2018).
1182:Johns Hopkins University Press
1166:
971:
951:University of California Press
933:
894:
802:
609:
380:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
303:animals. He recorded that the
1:
2781:Frequency-dependent selection
2202:Australian Disruptive Pattern
796:
624:. The evolutionary zoologist
259:
177:during Darwinism's lowest ebb
2466:Diffused lighting camouflage
2351:Universal Camouflage Pattern
1984:USN WWII camouflage measures
622:described warning coloration
563:
212:in nature must be driven by
7:
2562:
2411:Netherlands Fractal Pattern
2345:Tactical Assault Camouflage
2178:Disruptive Pattern Material
1152:. Read Books. p. 180.
840:The book is available from
526:
10:
3030:
1309:10.1038/s41598-018-26057-5
1117:Cambridge University Press
1109:; Merilaita, Sami (eds.).
652:
613:
599:protects poison dart frog
567:
530:
474:
470:
435:
359:
274:
263:
194:
157:, and in the 20th century
2916:
2868:
2809:
2702:
2664:
2653:
2570:
2495:
2458:
2437:
2430:
2319:
2274:Camouflage Central-Europe
2268:Desert Camouflage Pattern
2144:
2115:
2065:
2008:
2001:
1992:
1941:
1932:
1892:
1820:
1781:
1774:
1716:
1705:
1684:Multi-spectral camouflage
1622:
1512:University College London
1423:Encyclopedia of Evolution
1420:Rice, Stanley A. (2009).
703:The historian of biology
552:was "arguably the oldest
94:(protective coloration);
78:provided important early
2929:Anti-predator adaptation
2710:Anti-predator adaptation
1860:Johann Georg Otto Schick
904:Strickberger's Evolution
859:"The Units of Selection"
715:
655:The eclipse of Darwinism
558:On the Origin of Species
517:Pachliopta aristolochiae
329:throughout the winter."
205:On the Origin of Species
119:On the Origin of Species
71:worked in a similar way.
2903:Paradox of the plankton
2250:Desert Night Camouflage
1803:Abbott Handerson Thayer
1536:Poulton, Edward Bagnall
1209:Poulton, Edward Bagnall
754:that influenced Darwin.
583:a mathematical argument
452:peppered moth evolution
442:Peppered moth evolution
250:protective resemblances
185:peppered moth evolution
1795:The Colours of Animals
1789:Edward Bagnall Poulton
1679:Multi-scale camouflage
1472:10.1098/rspb.2001.1944
1389:10.1098/rsbl.2011.1136
1214:The Colours of Animals
1144:Wallace, Alfred Russel
1105:; Székely, A. (2011).
1061:10.1073/pnas.171326298
773:The Colours of Animals
764:Edward Bagnall Poulton
742:If one may ignore, as
731:Edward Bagnall Poulton
697:
683:The Colours of Animals
678:Edward Bagnall Poulton
674:
670:The Colours of Animals
665:Edward Bagnall Poulton
606:
602:Dendrobates leucomelas
428:
404:Megalixalus fornasinii
357:
286:
208:in 1859, arguing that
172:The Colours of Animals
155:Edward Bagnall Poulton
80:evidence for evolution
72:
45:
2869:Patterns of evolution
2801:Underwater camouflage
2580:Aggressive/Wicklerian
2387:Multi-Terrain Pattern
2369:Airman Battle Uniform
2166:Rhodesian Brushstroke
1766:Underwater camouflage
1652:Disruptive coloration
1508:"E.B. Poulton (1890)"
692:
662:
653:Further information:
595:
417:
396:disruptive camouflage
352:
297:Alfred Russel Wallace
284:
181:disruptive coloration
151:Alfred Russel Wallace
51:
38:disruptive coloration
24:
2881:Convergent evolution
2862:Evolutionary ecology
2776:Evolutionary ecology
2761:Deception in animals
2755:Dazzled and Deceived
2715:Animal communication
2504:Dazzled and Deceived
1669:Distractive markings
1647:Counter-illumination
1352:. Methuen. pp.
855:Lewontin, Richard C.
