919:
1634:. Citing its deference to freedom to contract principles, the Epic Systems opinion opened the door dramatically to the use of these waivers as a condition of employment, consumer purchases and the like. Some commentators in opposition to the ruling see it as a "death knell" to many employment and consumer class actions, and have increasingly pushed for legislation to circumvent it in hopes of reviving otherwise-underrepresented parties' ability to litigate on a group basis. Supporters (mostly pro-business) of the high court's ruling argue its holding is consistent with private contract principles. Many of those supporters had long-since argued that class action procedures were generally inconsistent with due process mandates and unnecessarily promoted litigation of otherwise small claims—thus heralding the ruling's anti-litigation effect.
2451:. Class action is regulated by art. 140 bis of the Italian consumers' code and has been in force since 1 July 2009. On May 19, 2021, the reform of the Italian legal framework on class actions finally entered into force. The new rules, designed by Law n. 31 and published on April 18, 2019, (Law n. 31/2019), were initially intended to become effective on April 19, 2020, but had been delayed twice. The new rules on class actions are now included in the Italian Civil Procedure Code (ICPC). Overall, the new class action appears to be a viable instrument which, through a system of economic incentives, could overcome the rational apathy of small-claims holders and ensure redress.
1851:" (which usually allow the plaintiffs to receive a small benefit such as a small check or a coupon for future services or products with the defendant company) are a way for a defendant to forestall major liability by precluding many people from litigating their claims separately, to recover reasonable compensation for the damages. However, existing law requires judicial approval of all class-action settlements, and in most cases, class members are given a chance to opt out of class settlement, though class members, despite opt-out notices, may be unaware of their right to opt-out because they did not receive the notice, did not read it or did not understand it.
1497:
2476:
right during the opt-out period set by the Court, usually 3 to 6 months. Settlements involving injured parties from outside The
Netherlands can also be declared binding by the Court. Since US courts are reluctant to take up class actions brought on behalf of injured parties not residing in the US who have suffered damages due to acts or omissions committed outside the US, combinations of US class actions and Dutch collective actions may come to a settlement that covers plaintiffs worldwide. An example of this is the Royal Dutch Shell Oil Reserves Settlement that was declared binding upon both US and non-US plaintiffs.
1949:
interest in the subject matter of a proceeding". The presence and expansion of litigation funders have been playing a significant role in the emergence of class actions in New
Zealand. For example, the "Fair Play on Fees" proceedings in relation to penalty fees charged by banks were funded by Litigation Lending Services (LLS), a company specializing in the funding and management of litigation in Australia and New Zealand. It was the biggest class-action suit in New Zealand history.
809:
1538:
ineffective. Within ten years, the
Supreme Court interpreted Rule 48 in such a way so that it could apply to absent parties under certain circumstances, but only by ignoring the plain meaning of the rule. In the rules published in 1912, Equity Rule 48 was replaced with Equity Rule 38 as part of a major restructuring of the Equity Rules, and when federal courts merged their legal and equitable procedural systems in 1938, Equity Rule 38 became Rule 23 of the
4204:
actions tra efficientismo processuale, aumento di competitività e risparmio di spesa: l’esame di un contenzioso seriale concreto (le S.U. sul rapporto tra indennità di amministrazione e tredicesima), in Corr. Giur. 2006, 535; FAVA P., Indennità di amministrazione e tredicesima: il "no secco" delle
Sezioni Unite. Un caso pratico per valutare le potenzialitĂ delle azioni rappresentative (class actions) nel contenzioso seriale italiano, Rass. Avv. Stato 2005]
1725: – must compensate those individuals for their injuries. For example, thousands of shareholders of a public company may have losses too small to justify separate lawsuits, but a class action can be brought efficiently on behalf of all shareholders. Perhaps even more important than compensation is that class treatment of claims may be the only way to impose the costs of wrongdoing on the wrongdoer, thus deterring future wrongdoing.
890:
countries, class actions are most common where the allegations usually involve at least 40 people who the same defendant has injured in the same way. Instead of each damaged person bringing one's own lawsuit, the class action allows all the claims of all class members—whether they know they have been damaged or not—to be resolved in a single proceeding through the efforts of the representative plaintiff(s) and appointed class counsel.
1973:) have brought claims on behalf of hundreds or even thousands of consumers. In these cases, the individual consumers assigned their claims to one entity, who has then brought an ordinary (two-party) lawsuit over the assigned claims. The monetary benefits were redistributed among the class. This technique, labeled as "class action Austrian style," allows for a significant reduction of overall costs. The
2471:) (section 3:305a Dutch Civil Code). All types of actions are permitted. This includes a claim for monetary damages, provided the event occurred after 15 November 2016 (pursuant to new legislation which entered into force 1 January 2020). Most class actions over the past decade have been in the field of securities fraud and financial services. The acting association or foundation may come to a
1916:
scrutiny, and notice. There may not be a way to uniformly settle all of the many claims brought via a mass action. Some states permit plaintiff's counsel to settle for all the mass action plaintiffs according to a majority vote, for example. Other states, such as New Jersey, require each plaintiff to approve the settlement of that plaintiff's own individual claims.
2779:
litigation they are entitled to do so, only to the extent that they give timely notice to the class counsel or the court that they are opting out. Second, if there is a settlement proposal, the court will usually direct the class counsel to send a settlement notice to all the members of the certified class, informing them of the details of the proposed settlement.
2145:) is a legal act that may permit plaintiffs that are in the same legal community with respect to the dispute, or are entitled by the same factual or legal reason. These are not typically regarded as class action suits, as each individual plaintiff is entitled to compensation for their individual, incurred damages and not as a result of being a member of a class.
1887:
some groups (such as former customers) much greater benefits than others. In one paper presented at an ABA conference on class actions in 2007, authors commented that "competing cases can also provide opportunities for collusive settlement discussions and reverse auctions by defendants anxious to resolve their new exposure at the most economic cost".
1814:, 84 F.3d 734 (5th Cir. 1996) (rejecting nationwide class action against tobacco companies). Mass torts also involve high individual damage awards; thus, the absence of class treatment will not impede the ability of individual claimants to seek justice. Other cases, however, may be more conducive to class treatment.
2196:) is an attempt to enable model cases to be brought by a large number of potentially affected parties in the event of disputes, limited to the investment market. In contrast to the US class actions, each affected party must file a lawsuit in its own name in order to participate in the model proceedings.
1992:, the Justice Ministry opened the discussion with a conference held in Vienna in June 2005. With the aid of a group of experts from many fields, the Justice Ministry began drafting the new law in September 2005. With the individual positions varying greatly, a political consensus could not be reached.
2719:
For the case to proceed as a class action and bind absent class members, the court must certify the class under Rule 23 on a motion from the party wishing to proceed on a class basis. For a class to be certified, the moving party must meet all of the criteria listed under Rule 23(a), and at least one
2421:
Italy has class action legislation. Consumer associations can file claims on behalf of groups of consumers to obtain judicial orders against corporations that cause injury or damage to consumers. These types of claims are increasing, and
Italian courts have allowed them against banks that continue to
2046:
expressly or by judicial opinion has been read to allow for what are informally known as national "opt-out" class actions, whereby residents of other provinces may be included in the class definition and potentially be bound by the court's judgment on common issues unless they opt-out in a prescribed
1835:
There are several criticisms of class actions. The preamble to the Class Action
Fairness Act stated that some abusive class actions have harmed class members possessing legitimate claims and defendants acting responsibly; have adversely affected interstate commerce; and have undermined public respect
1601:
that the
Federal Arbitration Act of 1925 preempts state laws that prohibit contracts from disallowing class-action lawsuits, which will make it more difficult for consumers to file class-action lawsuits. The dissent pointed to a saving clause in the federal act which allowed states to determine how a
953:
By 1850, Parliament had enacted several statutes on a case-by-case basis to deal with issues regularly faced by certain types of organizations, like joint-stock companies, and with the impetus for most types of group litigation removed, it went into a steep decline in
English jurisprudence from which
2791:
provide for four separate types of class actions. As a result, there are two separate treatises devoted solely to the complex topic of
California class actions. As of March 2024, only Virginia and Massachusetts do not provide for any class actions. Others, such as New York, limit the types of claims
2629:
of the 1933 Act in a class action, a plaintiff must be able to prove that he can "trace" his shares to the registration statement in question, as to which there is alleged a material misstatement or omission. In the absence of an ability to actually trace his shares, such as when securities issued
2601:
The class representative must be able to represent the interests of all the members of the class, by being typical of the class members and not having conflicts with them. He or she is responsible for hiring the attorney, filing the lawsuit, consulting on the case, and agreeing to any settlement. In
2500:
Spanish law allows nominated consumer associations to take action to protect the interests of consumers. A number of groups already have the power to bring collective or class actions: certain consumer associations, bodies legally constituted to defend the "collective interest" and groups of injured
2475:
with the defendant. The settlement may also include – and usually primarily consists of – monetary compensation of damages. Such settlement can be declared binding for all injured parties by the
Amsterdam Court of Appeal (section 7:907 Dutch Civil Code). The injured parties have an opt-out
2050:
Judicial opinions have indicated that provincial legislative national opt-out powers should not be exercised to interfere with the ability of another province to certify a parallel class action for residents of other provinces. The first court to certify will generally exclude residents of provinces
1915:
Because mass actions operate outside the detailed procedures laid out for class actions, they can pose special difficulties for both plaintiffs, defendants, and the court. For example, settlement of class actions follows a predictable path of negotiation with class counsel and representatives, court
1654:
As of 2010, there was no publicly maintained list of nonsecurities class-action settlements, although a securities class-action database exists in the Stanford Law School Securities Class Action Clearinghouse and several for-profit companies maintain lists of the securities settlements. One study of
1637:
In 2017, the US Supreme Court issued its opinion in Bristol-Meyer Squibb Co. v. Superior Court of California, 137 S. Ct. 1773 (2017), holding that over five hundred plaintiffs from other states cannot bring a consolidated mass action against the pharmaceutical giant in the State of California. This
2778:
requires in most cases that notice describing the class action be sent, published, or broadcast to class members. As part of this notice procedure, there may have to be several notices, first a notice allowing class members to opt out of the class, i.e. if individuals wish to proceed with their own
2743:
refers to the number of people in the class. To be certified, the class has to have enough members that simply adding each of them as a named party to the lawsuit would be impractical. There is no bright-line rule to determine numerosity, but classes with hundreds of members are generally deemed to
2321:
to appropriate all the claims of the victims and proceeded to litigate on their behalf, first in the New York courts and later, in the Indian courts. Ultimately, the matter was settled between the Union of India and Union Carbide (in a settlement overseen by the Supreme Court of India) for a sum of
1911:
In a class action, the plaintiff seeks court approval to litigate on behalf of a group of similarly situated persons. Not every plaintiff looks for or could obtain such approval. As a procedural alternative, plaintiff's counsel may attempt to sign up every similarly situated person that counsel can
1839:
Class members often receive little or no benefit from class actions. Examples cited for this include large fees for the attorneys, while leaving class members with coupons or other awards of little or no value; unjustified awards are made to certain plaintiffs at the expense of other class members;
889:
In a typical class action, a plaintiff sues a defendant or a number of defendants on behalf of a group, or class, of absent parties. This differs from a traditional lawsuit, where one party sues another party, and all of the parties are present in court. Although standards differ between states and
4203:
FAVA P., L'importabilità delle class actions in Italia, in Contratto e Impresa 1/2004 FAVA P., Class actions all'italiana: "Paese che vai, usanza che trovi" (l’esperienza dei principali ordinamenti giuridici stranieri e le proposte A.A.C.C. n. 3838 e n. 3839), in Corr. Giur. 3/2004; FAVA P., Class
2096:
can be used then to pursue damages in the same procedure or in individual ones in different jurisdictions. If the latter is the case, the liability cannot be discussed, but only the damages. There under the Chilean procedural rules, one particular case works as an opt-out class action for damages.
1886:
Class action cases present significant ethical challenges. Defendants can hold reverse auctions and any of several parties can engage in collusive settlement discussions. Subclasses may have interests that diverge greatly from the class but may be treated the same. Proposed settlements could offer
2646:
and 28 U.S.C.A. § 1332(d). Cases in federal courts are only allowed to proceed as class actions if the court has jurisdiction to hear the case, and if the case meets the criteria set out in Rule 23. In the vast majority of federal class actions, the class is acting as the plaintiff. However,
2504:
Recent changes to Spanish civil procedure rules include the introduction of a quasi-class action right for certain consumer associations to claim damages on behalf of unidentified classes of consumers. The rules require consumer associations to represent an adequate number of affected parties who
1948:
Likewise, class actions appeared slowly in the New Zealand legal system. However, a group can bring litigation through the action of a representative under the High Court Rules which provide that one or a multitude of persons may sue on behalf of, or for the benefit of, all persons "with the same
1532:
Where the parties on either side are very numerous, and cannot, without manifest inconvenience and oppressive delays in the suit, be all brought before it, the court in its discretion may dispense with making all of them parties, and may proceed in the suit, having sufficient parties before it to
1903:. All parishioners of the Archdiocese's churches were cited as a defendant class. This was done to include their assets (local churches) in any settlement. Where both the plaintiffs and the defendants have been organized into court-approved classes, the action is called a bilateral class action.
1777:
Finally, a class action avoids the situation where different court rulings could create "incompatible standards" of conduct for the defendant to follow. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(1)(A). For example, a court might certify a case for class treatment where a number of individual bond-holders sue to
1641:
In 2020, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals found incentive awards are impermissible. Incentive awards are a relatively modest payment made to class representatives as part of a class settlement. The ruling was a response to an objector who claimed Rule 23 required that the fee petition be filed
2566:
in limited circumstances (under Part 19.6). These have not been much used, with only two reported cases at the court of first instance in the first ten years after the Civil Procedure Rules took effect. However, a sectoral mechanism was adopted by the Consumer Rights Act 2015, taking effect on
2137:
Class actions are generally not permitted in Germany, as German law does not recognize the concept of a targeted class being affected by certain actions. This requires each plaintiff to individually prove that they were affected by an action, and present their individual damages, and prove the
1854:
The Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 addresses these concerns. An independent expert may scrutinize coupon settlements before judicial approval in order to ensure that the settlement will be of value to the class members (28 U.S.C.A. 1712(d)). Further, if the action provides for settlement in
1550:
A major revision of the FRCP in 1966 radically transformed Rule 23, made the opt-out class action the standard option, and gave birth to the modern class action. Entire treatises have been written since to summarize the huge mass of law that sprang up from the 1966 revision of Rule 23. Just as
1558:
The Advisory Committee that drafted the new Rule 23 in the mid-1960s was influenced by two major developments. First was the suggestion of Harry Kalven Jr. and Maurice Rosenfield in 1941 that class-action litigation by individual shareholders on behalf of all shareholders of a company could
2296:. The sort of remedies sought from courts in Public Interest Litigation go beyond mere award of damages to all affected groups, and have sometimes (controversially) gone on to include Court monitoring of the implementation of legislation and even the framing of guidelines in the absence of
1537:
This allowed for representative suits in situations where there were too many individual parties (which now forms the first requirement for class-action litigation – numerosity). However, this rule did not allow such suits to bind similarly situated absent parties, which rendered the rule
2711:(MDL). It is also possible to bring class actions under state law, and in some cases the court may extend its jurisdiction to all the members of the class, including out of state (or even internationally) as the key element is the jurisdiction that the court has over the defendant.
2348:
The Supreme Court has observed that the PIL has tended to become a means to gain publicity or obtain relief contrary to constitutionally valid legislation and policy. Observers point out that many High Courts and certain Supreme Court judges are reluctant to entertain PILs filed by
1825:
Class-action lawsuits are an important and valuable part of the legal system when they permit the fair and efficient resolution of legitimate claims of numerous parties by allowing the claims to be aggregated into a single action against a defendant that has allegedly caused harm.
2211:
Registered Consumer Protection Associations can file – if they represent at least 10 individuals – for a (general) judicial finding whether the factual and legal requirements for of claims or legal relationships are met or not. These individuals have to register in order to
872:
where one of the parties is a group of people who are represented collectively by a member or members of that group. The class action originated in the United States and is still predominantly an American phenomenon, but Canada, as well as several European countries with
2097:
This is the case when defendants can identify and compensate consumers directly, i.e. because it is their banking institution. In such cases, the judge can skip the compensatory stage and order redress directly. Since 2005 more than 100 cases have been filed, mostly by
2128:
Following the change of majority in France in 2012, the new government proposed introducing class actions into French law. The project of "loi Hamon" of May 2013 aimed to limit the class action to consumer and competition disputes. The law was passed on March 1, 2014.
2085:
Chile approved class actions in 2004. The Chilean model is technically an opt-out issue class action, followed by a compensatory stage which can be collective or individual. This means that the class action is designed to declare the defendant generally liable with
2345:; the monitoring of forest use by the High Courts and the Supreme Court to ensure that there is no unjustified loss of forest cover; and the directions mandating the disclosure of assets of electoral candidates for the Houses of Parliament and State Assembly.
1809:
are ordinarily "not appropriate" for class treatment. Class treatment may not improve the efficiency of a mass tort because the claims frequently involve individualized issues of law and fact that will have to be re-tried on an individual basis. See
1677:
First, aggregation can increase the efficiency of the legal process, and lower the costs of litigation. In cases with common questions of law and fact, aggregation of claims into a class action may avoid the necessity of repeating "days of the same
2180:§), the court decision concerning the dismissal or direction of a binding arrangement of an adequate compensation is effective for and against all shareholders, including those who have already agreed to a previous settlement in this matter.
2434:
passed a class-action law in Finanziaria 2008, a financial document for the economy management of the government. From 10 December 2007, in order of Italian legislation system, the law is before the House and has to be passed also by the
1655:
federal settlements required the researcher to manually search databases of lawsuits for the relevant records, although state class actions were not included due to the difficulty in gathering the information. Another source of data is
2443:, to become an effective law. In 2004, the Italian parliament considered the introduction of a type of class action, specifically in the area of consumer law. No such law has been enacted, but scholars demonstrated that class actions (
1582:
Businesses targeted by class actions for inflicting massive aggregate harm have sought ways to avoid class actions altogether. In the 1990s, the US Supreme Court issued several decisions that strengthened the "federal policy favoring
4971:
Class Actions Seven Years After the Class Action Fairness Act: Hearing before the Subcommittee on the Constitution of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, Second Session, June 1,
3189:
2332:
Public interest litigation has now broadened in scope to cover larger and larger groups of citizens who may be affected by government inaction. Examples of this trend include the conversion of all public transport in the city of
2385:). A representative action is "where one claimant or defendant, with the same interest as a group of claimants or defendants in an action, institutes or defends proceedings on behalf of that group of claimants or defendants."
2668:
of 1995 and those concerning internal corporate governance issues (the latter typically being brought as shareholder derivative actions in the state courts of Delaware, the state of incorporation of most large corporations).
1912:
find as a client. Plaintiff's counsel can then join the claims of all of these persons in one complaint, a so-called "mass action", hoping to have the same efficiencies and economic leverage as if a class had been certified.
1623:
Rejecting arguments that they violated employees' rights to collective bargaining, and that modestly-valued consumer claims would be more efficiently litigated within the parameters of one lawsuit, the U.S. Supreme Court, in
3045:
The New Federal Equity Rules Promulgated by the United States Supreme Court at the October Term, 1912: Together with the Cognate Statutory Provisions and Former Equity Rules; with an Introduction, Annotations and Forms, p.
2283:
requirements to permit the filing of suits on behalf of rights of deprived sections of society by public-minded individuals or bodies. Although not strictly "class action litigation" as it is understood in American law,
2505:
have suffered the same harm. Also, any judgment made by the Spanish court will list the individual beneficiaries or, if that is not possible, conditions that need to be fulfilled for a party to benefit from a judgment.
2567:
October 1, 2015. Under the provisions therein, opt-in or opt-out collective procedures may be certified for breaches of competition law. This is currently the closest mechanism to a class action in England and Wales.
1855:
coupons, "the portion of any attorney's fee award to class counsel that is attributable to the award of the coupons shall be based on the value to class members of the coupons that are redeemed". 28 U.S.C.A. 1712(a).