787:eclipse of Darwinism
649:Defence of Darwinism
643:reproductive fitness
587:evolutionary ecology
338:white-coated weasels
242:eclipse of Darwinism
238:alternative theories
226:artificial selection
216:, just as breeds of
133:alternative theories
2954:Distraction display
2898:Divergent evolution
2622:Emsleyan/Mertensian
2393:Australian Multicam
2196:U.S. "M81" Woodland
1954:Aircraft camouflage
1949:Military camouflage
1662:Disruptive eye mask
1428:Infobase Publishing
1301:2018NatSR...8.7648A
1262:The Daily Telegraph
1052:2001PNAS...98.8928M
639:signalling honestly
456:industrial melanism
438:Industrial melanism
432:Industrial melanism
149:Darwinists such as
2949:Deimatic behaviour
2908:Predator satiation
2893:Parallel evolution
2766:Deimatic behaviour
2510:Stealth technology
2020:Splittertarnmuster
1915:Thomas N. Sherratt
1289:Scientific Reports
909:Jones and Bartlett
766:invented the name
675:
607:
597:Warning coloration
542:Henry Walter Bates
448:Bernard Kettlewell
429:
419:Bernard Kettlewell
358:
287:
163:Bernard Kettlewell
140:Henry Walter Bates
73:
53:Selective breeding
46:
2986:
2985:
2924:Signalling theory
2828:
2827:
2796:Signalling theory
2771:Mimicry#Evolution
2744:Community ecology
2739:Animal coloration
2585:Ant/Myrmecomorphy
2530:
2529:
2491:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2426:
2425:
2238:Camouflage Daguet
2111:
2110:
1964:Dazzle camouflage
1928:
1927:
1830:Mary Taylor Brush
1674:Motion camouflage
1642:Active camouflage
1575:978-0-520-23693-6
1466:(1492): 741–746.
1437:978-1-4381-1005-9
1191:978-0-8018-4391-4
1159:978-1-4733-7510-9
1126:978-1-139-49623-0
1103:Cuthill, Innes C.
1046:(16): 8928–8930.
1004:978-0-679-64288-6
979:Larson, Edward J.
964:978-0-520-23693-6
918:978-0-7637-0066-9
857:(November 1970).
752:population growth
575:MĂĽllerian mimicry
570:MĂĽllerian mimicry
372:camouflage expert
295:, the naturalist
289:In his 1889 book
220:and cultivars of
214:natural selection
125:genetic variation
84:natural selection
76:Animal coloration
26:Natural selection
3021:
2855:
2848:
2841:
2832:
2831:
2820:Category mimicry
2818:
2817:
2659:
2557:
2550:
2543:
2534:
2533:
2435:
2434:
2006:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1939:
1938:
1845:Norman Wilkinson
1840:John Graham Kerr
1779:
1778:
1711:
1699:Urban camouflage
1609:
1602:
1595:
1586:
1585:
1580:
1579:
1556:Bowler, Peter J.
1552:
1546:
1545:
1532:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1483:
1448:
1442:
1441:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1400:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1340:
1331:
1330:
1320:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1205:
1196:
1195:
1174:Bowler, Peter J.
1170:
1164:
1163:
1140:
1131:
1130:
1099:
1084:
1083:
1073:
1063:
1028:
1009:
1008:
995:121–123, 152–157
988:
975:
969:
968:
949:(3rd ed.).
941:Bowler, Peter J.
937:
931:
930:
911:. pp. 4–6.
907:(4th ed.).
898:
892:
891:
863:
851:
845:
839:
818:(1st ed.).
806:
790:
783:
777:
761:
755:
740:
734:
726:
688:sexual selection
538:Batesian mimicry
533:Batesian mimicry
514:the unpalatable
498:
489:
450:experimented on
424:Biston betularia
218:domestic animals
3029:
3028:
3024:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3019:
3018:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2982:
2912:
2864:
2859:
2829:
2824:
2805:
2698:
2660:
2651:
2566:
2561:
2531:
2526:
2515:Cloaking device
2483:
2454:
2422:
2321:
2315:
2226:Type 87 (China)
2146:
2140:
2107:
2081:(1917 aircraft)
2073:Camouflage tree
2061:
2032:Rauchtarnmuster
2011:
1988:
1979:Ship camouflage
1924:
1888:
1884:Timothy O'Neill
1879:Geoffrey Barkas
1816:
1770:
1712:
1703:
1694:Snow camouflage
1689:Self-decoration
1618:
1613:
1583:
1576:
1553:
1549:
1533:
1526:
1516:
1514:
1501:
1497:
1452:Sherratt, T. N.
1449:
1445:
1438:
1430:. p. 274.