2597:
is the named party in a class-action lawsuit. Although the class representative is named as a party to the litigation, the court must approve the class representative when it certifies the lawsuit as a class action.
2650:
Typically, federal courts are thought to be more favorable for defendants, and state courts more favorable for plaintiffs. Many class actions are filed initially in state court. The defendant will frequently try to
2216:
their claims. Since these Adjudications are more of a general nature, each individual must assert their claims in their own court proceedings. The competent court is bound by the Model Declaratory Action decision.
2630:
at multiple times are held by the Depository Trust Company in a fungible bulk and physical tracing of particular shares may be impossible, the plaintiff may be barred from pursuing his claim for lack of standing.
1533:
represent all the adverse interests of the plaintiffs and the defendants in the suit properly before it. But in such cases, the decree shall be without prejudice to the rights and claims of all the absent parties.
2890:
used by laypersons unfamiliar with the critical distinction between the legal terms of art "action" and "suit" (which traditionally refer, respectively, to legal proceedings at common law and in equity). Thus,
2663:
for all class actions with damages exceeding $ 5,000,000 exclusive of interest and costs. The Class Action Fairness Act contains carve-outs for, among other things, shareholder class actions covered by the
4369:
1742:
proximately flowing from the failure to report the suspected injuries. Previously, many physicians had remained reluctant to report cases of apparent child abuse, despite existing law that required it.
2748:, there must be a common question of law and fact such that "determination of its truth or falsity will resolve an issue that is central to the validity of each one of the claims in one stroke". The
2164:
A genuine extension of the legal effect of a court decision beyond the parties involved in the proceedings is offered under corporate law. This procedure applies to the review of stock payoffs under
1709:, 109 F.3d 388, 344 (7th Cir. 1997)). "A class action solves this problem by aggregating the relatively paltry potential recoveries into something worth someone's (usually an attorney's) labor."
2289:
1620:
Companies may insert the phrase "may elect to resolve any claim by individual arbitration" into their consumer and employment contracts to use arbitration and prevent class-action lawsuits.
2787:
Since 1938, many states have adopted rules similar to the FRCP. However, some states, like California, have civil procedure systems, which deviate significantly from the federal rules; the
2058:
Other legislation may provide for representative actions on behalf of a large number of plaintiffs, independent of class action procedures. For instance, under Ontario's Condominium Act, a
2055:
litigation, two provincial courts certified overlapping class actions whereby Canadian residents were class members in two class actions in two provinces. Both decisions are under appeal.
1866:, who published a famous law review article in 1971 calling the class action a form of "legalized blackmail". It has garnered the support of a significant minority of the justices of the
4549:
3149:
2521:
is alien to European legal thought to allow somebody to exercise rights on the behalf of a large number of people if these do not participate as parties in the action. ... Moreover, the
4232:
3890:
2062:'s governing corporation may launch a lawsuit on behalf of the owners for damage to the condominium's common elements, even though the corporation does not own the common elements.
1738:
that aimed at purposefully changing the behavior of doctors, encouraging them to report suspected child abuse. Otherwise, they would face the threat of civil action for damages in
4467:
1571:. The groups behind these movements, as well as many others in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, all turned to class actions as a means for achieving their goals. For example, a 1978
4428:
1701:
Second, a class action may overcome "the problem that small recoveries do not provide the incentive for any individual to bring a solo action prosecuting his or her rights".
2707:
in the various states lack significant commonalities. Large class actions brought in federal court frequently are consolidated for pre-trial purposes through the device of
2121:
Under French law, an association can represent the collective interests of consumers; however, each claimant must be individually named in the lawsuit. On January 4, 2005,
2047:
manner and time. Court rulings have determined that this permits a court in one province to include residents of other provinces in the class action on an "opt-out" basis.
4506:
1900:
1605:
In two major 21st-century cases, the Supreme Court ruled 5–4 against certification of class actions due to differences in each individual members' circumstances: first in
1521:(1820). However, Story did not necessarily endorse class actions, because he "could not conceive of a modern function or a coherent theory for representative litigation."
4531:
3632:
3581:
2517:
proposed a new federal code of civil procedure in 2006, replacing the cantonal codes of civil procedure, it rejected the introduction of class actions, arguing that
1483:
3111:
1646:
the time frame for class member objections to be filed; and payments to the class representative violates doctrine from two US Supreme Court cases from the 1800s.
2373:, there is no such thing as a "class action" per se. Third-party litigation funding is prohibited under Irish law. Instead, there is the 'representative action' (
2208:) introduced the Model Declaratory Action (§ 606 ZPO) that created the ability to bundle similar claims by many affected parties efficiently into one proceeding.
1805:
depends on the case and is determined by the judge's ruling on a motion for class certification. The Advisory Committee Note to Rule 23, for example, states that
3780:
2529:
can be openly or discretely abused. The sums sued for are usually enormous, so that the respondent can be forced to concede, if they do not want to face sudden
4076:
930:
led to the wealthy supporters of the corporate form becoming suspicious of all unincorporated legal entities, which in turn led to the modern concept of the
4821:
4190:
2484:"Pozew zbiorowy" or class action has been allowed under Polish law since July 19, 2010. A minimum of 10 persons, suing based on the same law, is required.
2467:) to bring a so-called collective action on behalf of other persons, provided they can represent the interests of such persons according to their by-laws (
3190:"Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals Holds that Incentive Payments Commonly Awarded to Class Representatives are Impermissible in a Classwide Settlement"
3093:
4886:
1670:
Proponents of class actions state that they offer a number of advantages because they aggregate many individualized claims into one representational
2237:
is represented by a foreign body in the matter of asserting and enforcing individual claims and the claimant can no longer control the proceedings.
1977:, in a judgment, confirmed the legal admissibility of these lawsuits under the condition that all claims are essentially based on the same grounds.
2245:
Class actions can be brought by Germans in the US for events in Germany if the facts of the case relate to the US. For example, in the case of the
1896:
1325:
918:
4887:"The Legislation Enacting Virginia's New Class Action Statute Should Be Amended to Protect Virginia Businesses from In Terrorem Statutory Damages"
4166:
2492:
Collective litigation has been allowed under Russian law since 2002. Basic criteria are, like in the US, numerosity, commonality, and typicality.
1551:
medieval group litigation bound all members of the group regardless of whether they all actually appeared in court, the modern class action binds
3307:
911:. These groups were usually based on existing societal structures like villages, towns, parishes, and guilds. Unlike modern courts, the medieval
4561:
3166:
1559:
effectively supplement direct government regulation of securities markets and other similar markets. The second development was the rise of the
2696:
any member of a class of plaintiffs is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state and any defendant is a citizen of a State; or
3493:
1945:
amended the Federal Court of Australia Act in 1992 to introduce "representative proceedings", the equivalent of the American "class actions".
926:
From 1400 to 1700, group litigation gradually switched from being the norm in England to the exception. The development of the concept of the
3380:
2703:
Nationwide plaintiff classes are possible, but such suits must have a commonality of issues across state lines. This may be difficult if the
1989:
1988:
to examine the possibility of new legislation providing for a cost-effective and appropriate way to deal with mass claims. Together with the
1476:
4229:
3805:
Barroilhet, Agustin (2016-05-27). "Self-interested gatekeeping? Clashes between public and private enforcers in two Chilean class actions".
2699:
any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State and any defendant is a foreign state or a citizen or subject of a foreign state.
4054:
92:
3883:
2152:) is another method that permits a judge to combine multiple separate court cases into a single trial with a single verdict. According to
1840:
and confusing notices are published that prevent class members from being able to fully understand and effectively exercise their rights.
4674:
4745:
3663:
3072:
1638:
opinion may arguably render nationwide mass action and class action impossible in any single state besides the defendant's home state.
931:
232:
3556:
2011:
was next, with the Class Proceedings Act, 1992. As of 2008, 9 of 10 provinces had enacted comprehensive class actions legislation. In
1965: – ZPO) does not provide for a special proceeding for complex class-action litigation. However, Austrian consumer organizations (
2525:
is controversial even in its country of origin, the U.S., because it can result in significant procedural problems. ... Finally, the
2070:
2752:
requirement ensures that the claims or defenses of the named plaintiff are typical of those of everyone else in the class. Finally,
915:
did not question the right of the actual plaintiffs to sue on behalf of a group or a few representatives to defend an entire group.
4711:
4031:
3982:
2665:
2626:
2618:, "officers and directors are liable together with the corporation for material misrepresentations in the registration statement."
2611:
1469:
4838:
4217:
3300:
903:
The antecedent of the class action was what modern observers call "group litigation," which appears to have been quite common in
3468:
167:
1591:
called "collective action waivers", which prohibit those signing the contracts from bringing class-action suits. In 2011, the
4524:
4009:
3518:
1985:
4592:
3639:
2756:
requirement states that the named plaintiff must fairly and adequately represent the interests of the absent class members.
2602:
exchange, the class representative may be entitled to compensation (at the court's discretion) out of the recovery amount.
973:
4788:
4313:
2685:§ 1332(d). Under § 1332(d)(2) the federal district courts have original jurisdiction over any civil action where the
3399:
3122:
1364:
17:
2288:
arose out of the wide powers of judicial review granted to the Supreme Court of India and the various High Courts under
2125:
urged changes that would provide greater consumer protection. A draft bill was proposed in April 2006 but did not pass.
4493:
4404:
3935:
3604:
2472:
2311:
due to procedural rules that would make such litigation impossible to conclude and unwieldy to carry out. Instead, the
1413:
839:
4983:
4101:
4798:
3824:
3534:
3445:
3022:
2927:
2656:
1818:
1728:
Third, class-action cases may be brought to purposely change behavior of a class of which the defendant is a member.
1418:
1133:
3699:
2639:
2249:, the lawsuit was allowed because several aggrieved parties came from the US and had purchased rail tickets there.
1539:
1369:
984:
3961:
5003:
1958:
1895:
Although normally plaintiffs are the class, defendant class actions are also possible. For example, in 2005, the
558:
4998:
4965:
4815:
4279:
2370:
1597:
946:
resulted in periods during which the common law courts were frequently paralyzed, and out of the confusion the
490:
2844:
2350:
2307:, who were unable to fully prosecute a class-action litigation (as understood in the American sense) against
2233:), which is comparable to the class action and is predominantly used in environmental law. In civil law, the
2205:
1015:
31:
4970:
4550:"Morrison, the Restricted Scope of Securities Act Section 11 Liability, and Prospects for Regulatory Reform"
3781:"BancoEstado devolverá US$ 12 millones a clientes por cobro de comisiones en cuentas de ahorro - LA TERCERA"
3756:
3716:
Barroilhet, Agustin (2012-01-30). "Class Actions in Chile". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network.
3232:
Fitzpatrick, Brian T. (2010-12-01). "An Empirical Study of Class Action Settlements and Their Fee Awards".
2678:
2393:
1656:
1374:
989:
922:
Engraving of the Star Chamber, published in "Old and new London" in 1873, taken from a drawing made in 1836
348:
3509:
Johnston, Robert; Karageorge, Felicity; Solomonidis, Rena; Briggs, Nicholas; Gaertner, Sara (April 2023).
907:
from about 1200 onward. These lawsuits involved groups of people either suing or being sued in actions at
381:
4917:
3365:
3055:
Deborah R. Hensler, Nicholas M. Pace, Bonita Dombey-Moore, Beth Giddens, Jennifer Gross, Erik K. Moller,
2003:
in Canada allow class actions. All provinces permit plaintiff classes and some permit defendant classes.
1626:
1359:
1010:
564:
4370:"Class Actions 101: An Introduction to UK Collective Actions and How They Differ from US Class Actions"
2849:
2285:
2258:
1930:
1507:
Class actions survived in the United States thanks to the influence of Supreme Court Associate Justice
1124:
338:
3304:
2358:
1063:
1026:
653:
502:
4429:"The Limits of Delaware Corporate Law: Internal Affairs, Federal Forum Provisions, and Sciabacucchi"
3742:
2142:
3953:
3491:
3145:
2708:
1735:
1613:
1512:
874:
686:
670:
237:
197:
2329:(US$ 91 million) as a complete settlement of all claims of all victims for all time to come.
2156:, this is only permissible if all cases are regarding the same factual and legal event and basis.
1555:
members of the class, except for those who choose to opt out (if the rules permit them to do so).
4948:
2855:
2804:, a contract clause that attempts to prevent lawsuits by requiring arbitration in a private forum
2704:
2431:
2024:
2016:
1287:
551:
376:
343:
3324:"FindLaw Class Action and Mass Tort Center: Legal Research: Cohelan on California Class Actions"
4705:"William B. Rubenstein, "Understanding the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005" (briefing paper)"
3968:
3840:
3323:
2615:
2563:
2338:
2246:
1974:
1588:
1248:
1243:
1020:
832:
747:
569:
480:
323:
268:
172:
67:
4487:
4248:
3721:
3435:
2917:
2759:
Rule 23(b)(3) allows class certification if "questions of law or fact common to class members
2659:
increases defendants' ability to remove state cases to federal court by giving federal courts
1843:
For example, in the United States, class lawsuits sometimes bind all class members with a low
1721:
who engages in widespread harm – but does so minimally against each individual
4760:
3729:
3343:
2824:, a provision in some contracts which prevents one or both parties from filing a class action
2686:
2660:
2559:
2514:
2430:. The introduction of class actions is on the government's agenda. On November 19, 2007, the
2293:
2264:
1560:
1496:
1343:
1280:
1043:
935:
878:
707:
681:
600:
485:
447:
242:
202:
189:
3549:
2693:
any member of a class of plaintiffs is a citizen of a State different from any defendant; or
1878:. However, empirical studies have generally found the extortion thesis to be "overstated".
2652:
2354:
2274:
2149:
2093:
2012:
1790:
could result in different outcomes and inconsistent standards of conduct for the defendant
1525:
1424:
1092:
1031:
179:
119:
3806:
1766:, 527 U.S. 815 (1999). A class action in such a situation centralizes all claims into one
962:
of 1874 and 1875. Group litigation was essentially dead in the United Kingdom after 1850.
8:
2821:
2814:
2436:
2312:
2297:
2102:
2074:
1981:
1631:
1275:
1180:
1154:
1056:
544:
538:
497:
434:
257:
58:
4704:
4128:
3275:
3069:
1694:, 782 F.2d 468, 473 (5th Cir. 1986) (granting certification of a class action involving
4630:
4214:
3528:
3257:
3010:
2827:
2801:
2643:
2440:
2268:
1942:
1867:
1225:
1195:
1160:
787:
674:
605:
574:
465:
429:
405:
361:
144:
86:
4648:
3862:
3384:
4794:
4400:
4184:
4127:
Collins, Niall; Johnston, Peter; Gilvarry, Ailbhe; Farrell, Kevin (1 December 2019).
3820:
3717:
3657:
3514:
3441:
3249:
3245:
3157:
3028:
3018:
2923:
2837:
2767:
to other available methods for fairly and efficiently adjudicating the controversy."
2423:
1848:
1730:
1607:
1572:
1409:
947:
939:
825:
732:
727:
717:
712:
528:
507:
371:
317:
304:
252:
212:
3914:
3461:
3347:
2153:
4622:
4613:
Miller, Scott D. (1984). "Certification of Defendant Classes under Rule 23(b)(2)".
4325:
3812:
3261:
3241:
2788:
2342:
2213:
1844:
1794:. Thus, courts will generally allow a class action in such a situation. See, e.g.,
1592:
1564:
1270:
1265:
1235:
904:
742:
722:
595:
523:
475:
424:
357:
299:
207:
184:
126:
114:
4266:
4225:
1515:
through summary discussions in his two equity treatises as well as his opinion in
4912:
4834:
4394:
4236:
4221:
3986:
3703:
3497:
3369:
3311:
3076:
2892:
2763:
over any questions affecting only individual members, and that a class action is
2562:
of the courts of England and Wales came into force in 1999 and have provided for
2448:
2304:
1517:
1230:
1220:
1119:
1086:
959:
737:
399:
328:
311:
3816:
2023:, 2 S.C.R. 534, class actions may be advanced under a local rule of court. The
1750:
receive relief and that early-filing plaintiffs do not raid the fund (i.e., the
1524:
The oldest predecessor to the class-action rule in the United States was in the
3431:
2955:
2831:
2622:
2374:
2317:
2122:
2000:
1875:
1871:
1863:
1779:
1354:
1200:
777:
533:
415:
333:
135:
81:
76:
4992:
3358:
3253:
3161:
2807:
2308:
1379:
912:
617:
3939:
3582:"Slater and Gordon announces launch of New Zealand class action against ANZ"
3032:
1858:
A common critique is that class actions are a form of judicially sanctioned
4905:
2883:
2409:
2279:
2066:
2031:
2015:, where no comprehensive legislation exists, following the decision of the
1783:
1508:
1501:
1394:
1210:
1190:
1165:
1150:
998:
955:
943:
795:
782:
772:
277:
4962:
4329:
1990:
Austrian Ministry for Social Security, Generations and Consumer Protection
1941:
Class actions became part of the Australian legal landscape only when the
1683:
4344:
4299:
3609:
3094:"Supreme Court: AT&T can force arbitration, block class-action suits"
2775:
2059:
2043:
1791:
1787:
1767:
1687:
1584:
1568:
1307:
1077:
1049:
958:
pleading, in general, was falling into disfavor, which culminated in the
927:
648:
247:
162:
3863:"with a list of the KapMuG proceedings published in the Federal Gazette"
3693:
2069:
initiated efforts that led to an estimated 79,000 survivors of Canada's
2007:
was the first province to enact class proceedings legislation, in 1978.
4634:
4055:"Chief Justice launches report on litigation funding and class actions"
2534:
2399:
2303:
However, this innovative jurisprudence did not help the victims of the
2088:
1802:
1771:
1759:
1455:
1399:
1170:
908:
813:
757:
660:
612:
282:
223:
149:
41:
4449:
3962:"Union of India Vs. Association for Democratic Reforms & Another"
3216:
2681:
if the claim arises under federal law or if the claim falls under 28
2540:
2427:
2051:
whose courts have certified a parallel class action. However, in the
1859:
1806:
1751:
1747:
1722:
1718:
1679:
1579:
text of Rule 23 and mentioned "class actions" 14 times in its index.
1336:
1317:
1312:
1185:
1114:
791:
4626:
808:
456:
4433:
Harvard Law School on Corporate Governance and Financial Regulation
4154:
3508:
2887:
2035:
1695:
1448:
1145:
1102:
767:
627:
390:
287:
109:
3513:(7th ed.). United Kingdom: Law Business Research. p. 8.
2240:
2065:
The largest class action suit in Canada was settled in 2005 after
2027:
permits class actions under Part V.1 of the Federal Courts Rules.
1717:, 109 F.3d at 344). In other words, a class action ensures that a
4955:
4879:
3116:
2405:
2039:
2008:
1746:
Fourth, in "limited fund" cases, a class action ensures that all
1671:
1404:
1175:
869:
622:
590:
470:
292:
3757:"Class Actions in Chile: Update | Global Class Actions Exchange"
2513:
Swiss law does not allow for any form of class action. When the
3276:"Data Collection: Civil Justice Survey of State Courts (CJSSC)"
2682:
2004:
1862:. The extortion thesis was first articulated by law professor
1437:
665:
632:
4963:
Class Action Lawsuits: A Legal Overview for the 115th Congress
4126:
3889:. Deutscher Bundestag: Wissenschaftliche Dienste. 2012-03-19.
3547:
3363:"Harm-Less Lawsuits? What's Wrong with Consumer Class Actions"
3362:
2922:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 162.
2092:
effects if and only if the defendant is found liable, and the
1770:
where a court can equitably divide the assets amongst all the
4300:"Different class: UK representative actions suffer a setback"
3057:
Class Action Dilemmas: Pursuing Public Goals for Private Gain
2874:
The proper term used by specialists in complex litigation is
2841:(2011), the largest civil rights class-action lawsuit to date
2334:
2052:
1755:
1297:
954:
it never recovered. It was further weakened by the fact that
442:
4265:
Message to Parliament on the Swiss Code of Civil Procedure,
2204:
Effective on November 1, 2018, the Code of Civil Procedure (
2886:
courts. "Class action lawsuit" or "class action suit" are
2530:
1739:
1331:
950:
emerged with exclusive jurisdiction over group litigation.