1418:
1414:
1377:Biology Letters
1365:
1361:
1341:
1334:
1281:
1277:
1267:
1265:
1253:
1249:
1226:
1222:
1206:
1199:
1192:
1171:
1167:
1160:
1141:
1134:
1127:
1107:Stevens, Martin
1100:
1087:
1029:
1012:
1005:
976:
972:
965:
938:
934:
919:
899:
895:
861:
852:
848:
810:Darwin, Charles
807:
803:
799:
794:
793:
784:
780:
762:
758:
741:
737:
727:
723:
718:
705:Peter J. Bowler
657:
651:
618:
612:
572:
566:
535:
529:
524:
523:
522:
521:
507:Papilio polytes
501:
500:
499:
491:
490:
479:
473:
464:Michael Majerus
444:
436:Main articles:
434:
387:in general, at
364:
347:
279:
277:Snow camouflage
273:
271:Snow camouflage
268:
262:
246:Peter J. Bowler
224:were driven by
197:
167:snow camouflage
34:snow camouflage
32:to change from
28:has driven the
17:
12:
11:
5:
3027:
3017:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2958:
2957:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2944:Apparent death
2941:
2936:
2926:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2878:
2872:
2870:
2866:
2865:
2858:
2857:
2850:
2843:
2835:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2706:
2704:
2703:Related topics
2700:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2670:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2654:
2652:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2642:In vertebrates
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2576:
2574:
2568:
2567:
2560:
2559:
2552:
2545:
2537:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2517:
2507:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2481:
2475:
2469:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2452:
2447:
2441:
2439:
2432:
2428:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2421:
2420:
2414:
2408:
2402:
2396:
2390:
2384:
2378:
2372:
2366:
2360:
2354:
2348:
2342:
2336:
2325:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2313:
2307:
2301:
2295:
2292:wz. 93 Pantera
2289:
2283:
2277:
2271:
2265:
2259:
2253:
2247:
2241:
2235:
2229:
2223:
2217:
2211:
2205:
2199:
2193:
2187:
2181:
2175:
2169:
2163:
2157:
2150:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2138:
2132:
2126:
2119:
2117:
2113:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2106:
2105:
2100:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2076:
2069:
2067:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2059:
2053:
2047:
2041:
2035:
2029:
2026:Platanenmuster
2023:
2016:
2014:
2003:
1996:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1945:
1943:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1920:Martin Stevens
1917:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1875:
1874:
1862:
1857:
1855:Leon Underwood
1852:
1850:Everett Warner
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1826:
1824:
1818:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1785:
1783:
1776:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1768:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1741:
1736:
1734:Decorator crab
1731:
1726:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1713:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1637:Countershading
1634:
1628:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1612:
1611:
1604:
1597:
1589:
1582:
1581:
1574:
1547:
1524:
1495:
1443:
1436:
1412:
1383:(4): 609–612.
1359:
1332:
1275:
1247:
1220:
1197:
1190:
1184:. p. 29.
1165:
1158:
1132:
1125:
1119:. p. 50.
1085:
1010:
1003:
991:Modern Library
970:
963:
932:
917:
893:
846:
800:
798:
795:
792:
791:
778:
756:
735:
720:
719:
717:
714:
680:'s 1890 book,
650:
647:
614:Main article:
611:
608:
568:Main article:
565:
562:
531:Main article:
528:
525:
504:The butterfly
503:
502:
493:
492:
484:
483:
482:
481:
480:
475:Main article:
472:
469:
433:
430:
360:Main article:
346:
343:
334:global warming
275:Main article:
272:
269:
264:Main article:
261:
258:
200:Charles Darwin
196:
193:
114:Charles Darwin
90:of selection:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3026:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2915:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2887:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2856:
2851:
2849:
2844:
2842:
2837:
2836:
2833:
2821:
2812:
2811:
2808:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2701:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2658:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2558:
2553:
2551:
2546:
2544:
2539:
2538:
2535:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2472:Yehudi lights
2470:
2467:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2436:
2433:
2429:
2418:
2415:
2412:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2394:
2391:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2330:
2327:
2326:
2324:
2318:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2278:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2143:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2091:Denison smock
2089:
2086:
2085:Telo mimetico
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2039:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2007:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1931:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1910:Innes Cuthill
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1791:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1764:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1746:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1739:Flower mantis
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1610:
1605:
1603:
1598:
1596:
1591:
1590:
1587:
1577:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1562:
1557:
1551:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1531:
1529:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1499:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1447:
1439:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1424:
1416:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1369:Mallet, James
1363:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1344:Cott, Hugh B.
1339:
1337:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1279:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1251:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1216:
1215:
1210:
1204:
1202:
1193:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1169:
1161:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1145:
1139:
1137:
1128:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1034:(July 2001).