49:
3842:
LOI n° 2014-344 du 17 mars 2014 relative à la consommation
1587:". In response, lawyers have added provisions to consumer
30:
This article is about the legal term. For other uses, see
4675:"Class Action Fairness Act Public Law 109-2, 119 Stat. 4"
3015:
From Medieval Group Litigation to the Modern Class Action
4269:
et seq. The quote, p. 7290, is the author's translation.
3144:
1929:
Class actions were recognized in "Halabi" leading case (
4507:"Pleading Section 11 Liability for Secondary Offerings"
3437:
Entrepreneurial Litigation: Its Rise, Fall, and Future
3150:"Arbitration Everywhere, Stacking the Deck of Justice"
2610:
In securities class actions that allege violations of
4793:. Chicago: American Bar Association. pp. 57–59.
2830:, a similar legal framework under development in the
2077:. The settlement amounted to upwards of $ 5 billion.
4859:(Quoting Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(3) (emphasis added)).
3440:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 133.
2714:
1528:, specifically Equity Rule 48, promulgated in 1842.
4468:"Securities Fraud Plaintiff Need Not Show Reliance"
4032:"Law firms excluded from EU consumer class actions"
2647:Rule 23 also provides for defendant class actions.
4100:McClusky, Aoife; McClements, April (28 May 2019).
4099:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3420:
3165:
3121:
2183:
4444:
4442:
4228:or visit Italian reference site for Class Action
3959:
3112:"Supreme Court rules for Comcast in class action"
2638:In federal courts, class actions are governed by
1801:Whether a class action is superior to individual
898:
4990:
4874:California Class Actions: Practice and Procedure
4249:"La class action nel codice di procedura civile"
4189:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
3975:
3348:"Class Actions: The Need for a Hard Second Look"
2021:Western Canadian Shopping Centres Inc. v. Dutton
1897:Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Portland in Oregon
4314:"The United Kingdom's New Opt-Out Class Action"
4129:"Class/collective actions in Ireland: overview"
4077:"Class/collective actions in Ireland: overview"
3417:
2241:Class Action With Relation to the United States
1821:, passed by the United States Congress, found:
4957:Stanford Securities Class Action Clearinghouse
4918:Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute
4743:
4439:
4368:Yoshino, Troy M.; Labi, Suzanne (2023-11-27).
2909:
2895:has criticized "class action suit" as "wordy".
4746:"A View from the Panel: Part of the Solution"
3811:. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 362–384.
2447:) do not contrast with Italian principles of
1662:, which offers statistics for the year 2005.
1477:
877:, have made changes in recent years to allow
833:
3936:"Introduction to Public Interest Litigation"
3462:"Ethical Issues In Class Action Settlements"
1936:
93:Intentional infliction of emotional distress
4548:Grundfest, Joseph A. (September 22, 2015).
4367:
4010:"Revisiting the potential of class actions"
3971:Judgement on Civil Appeal No. 7178 of 2001.
3231:
2199:
1919:
4374:Class Action Insider, Winston & Strawn
4361:
4215:Class Action Italia, Dalle origini ad oggi
4172:. Archived from the original on 2013-10-05
3804:
3715:
3005:
3003:
3001:
2999:
2997:
2388:Some test cases in Ireland have included:
2341:engines on the basis of the orders of the
1969:(VKI) and the Federal Chamber of Labour /
1734:(1976) was a landmark case decided by the
1484:
1470:
840:
826:
233:Negligent infliction of emotional distress
4587:
4585:
4583:
4581:
4579:
4547:
4426:
3605:"Thousands sign up for bank class action"
3550:"Class Actions in Australia - An Overnew"
3400:"Do Class Actions Benefit Class Members?"
2995:
2993:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2810:, an English predecessor to class actions
2720:of the criteria listed under Rule 23(b).
1890:
1778:determine whether they may convert their
4782:
4780:
4483:
4481:
4392:
4311:
3188:Troutman, Eric J. (September 18, 2020).
3187:
3062:
2770:
2666:Private Securities Litigation Reform Act
1602:contract or its clauses may be revoked.
1495:
917:
881:to bring claims on behalf of consumers.
4839:"The Plight of the Individual Investor"
4790:A Practitioner's Guide to Class Actions
4427:Grundfest, Joseph A. (September 2019).
4342:
4226:Italy introduces consumer class actions
4052:
3602:
3548:Stuart Clark and Colin Loveday (2004).
3301:Association of Trial Lawyers of America
3109:
3009:
1786:. Refusing to litigate the case in one
14:
4991:
4833:
4612:
4576:
4007:
3662:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3574:
3430:
2974:
2915:
2792:that may be brought as class actions.
2723:The 23(a) criteria are referred to as
2159:
1545:
4950:Manual for Complex Litigation, Fourth
4786:
4777:
4478:
3596:
3394:
3392:
3326:. Classaction.findlaw.com. 1966-07-01
3227:
3225:
2950:
2948:
2946:
2878:, which replaced the historical term
2744:be sufficiently numerous. To satisfy
2194:Kapitalanleger-Musterverfahrensgesetz
1986:Austrian Federal Minister for Justice
3682:Wuttunee v. Merck Frosst Canada Ltd.
3017:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
2553:
1798:, 259 F. Supp. 125 (S.D.N.Y. 1966).
1705:, 521 U.S. 591, 617 (1997) (quoting
1660:Civil Justice Survey of State Courts
4870:Cohelan on California Class Actions
4102:"Class action procedure in Ireland"
4053:McKeown, Andrew (31 January 2020).
3928:
3907:
3110:Stempel, Jonathan (27 March 2013).
2882:after the merger of common law and
2852:, a similar system adopted in India
2426:on retail clients' current account
2220:
1870:, along with prominent judges like
1836:for the country's judicial system.
24:
4942:
4843:Northwestern University Law Review
4595:. federalrulesofcivilprocedure.org
4494:Supreme Court of the United States
4345:"Class action legal change for UK"
3678:Tiboni v. Merck Frosst Canada Ltd.
3603:Meadows, Richard (11 March 2013).
3389:
3234:Journal of Empirical Legal Studies
3222:
3059:(Santa Monica: RAND, 2000), 10–11.
2943:
2919:Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage
2576:
2570:
2353:and activists, citing concerns of
25:
5015:
4937:
4525:"CITIC Trust_FIC_Order_PACER.pdf"
4008:Boland, James (12 October 2018).
3706:Archived at Arnold Pizzo McKiggan
3584:. Slater and Gordon. 18 June 2013
3148:; Gebeloff, Robert (2015-10-31).
2715:Class certification under Rule 23
2657:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005
2633:
2577:Class_action § United_States
2548:
2172:. Pursuant to Sec. 13 Sentence 2
1967:Verein fĂĽr Konsumenteninformation
1901:Catholic priest sex-abuse scandal
1819:Class Action Fairness Act of 2005
4537:from the original on 2015-10-08.
3960:Justice M.B. Shah (2 May 2002).
3680:, O.J. No. 2996. Saskatchewan:
3246:10.1111/j.1740-1461.2010.01196.x
2818:, 1991 American legal drama film
2677:Class actions may be brought in
2640:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
2404:Damages claims brought by Irish
2148:The combination of court cases (
2138:causality between both parties.
2105:agency. Salient cases have been
2099:Servicio Nacional del Consumidor
1959:Austrian Code of Civil Procedure
1540:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
985:Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
965:
938:. The tumultuous history of the
807:
4862:
4827:
4807:
4737:
4728:
4717:from the original on 2006-11-02
4697:
4688:
4667:
4641:
4606:
4541:
4517:
4499:
4460:
4420:
4386:
4336:
4318:Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
4305:
4293:
4272:
4259:
4241:
4207:
4197:
4159:
4147:
4120:
4093:
4069:
4046:
4024:
4001:
3896:from the original on 2019-10-20
3876:
3855:
3833:
3798:
3773:
3761:globalclassactions.stanford.edu
3749:
3709:
3687:
3670:
3625:
3562:from the original on 2012-03-30
3541:
3502:
3485:
3474:from the original on 2011-07-13
3454:
3404:www.instituteforlegalreform.com
3374:
3352:
3337:
3316:
3294:
3268:
3204:
3181:
3138:
2782:
2672:
2655:the case to federal court. The
2459:Dutch law allows associations (
2225:German law also recognizes the
2190:Capital Investor Model Case Act
2184:Investor Model Case Proceedings
1906:
1657:US Bureau of Justice Statistics
1598:AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion
559:Ex turpi causa non oritur actio
4966:Congressional Research Service
4816:Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes
3938:. Karmayog.org. Archived from
3884:"Sachstand WD 7 –3000/070 –12"
3103:
3086:
3049:
3039:
2868:
2508:
2454:
2351:non-governmental organizations
1703:Amchem Prods., Inc. v. Windsor
1692:Jenkins v. Raymark Indus. Inc.
1370:Notwithstanding verdict (JNOV)
899:England and the United Kingdom
884:
13:
1:
4343:Coleman, Clive (2015-10-01).
3533:: CS1 maint: date and year (
2902:
2845:List of class action lawsuits
2277:in the 1980s loosened strict
1830:
1665:
1649:
669:(term used for torts in some
4984:Collective Redress in Europe
4876:by Elizabeth Cabraser et al.
4393:Sullivan, E. Thomas (2009).
4282:. Justice.gov.uk. 2013-09-27
4267:Federal Journal 2006 p. 7221
3511:The Class Actions Law Review
3282:. Office of Justice Programs
3280:Bureau of Justice Statistics
2394:CervicalCheck cancer scandal
1924:
990:Doctrines of civil procedure
7:
4787:Greer, Marcy Hogan (2010).
4759:: 2225–2331. Archived from
4734:28 U.S.C. § 1332(d)(2)
4399:. LexisNexis. p. 441.
3817:10.4337/9781783470440.00027
2795:
2605:
1713:, 521 U.S. at 617 (quoting
1707:Mace v. Van Ru Credit Corp.
1630:(2018), enabled the use of
1627:Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis
1595:ruled in a 5–4 decision in
565:Joint and several liability
10:
5020:
4694:28 U.S.C.A. § 1332(d)
4677:. Frwebgate.access.gpo.gov
4554:Journal of Corporation Law
4450:"Bloomberg Industry Group"
4312:Mulheron, Rachael (2017).
3697:article on Bernard in 2006
2850:Public Interest Litigation
2581:In the United States, the
2574:
2364:
2286:Public Interest Litigation
2262:
2259:Public Interest Litigation
2256:
2132:
1984:unanimously requested the
1952:
1812:Castano v. Am. Tobacco Co.
1125:Case Information Statement
893:
339:Comparative responsibility
29:
4977:
3219: September 17, 2020).
3212:Johnson v. NPAS Solutions
3146:Silver-greenberg, Jessica
2916:Garner, Bryan A. (2011).
2487:
2479:
2359:parliamentary sovereignty
2298:Parliamentary legislation
2116:
2071:residential school system
1995:
1937:Australia and New Zealand
1881:
1764:Ortiz v. Fibreboard Corp.
1360:As a matter of law (JMOL)
654:Non-economic damages caps
4913:"Rule 23. Class Actions"
3808:Class Actions in Context
3496:January 6, 2009, at the
2861:
2709:multidistrict litigation
2689:exceeds $ 5,000,000 and
2595:representative plaintiff
2495:
2416:
2412:by European truck makers
2252:
2200:Model Declaratory Action
2080:
1920:Class action legislation
1899:was sued as part of the
1796:Van Gemert v. Boeing Co.
1762:may be compensated. See
1736:California Supreme Court
1614:Comcast Corp. v. Behrend
1257:Resolution without trial
687:Private attorney general
641:Other topics in tort law
269:Principles of negligence
198:Alienation of affections
4891:The National Law Review
4649:"Unintended Precedents"
4560:(1): 38. Archived from
4108:. Law Business Research
3917:. Legalserviceindia.com
3070:Opting Out of Liability
2856:Securities Class Action
2564:group litigation orders
2432:Senato della Repubblica
2337:from diesel engines to
2315:exercised its right of
2292:and Article 226 of the
2174:Mediation Procedure Act
2107:Condecus v. BancoEstado
2025:Federal Court of Canada
2017:Supreme Court of Canada
1575:treatise reprinted the
1511:, who imported it into
552:Volenti non fit injuria
377:Ultrahazardous activity
344:Contributory negligence
5004:Civil law (common law)
4230:Class Action Community
3969:Supreme Court of India
3915:"PIL A Boon Or A Bane"
3737:Cite journal requires
3305:Class Action Press Kit
2616:Securities Act of 1933
2546:
2445:azioni rappresentative
2439:, the second house of
2378:
2339:compressed natural gas
2247:Eschede train disaster
2178:Spruchverfahrensgesetz
1975:Austrian Supreme Court
1891:Defendant class action
1828:
1774:if they win the case.
1535:
1504:
1249:Request for production
1244:Request for admissions
923:
879:consumer organizations
570:Market share liability
503:Shopkeeper's privilege
481:Statute of limitations
324:Restitutio ad integrum
173:Intrusion on seclusion
68:Trespass to the person
4999:Class action lawsuits
4653:The American Prospect
3985:. ADR. Archived from
3787:(in European Spanish)
2771:Notice and settlement
2687:amount in controversy
2661:original jurisdiction
2560:Civil Procedure Rules
2519:
2473:collective settlement
2294:Constitution of India
2265:Constitution of India
2166:Stock Corporation Act
1823:
1589:contracts of adhesion
1561:civil rights movement
1530:
1499:
1282:Involuntary dismissal
936:voluntary association
921:
866:representative action
682:Conflict of tort laws
448:Tortious interference
203:Criminal conversation
190:Malicious prosecution
4744:John G. Heyburn II.
4255:. December 10, 2019.
2960:Wex Legal Dictionary
2583:class representative
2355:separation of powers
2275:Indian Supreme Court
2143:Streitgenossenschaft
2094:declaratory judgment
2013:Prince Edward Island
1817:The preamble to the
1632:class action waivers
1611:(2011) and later in
1526:Federal Equity Rules
1425:Declaratory judgment
1093:Forum non conveniens
976:in the United States
858:class action lawsuit
180:Breach of confidence
4921:. February 28, 1966
4655:. February 28, 2010
4615:Columbia Law Review
4511:www.americanbar.org
4472:www.americanbar.org
4330:10.1093/ojls/gqx016
4155:Class Action Italia
3081:Michigan Law Review
3011:Yeazell, Stephen C.
2822:Class action waiver
2463:) and foundations (
2437:Camera dei Deputati
2313:Government of India
2206:Zivilprozessordnung
2160:Mediation Procedure
2103:consumer protection
2075:Canadian government
1982:Austrian Parliament
1971:Bundesarbeitskammer
1963:Zivilprozessordnung
1711:Amchem Prods., Inc.
1546:Modern developments
1375:Motion to set aside
1276:Voluntary dismissal
1181:Indispensable party
1155:affirmative defense
675:mixed legal systems
545:Respondeat superior
539:Vicarious liability
498:Defence of property
435:Insurance bad faith
349:Attractive nuisance
168:Invasion of privacy
18:Class certification
4824:, 2541 (2011).
4454:Bloomberg Industry
4396:Complex Litigation
4235:2010-01-31 at the
4220:2008-02-12 at the
4057:. Irish Legal news
3983:"Our Achievements"
3702:2008-09-30 at the
3695:Halifax Daily News
3406:. 11 December 2013
3368:2009-07-15 at the
3310:2006-12-03 at the
3154:The New York Times
3075:2009-04-02 at the
2828:Collective redress
2802:Arbitration clause
2441:Italian Parliament
2398:financial product
2381:) or 'test case' (
2305:Bhopal gas tragedy
2269:Judiciary of India
2235:Associative Action
2227:Associative Action
2141:Joint litigation (
2111:SERNAC v. La Polar
1943:Federal Parliament
1868:U.S. Supreme Court
1849:coupon settlements
1505:
1500:Associate Justice
1226:Initial conference
1211:Pretrial procedure
924:
856:, also known as a
575:Transferred intent
466:Assumption of risk
430:Restraint of trade
406:Rylands v Fletcher
238:Employment-related
87:False imprisonment
4753:Tulane Law Review
4564:on August 6, 2020
4153:More information
4135:. Thomson Reuters
4012:. The Irish Times
3613:. Fairfax Digital
3520:978-1-80449-160-7
3068:Giles M. (2005).
2838:Dukes v. Wal-Mart
2554:England and Wales
2424:compound interest
2379:gnĂomh ionadaĂoch
2273:Decisions of the
2150:Prozessverbindung
1731:Landeros v. Flood
1608:Wal-Mart v. Dukes
1573:environmental law
1494:
1493:
948:Court of Chancery
940:Wars of the Roses
850:
849:
723:England and Wales
678:
529:Last clear chance
524:Intentional torts
508:Neutral reportage
491:Defense of others
439:
372:Product liability
318:Res ipsa loquitur
305:Reasonable person
213:Breach of promise
62:
16:(Redirected from
5011:
4931:
4930:
4928:
4926:
4909:
4903:
4902:
4900:
4898:
4883:
4877:
4866:
4860:
4858:
4856:
4854:
4835:Webber, David H.
4831:
4825:
4819:
4811:
4805:
4804:
4784:
4775:
4774:
4772:
4771:
4765:
4750:
4741:
4735:
4732:
4726:
4725:
4723:
4722:
4716:
4709:
4701:
4695:
4692:
4686:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4671:
4665:
4664:
4662:
4660:
4645:
4639:
4638:
4610:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4600:
4589:
4574:
4573:
4571:
4569:
4545:
4539:
4538:
4536:
4529:
4521:
4515:
4514:
4503:
4497:
4485:
4476:
4475:
4464:
4458:
4457:
4446:
4437:
4436:
4424:
4418:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4390:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4380:
4365:
4359:
4358:
4356:
4355:
4340:
4334:
4333:
4309:
4303:
4297:
4291:
4290:
4288:
4287:
4280:"CPR, Part 19.6"
4276:
4270:
4263:
4257:
4256:
4245:
4239:
4211:
4205:
4201:
4195:
4194:
4188:
4180:
4178:
4177:
4171:
4163:
4157:
4151:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4140:
4124:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4113:
4097:
4091:
4090:
4088:
4087:
4073:
4067:
4066:
4064:
4062:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4039:
4034:. 4 January 2019
4028:
4022:
4021:
4019:
4017:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3996:
3994:
3979:
3973:
3972:
3966:
3957:
3951:
3950:
3948:
3947:
3932:
3926:
3925:
3923:
3922:
3911:
3905:
3904:
3902:
3901:
3895:
3888:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3859:
3853:
3852:
3851:
3850:
3845:, March 17, 2014
3837:
3831:
3830:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3792:
3777:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3767:
3753:
3747:
3746:
3740:
3735:
3733:
3725:
3713:
3707:
3691:
3685:
3674:
3668:
3667:
3661:
3653:
3651:
3650:
3644:
3638:. Archived from
3637:
3629:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3618:
3600:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3589:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3569:
3567:
3561:
3554:
3545:
3539:
3538:
3532:
3524:
3506:
3500:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3480:
3479:
3473:
3466:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3428:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3411:
3396:
3387:
3378:
3372:
3356:
3350:
3341:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3331:
3320:
3314:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3272:
3266:
3265:
3229:
3220:
3214:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3175:
3169:
3164:. Archived from
3142:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3131:
3125:
3120:. Archived from
3107:
3101:
3090:
3084:
3066:
3060:
3053:
3047:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3007:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2952:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2913:
2896:
2872:
2789:California Codes
2585:, also called a
2343:Delhi High Court
2328:
2326:
2221:Associate Action
2123:President Chirac
1686:and issues from
1593:US Supreme Court
1565:environmentalism
1486:
1479:
1472:
1283:
1271:Summary judgment
1266:Default judgment
1016:Federal question
970:
969:
905:medieval England
842:
835:
828:
812:
811:
668:
437:
300:Standard of care
185:Abuse of process
95:
56:
37:
36:
21:
5019:
5018:
5014:
5013:
5012:
5010:
5009:
5008:
4989:
4988:
4980:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4934:
4924:
4922:
4911:
4910:
4906:
4896:
4894:
4893:. March 7, 2024
4885:
4884:
4880:
4867:
4863:
4852:
4850:
4832:
4828:
4813:
4812:
4808:
4801:
4785:
4778:
4769:
4767:
4763:
4748:
4742:
4738:
4733:
4729:
4720:
4718:
4714:
4707:
4703:
4702:
4698:
4693:
4689:
4680:
4678:
4673:
4672:
4668:
4658:
4656:
4647:
4646:
4642:
4627:10.2307/1122354
4611:
4607:
4598:
4596:
4591:
4590:
4577:
4567:
4565:
4546:
4542:
4534:
4527:
4523:
4522:
4518:
4505:
4504:
4500:
4486:
4479:
4466:
4465:
4461:
4448:
4447:
4440:
4425:
4421:
4411:
4409:
4407:
4391:
4387:
4378:
4376:
4366:
4362:
4353:
4351:
4341:
4337:
4310:
4306:
4298:
4294:
4285:
4283:
4278:
4277:
4273:
4264:
4260:
4253:www.tedioli.com
4247:
4246:
4242:
4237:Wayback Machine
4222:Wayback Machine
4212:
4208:
4202:
4198:
4182:
4181:
4175:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4164:
4160:
4152:
4148:
4138:
4136:
4125:
4121:
4111:
4109:
4098:
4094:
4085:
4083:
4075:
4074:
4070:
4060:
4058:
4051:
4047:
4037:
4035:
4030:
4029:
4025:
4015:
4013:
4006:
4002:
3992:
3990:
3989:on 29 June 2009
3981:
3980:
3976:
3964:
3958:
3954:
3945:
3943:
3934:
3933:
3929:
3920:
3918:
3913:
3912:
3908:
3899:
3897:
3893:
3886:
3882:
3881:
3877:
3868:
3866:
3861:
3860:
3856:
3848:
3846:
3839:
3838:
3834:
3827:
3803:
3799:
3790:
3788:
3779:
3778:
3774:
3765:
3763:
3755:
3754:
3750:
3738:
3736:
3727:
3726:
3714:
3710:
3704:Wayback Machine
3692:
3688:
3675:
3671:
3655:
3654:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3635:
3633:"Archived copy"
3631:
3630:
3626:
3616:
3614:
3601:
3597:
3587:
3585:
3580:
3579:
3575:
3565:
3563:
3559:
3555:. Clayton Utz.