1033:
1032:Mallet, James
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1006:
1000:
996:
992:
987:
986:
980:
974:
966:
960:
956:
952:
948:
947:
942:
936:
928:
924:
920:
914:
910:
906:
905:
897:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
868:
860:
856:
850:
843:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
816:
811:
805:
801:
788:
782:
775:
774:
769:
765:
760:
753:
749:
745:
739:
732:
725:
721:
713:
711:
706:
701:
696:
691:
689:
685:
684:
679:
672:
671:
666:
661:
656:
646:
644:
640:
636:
632:
627:
623:
617:
604:
603:
598:
594:
590:
588:
584:
580:
576:
571:
561:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
534:
519:
518:
513:
509:
508:
497:
488:
478:
468:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
443:
439:
426:
425:
420:
416:
412:
408:
406:
405:
399:
397:
392:
390:
386:
382:
381:
377:'s 1940 book
376:
373:
369:
368:Innes Cuthill
363:
355:
351:
342:
339:
335:
330:
328:
323:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
293:
283:
278:
267:
257:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
206:
201:
192:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
173:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
147:
145:
141:
136:
134:
130:
126:
121:
120:
115:
111:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
43:
39:
36:in winter to
35:
31:
27:
23:
19:
2934:Alarm signal
2875:
2791:Polymorphism
2786:Phagomimicry
2753:
2748:
2734:Co-evolution
2520:Invisibility
2502:
2280:Soldier 2000
2160:Tiger stripe
2103:Ghillie suit
2056:Leibermuster
2050:Erbsenmuster
2038:Palmenmuster
1869:
1807:
1793:
1723:
1560:
1550:
1540:
1515:. Retrieved
1498:
1463:
1459:
1446:
1422:
1415:
1380:
1376:
1362:
1348:
1292:
1288:
1278:
1266:. Retrieved
1260:
1250:
1233:
1229:
1223:
1213:
1177:
1168:
1148:
1111:
1043:
1039:
989:. New York:
984:
973:
945:
935:
903:
896:
871:
865:
849:
814:
804:
781:
771:
759:
738:
724:
709:
702:
698:
693:
681:
676:
668:
626:James Mallet
619:
600:
579:Fritz MĂĽller
573:
557:
546:James Mallet
536:
515:
505:
445:
422:
409:
403:
400:
393:
378:
365:
331:
290:
288:
203:
198:
170:
148:
144:Fritz MĂĽller
137:
117:
112:
74:
67:argued that
55:transformed
18:
2978:Unkenreflex
2939:Aposematism
2720:Aposematism
2595:Automimicry
2232:wz. 89 Puma
2184:wz. 68 Moro
2087:(1929 tent)
2044:Sumpfmuster
1900:Roy Behrens
1893:Researchers
1822:Camoufleurs
1517:23 November
1504:Mallet, Jim
1295:(1): 7648.
1236:(1): 1–12.
993:. pp.
953:. pp.
820:John Murray
768:aposematism
616:Aposematism
610:Aposematism
548:noted that
309:Arctic hare
222:crop plants
108:aposematism
3009:Camouflage
2993:Categories
2968:Camouflage
2725:Camouflage
2694:Vavilovian
2684:Gilbertian
2647:Wasmannian
2572:In animals
2459:Prototypes
2445:Berberys-R
2431:Technology
2262:Tropentarn
2129:Strichtarn
2002:Up to WWII
1759:Aggressive
1632:Camouflage
1616:Camouflage
797:References
746:comments,
631:advertised
460:great tits
385:adaptation
327:Gyrfalcons
305:Arctic fox
266:Camouflage
260:Camouflage
202:published
175:, written
92:camouflage
44:in summer.
2999:Evolution
2679:Dodsonian
2666:In plants
2632:MĂĽllerian
2605:Locomotor
2256:Flecktarn
2145:Late 20th
2097:Frog Skin
1865:Hugh Cott
1754:MĂĽllerian
1717:In nature
1558:(2003) .
1146:(2015) .
927:796450355
836:741260650
635:predators
564:MĂĽllerian
554:Darwinian
375:Hugh Cott
354:Hugh Cott
317:ptarmigan
292:Darwinism
230:variation
210:evolution
159:Hugh Cott
104:MĂĽllerian
69:evolution
63:(right).
30:ptarmigan
2886:examples
2674:Bakerian
2617:Chemical
2600:Batesian
2438:Deployed
2417:Xingkong
2339:MultiCam
2331:(2001) (
2116:Post-war
2040:(c 1941)
1994:Patterns
1934:Military
1905:Tim Caro
1749:Batesian
1538:(1890).
1490:11934367
1454:(2002).
1407:22319093
1371:(2012).
1346:(1940).
1327:29795400
1211:(1890).
1176:(1983).
1080:11481461
981:(2004).
943:(2003).
874:: 1–18.
828:06017473
812:(1859).
527:Batesian
520:(right).
234:heredity
129:heredity
100:Batesian
88:evidence
57:teosinte
42:moorland
40:suiting
3014:Mimicry
2973:Mimicry
2963:Crypsis
2917:Signals
2729:Crypsis
2627:Eyespot
2564:Mimicry
2496:Related
2478:Adaptiv
2450:Nakidka
2375:Type 07
2335:(2002))
2322:century
2147:century
2079:Lozenge
1744:Mimicry
1729:Crypsis
1624:Methods
1481:1690947
1398:3391436
1318:5967304
1297:Bibcode
1242:1522461
1048:Bibcode
955:177–223
888:2096764
785:In the
748:Malthus
550:mimicry
510:(left)
477:Mimicry
471:Mimicry
322:cryptic
254:mimicry
195:Context
127:or for
98:, both
96:mimicry
2813:
2637:Sexual
2480:(2011)
2474:(1943)
2468:(1941)
2419:(2019)
2413:(2019)
2407:(2015)
2401:(2015)
2399:HunCam
2395:(2014)
2389:(2010)
2383:(2008)
2377:(2007)
2371:(2007)
2365:(2007)
2359:(2006)
2357:ESTDCU
2353:(2004)
2347:(2004)
2341:(2002)
2329:MARPAT
2312:(1998)
2306:(1998)
2300:(1997)
2298:CADPAT
2294:(1993)
2288:(1993)
2286:TAZ 90
2282:(1993)
2276:(1991)
2270:(1990)
2264:(1990)
2258:(1990)
2252:(1990)
2246:(1990)
2240:(1989)
2234:(1989)
2228:(1987)
2222:(1984)
2216:(1984)
2210:(1983)
2208:TAZ 83
2204:(1982)
2198:(1981)
2192:(1981)
2186:(1969)
2180:(1969)
2174:(1967)
2168:(1965)
2162:(1962)
2156:(1958)
2154:Jigsaw
2137:(1968)
2131:(1960)
2125:(1947)
2123:Lizard
2099:(1942)
2093:(1941)
2075:(1915)
2058:(1945)
2052:(1944)
2046:(1943)
2034:(1939)
2028:(1937)
2022:(1931)
2010:German
1942:Topics
1775:People
1572:
1488:
1478:
1434:
1405:
1395:
1325:
1315:
1268:24 May
1240:
1188:
1156:
1123:
1078:
1068:
1001:
961:
925:
915:
886:
834:
826:
744:Mallet
673:, 1890
512:mimics
313:ermine
301:Arctic
106:; and
65:Darwin
2612:Brood
2310:Flora
2214:Dubok
2066:Other
1782:Early
1238:JSTOR
1071:55348
884:JSTOR
862:(PDF)
716:Notes
61:maize
2320:21st
2172:ERDL
2135:KLMK
2012:WWII
1570:ISBN
1519:2012
1486:PMID
1432:ISBN
1403:PMID
1356:–72.
1323:PMID
1270:2018
1186:ISBN
1154:ISBN
1121:ISBN
1076:PMID
1040:PNAS
999:ISBN
959:ISBN
923:OCLC
913:ISBN
832:OCLC
824:LCCN
440:and
398:."
315:and
252:and
161:and
153:and
142:and
102:and
2381:EMR
2363:M05
2304:M98
2244:M90
2220:M84
1566:250
1476:PMC
1468:doi
1464:269
1393:PMC
1385:doi
1313:PMC
1305:doi
1066:PMC
1056:doi
876:doi
710:was
667:'s
633:to
585:in
116:'s
82:by
2995::
1568:.
1527:^
1510:.
1506:.
1484:.
1474:.
1462:.
1458:.
1426:.
1401:.
1391:.
1379:.
1375:.
1354:68
1335:^
1321:.
1311:.
1303:.
1291:.
1287:.
1259:.
1234:26
1232:.
1200:^
1180:.
1135:^
1115:.
1088:^
1074:.
1064:.
1054:.
1044:98
1042:.
1038:.
1013:^
997:.
957:.
921:.
882:.
870:.
864:.
830:.
822:.
637:,
311:,
307:,
110:.
2854:e
2847:t
2840:v
2727:/
2556:e
2549:t
2542:v
1608:e
1601:t
1594:v
1578:.
1521:.
1492:.
1470::
1440:.
1409:.
1387::
1381:8
1329:.
1307::
1299::
1293:8
1272:.
1244:.
1194:.
1162:.
1129:.
1082:.
1058::
1050::
1007:.
967:.
929:.
890:.
878::
872:1
844:.
838:.
789:.
776:.
605:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.jpg)