3552:
3546:
3542:
3526:
3525:
3521:
3507:
3503:
3498:Wayback Machine
3490:
3486:
3477:
3475:
3471:
3464:
3460:
3459:
3455:
3448:
3432:Coffee, John C.
3429:
3418:
3409:
3407:
3398:
3397:
3390:
3385:"Class Actions"
3379:
3375:
3370:Wayback Machine
3357:
3353:
3344:Richard Epstein
3342:
3338:
3329:
3327:
3322:
3321:
3317:
3312:Wayback Machine
3299:
3295:
3285:
3283:
3274:
3273:
3269:
3230:
3223:
3210:
3209:
3205:
3195:
3193:
3186:
3182:
3173:
3171:
3143:
3139:
3129:
3127:
3108:
3104:
3091:
3087:
3077:Wayback Machine
3067:
3063:
3054:
3050:
3044:
3040:
3025:
3008:
2975:
2965:
2963:
2954:
2953:
2944:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2914:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2899:
2893:Bryan A. Garner
2873:
2869:
2864:
2798:
2785:
2773:
2717:
2675:
2636:
2625:" to sue under
2608:
2591:named plaintiff
2579:
2573:
2556:
2551:
2531:huge indebtness
2511:
2498:
2490:
2482:
2457:
2449:civil procedure
2419:
2367:
2324:
2323:
2271:
2261:
2255:
2243:
2223:
2202:
2186:
2162:
2135:
2119:
2083:
2030:Legislation in
2001:Provincial laws
1998:
1955:
1939:
1927:
1922:
1909:
1893:
1884:
1833:
1668:
1652:
1548:
1518:West v. Randall
1490:
1461:
1430:
1397:
1388:
1357:
1348:
1344:Burden of proof
1292:
1281:
1240:
1231:Interrogatories
1205:
1139:
1120:Cause of action
1117:
1087:Change of venue
1070:
1046:
1037:
1025:
1013:
975:
974:Civil procedure
968:
960:Judicature Acts
901:
896:
887:
868:, is a type of
846:
806:
700:By jurisdiction
400:Public nuisance
329:Rescue doctrine
312:Proximate cause
224:Negligent torts
136:Dignitary torts
91:
35:
28:
27:Type of lawsuit
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5017:
5007:
5006:
5001:
4987:
4986:
4979:
4976:
4975:
4974:
4968:
4960:
4953:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4938:External links
4936:
4933:
4932:
4904:
4878:
4861:
4826:
4806:
4799:
4776:
4736:
4727:
4696:
4687:
4666:
4640:
4605:
4575:
4540:
4516:
4498:
4489:Slack v. Prani
4477:
4459:
4438:
4419:
4406:978-1422411469
4405:
4385:
4360:
4335:
4324:(4): 814–843.
4304:
4292:
4271:
4258:
4240:
4206:
4196:
4167:"art. 140 bis"
4158:
4146:
4119:
4092:
4068:
4045:
4023:
4000:
3974:
3952:
3927:
3906:
3875:
3854:
3832:
3825:
3797:
3772:
3748:
3739:|journal=
3708:
3686:
3684:, 2008 SKQB 78
3669:
3624:
3595:
3573:
3540:
3519:
3501:
3484:
3453:
3446:
3416:
3388:
3373:
3351:
3336:
3315:
3293:
3267:
3240:(4): 811–846.
3221:
3203:
3180:
3137:
3126:on 2 June 2016
3102:
3085:
3061:
3048:
3038:
3023:
2973:
2956:"Class Action"
2942:
2928:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2898:
2897:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2858:
2853:
2847:
2842:
2834:
2832:European Union
2825:
2819:
2811:
2805:
2797:
2794:
2784:
2781:
2772:
2769:
2716:
2713:
2701:
2700:
2697:
2694:
2674:
2671:
2635:
2634:Federal courts
2632:
2607:
2604:
2587:lead plaintiff
2572:
2569:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2549:United Kingdom
2547:
2510:
2507:
2497:
2494:
2489:
2486:
2481:
2478:
2456:
2453:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2402:
2396:
2366:
2363:
2318:parens patriae
2257:Main article:
2254:
2251:
2242:
2239:
2222:
2219:
2201:
2198:
2185:
2182:
2161:
2158:
2134:
2131:
2118:
2115:
2101:, the Chilean
2082:
2079:
1997:
1994:
1954:
1951:
1938:
1935:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1908:
1905:
1892:
1889:
1883:
1880:
1876:Richard Posner
1872:Henry Friendly
1864:Milton Handler
1832:
1829:
1667:
1664:
1651:
1648:
1547:
1544:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1488:
1481:
1474:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1460:
1459:
1452:
1444:
1441:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1428:
1422:
1416:
1410:Attorney's fee
1407:
1402:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1386:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1351:
1347:
1346:
1341:
1329:
1322:
1321:
1320:
1315:
1304:
1301:
1300:
1294:
1293:
1291:
1290:
1285:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1253:
1252:
1251:
1246:
1239:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1148:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1137:
1127:
1122:
1111:
1106:
1105:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1089:
1081:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1071:
1069:
1068:
1060:
1053:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1035:
1029:
1023:
1018:
1011:Subject-matter
1007:
1002:
1001:
995:
994:
993:
992:
987:
979:
978:
967:
964:
932:unincorporated
913:English courts
900:
897:
895:
892:
886:
883:
848:
847:
845:
844:
837:
830:
822:
819:
818:
817:
816:
814:Law portal
801:
800:
799:
798:
785:
780:
775:
770:
762:
761:
753:
752:
751:
750:
745:
740:
735:
730:
728:European Union
725:
720:
715:
710:
702:
701:
697:
696:
695:
694:
689:
684:
679:
663:
658:
657:
656:
643:
642:
638:
637:
636:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
609:
608:
603:
598:
585:
584:
580:
579:
578:
577:
572:
567:
562:
555:
548:
541:
536:
534:Eggshell skull
531:
526:
518:
517:
513:
512:
511:
510:
505:
500:
495:
494:
493:
483:
478:
473:
468:
460:
459:
453:
452:
451:
450:
445:
440:
438:(American law)
432:
427:
419:
418:
416:Economic torts
412:
411:
410:
409:
402:
394:
393:
387:
386:
385:
384:
379:
374:
366:
365:
354:
353:
352:
351:
346:
341:
336:
334:Duty to rescue
331:
326:
321:
314:
309:
308:
307:
297:
296:
295:
290:
285:
272:
271:
265:
264:
263:
262:
261:
260:
255:
245:
240:
235:
227:
226:
220:
219:
218:
217:
216:
215:
210:
205:
200:
192:
187:
182:
177:
176:
175:
165:
160:
159:
158:
155:
147:
139:
138:
132:
131:
130:
129:
124:
123:
122:
117:
104:
103:
102:Property torts
99:
98:
97:
96:
89:
84:
79:
71:
70:
64:
63:
53:
52:
46:
45:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5016:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4985:
4982:
4981:
4973:
4969:
4967:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4958:
4954:
4952:
4951:
4947:
4946:
4943:United States
4920:
4919:
4914:
4908:
4892:
4888:
4882:
4875:
4871:
4865:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4830:
4823:
4822:131 S. Ct
4818:
4817:
4810:
4802:
4800:9781604429558
4796:
4792:
4791:
4783:
4781:
4766:on 2012-04-26
4762:
4758:
4754:
4747:
4740:
4731:
4713:
4706:
4700:
4691:
4676:
4670:
4654:
4650:
4644:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4609:
4594:
4588:
4586:
4584:
4582:
4580:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4544:
4533:
4526:
4520:
4512:
4508:
4502:
4495:
4491:
4490:
4484:
4482:
4473:
4469:
4463:
4455:
4451:
4445:
4443:
4434:
4430:
4423:
4408:
4402:
4398:
4397:
4389:
4375:
4371:
4364:
4350:
4346:
4339:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4308:
4301:
4296:
4281:
4275:
4268:
4262:
4254:
4250:
4244:
4238:
4234:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4216:
4210:
4200:
4192:
4186:
4168:
4162:
4156:
4150:
4134:
4133:Practical Law
4130:
4123:
4107:
4103:
4096:
4082:
4081:Practical Law
4078:
4072:
4056:
4049:
4033:
4027:
4011:
4004:
3988:
3984:
3978:
3970:
3963:
3956:
3942:on 2013-10-05
3941:
3937:
3931:
3916:
3910:
3892:
3885:
3879:
3864:
3858:
3844:
3843:
3836:
3828:
3826:9781783470440
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3809:
3801:
3786:
3782:
3776:
3762:
3758:
3752:
3744:
3731:
3723:
3719:
3712:
3705:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3690:
3683:
3679:
3673:
3665:
3659:
3645:on 2006-08-11
3641:
3634:
3628:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3599:
3583:
3577:
3558:
3551:
3544:
3536:
3530:
3522:
3516:
3512:
3505:
3499:
3495:
3492:
3488:
3470:
3463:
3457:
3449:
3447:9780674736795
3443:
3439:
3438:
3433:
3427:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3405:
3401:
3395:
3393:
3386:
3382:
3377:
3371:
3367:
3364:
3360:
3359:Michael Greve
3355:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3325:
3319:
3313:
3309:
3306:
3302:
3297:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3228:
3226:
3218:
3213:
3207:
3196:September 19,
3191:
3184:
3170:on 2015-11-15
3168:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3141:
3124:
3119:
3118:
3113:
3106:
3099:
3095:
3089:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3071:
3065:
3058:
3052:
3042:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3024:9780300037760
3020:
3016:
3012:
3006:
3004:
3002:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2961:
2957:
2951:
2949:
2947:
2931:
2929:9780195384208
2925:
2921:
2920:
2912:
2908:
2894:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2871:
2867:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2839:
2835:
2833:
2829:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2812:
2809:
2808:Bill of Peace
2806:
2803:
2800:
2799:
2793:
2790:
2780:
2777:
2768:
2766:
2762:
2757:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2721:
2712:
2710:
2706:
2698:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2690:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2679:federal court
2670:
2667:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2645:
2641:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2603:
2599:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2578:
2571:United States
2568:
2565:
2561:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2516:
2506:
2502:
2493:
2485:
2477:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2401:
2397:
2395:
2391:
2390:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2330:
2320:
2319:
2314:
2310:
2309:Union Carbide
2306:
2301:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2250:
2248:
2238:
2236:
2232:
2231:Verbandsklage
2228:
2218:
2215:
2209:
2207:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2181:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2144:
2139:
2130:
2126:
2124:
2114:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2091:
2090:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2063:
2061:
2056:
2054:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1950:
1946:
1944:
1934:
1932:
1931:Supreme Court
1917:
1913:
1904:
1902:
1898:
1888:
1879:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1852:
1850:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1827:
1822:
1820:
1815:
1813:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1775:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1758:before other
1757:
1754:) of all its
1753:
1749:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1732:
1726:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1675:
1673:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1647:
1645:
1639:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1628:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1615:
1610:
1609:
1603:
1600:
1599:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1554:
1543:
1541:
1534:
1529:
1527:
1522:
1520:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1498:
1487:
1482:
1480:
1475:
1473:
1468:
1467:
1465:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1451:
1450:
1446:
1445:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1426:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1414:American rule
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1356:
1353:
1352:
1350:
1349:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1216:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1202:
1201:Other motions
1199:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1143:
1135:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1095:
1094:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1066:
1065:
1061:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1052:
1051:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1039:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1012:
1009:
1008:
1006:
1005:
1004:
1003:
1000:
997:
996:
991:
988:
986:
983:
982:
981:
980:
977:
972:
971:
966:United States
963:
961:
957:
951:
949:
945:
942:and then the
941:
937:
933:
929:
920:
916:
914:
910:
906:
891:
882:
880:
876:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
843:
838:
836:
831:
829:
824:
823:
821:
820:
815:
810:
805:
804:
803:
802:
797:
793:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
765:
764:
763:
759:
755:
754:
749:
748:United States
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
705:
704:
703:
699:
698:
693:
690:
688:
685:
683:
680:
676:
672:
667:
664:
662:
659:
655:
652:
651:
650:
647:
646:
645:
644:
640:
639:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
593:
592:
589:
588:
587:
586:
582:
581:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
560:
556:
554:
553:
549:
547:
546:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
521:
520:
519:
515:
514:
509:
506:
504:
501:
499:
496:
492:
489:
488:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
463:
462:
461:
458:
455:
454:
449:
446:
444:
441:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
422:
421:
420:
417:
414:
413:
408:
407:
403:
401:
398:
397:
396:
395:
392:
389:
388:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
369:
368:
367:
363:
359:
356:
355:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
319:
315:
313:
310:
306:
303:
302:
301:
298:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
280:
279:
276:
275:
274:
273:
270:
267:
266:
259:
256:
254:
251:
250:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
230:
229:
228:
225:
222:
221:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
195:
194:Sexual torts
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
174:
171:
170:
169:
166:
164:
161:
156:
153:
152:
151:
148:
146:
145:Appropriation
143:
142:
141:
140:
137:
134:
133:
128:
125:
121:
118:
116:
113:
112:
111:
108:
107:
106:
105:
101:
100:
94:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
78:
75:
74:
73:
72:
69:
66:
65:
60:
55:
54:
51:
48:
47:
43:
39:
38:
33:
19:
4956:
4949:
4923:. Retrieved
4916:
4907:
4895:. Retrieved
4890:
4881:
4873:
4869:
4864:
4851:. Retrieved
4846:
4842:
4829:
4814:
4809:
4789:
4768:. Retrieved
4761:the original
4756:
4752:
4739:
4730:
4719:. Retrieved
4699:
4690:
4679:. Retrieved
4669:
4657:. Retrieved
4652:
4643:
4618:
4614:
4608:
4597:. Retrieved
4568:December 28,
4566:. Retrieved
4562:the original
4557:
4553:
4543:
4519:
4510:
4501:
4488:
4471:
4462:
4453:
4432:
4422:
4410:. Retrieved
4395:
4388:
4377:. Retrieved
4373:
4363:
4352:. Retrieved
4348:
4338:
4321:
4317:
4307:
4295:
4284:. Retrieved
4274:
4261:
4252:
4243:
4209:
4199:
4174:. Retrieved
4161:
4149:
4137:. Retrieved
4132:
4122:
4110:. Retrieved
4105:
4095:
4084:. Retrieved
4080:
4071:
4059:. Retrieved
4048:
4036:. Retrieved
4026:
4014:. Retrieved
4003:
3991:. Retrieved
3987:the original
3977:
3955:
3944:. Retrieved
3940:the original
3930:
3919:. Retrieved
3909:
3898:. Retrieved
3878:
3867:. Retrieved
3857:
3847:, retrieved
3841:
3835:
3807:
3800:
3789:. Retrieved
3784:
3775:
3764:. Retrieved
3760:
3751:
3730:cite journal
3711:
3694:
3689:
3681:
3677:
3672:
3647:. Retrieved
3640:the original
3627:
3615:. Retrieved
3608:
3598:
3586:. Retrieved
3576:
3564:. Retrieved
3543:
3510:
3504:
3487:
3476:. Retrieved
3456:
3436:
3408:. Retrieved
3403:
3376:
3354:
3339:
3328:. Retrieved
3318:
3296:
3284:. Retrieved
3279:
3270:
3237:
3233:
3211:
3206:
3194:. Retrieved
3192:. TCPA World
3183:
3172:. Retrieved
3167:the original
3153:
3140:
3128:. Retrieved
3123:the original
3115:
3105:
3098:Ars Technica
3097:
3088:
3080:
3064:
3056:
3051:
3041:
3014:
2964:. Retrieved
2962:. 2007-08-06
2959:
2933:. Retrieved
2918:
2911:
2879:
2876:class action
2875:
2870:
2836:
2815:Class Action
2813:
2786:
2783:State courts
2774:
2764:
2760:
2758:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2702:
2676:
2673:Jurisdiction
2649:
2637:
2620:
2609:
2600:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2580:
2557:
2538:
2527:class action
2526:
2523:class action
2522:
2520:
2512:
2503:
2499:
2491:
2483:
2468:
2464:
2461:verenigingen
2460:
2458:
2444:
2420:
2410:price-fixing
2387:
2383:cás samplach
2382:
2368:
2347:
2331:
2316:
2302:
2280:locus standi
2278:
2272:
2244:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2224:
2210:
2203:
2193:
2189:
2187:
2177:
2173:
2170:Aktiengesetz
2169:
2165:
2163:
2147:
2140:
2136:
2127:
2120:
2110:
2106:
2098:
2087:
2084:
2067:Nora Bernard
2064:
2057:
2049:
2032:Saskatchewan
2029:
2020:
1999:
1979:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1956:
1947:
1940:
1928:
1914:
1910:
1907:Mass actions
1894:
1885:
1857:
1853:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1824:
1816:
1811:
1800:
1795:
1784:common stock
1776:
1763:
1745:
1729:
1727:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1700:
1691:
1676:
1669:
1659:
1653:
1643:
1640:
1636:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1612:
1606:
1604:
1596:
1581:
1576:
1557:
1552:
1549:
1536:
1531:
1523:
1516:
1509:Joseph Story
1506:
1502:Joseph Story
1454:
1447:
1419:English rule
1380:
1365:Renewed JMOL
1335:
1324:
1196:Intervention
1191:Interpleader
1166:Counterclaim
1130:Class action
1129:
1091:
1064:Quasi in rem
1062:
1055:
1048:
1027:Supplemental
999:Jurisdiction
952:
944:Star Chamber
925:
902:
888:
865:
861:
857:
854:class action
853:
851:
773:Criminal law
692:Class action
691:
557:
550:
543:
486:Self-defense
404:
382:Deep pockets
316:
278:Duty of care
40:Part of the
32:Class Action
4853:21 November
4412:17 December
3865:(in German)
3610:Stuff.co.nz
3381:Jim Copland
3092:Foreman C.
2776:Due process
2761:predominate
2746:commonality
2729:commonality
2537:(so-called
2509:Switzerland
2465:stichtingen
2455:Netherlands
2060:condominium
2044:Nova Scotia
1792:corporation
1690:to trial".
1585:arbitration
1569:consumerism
1383:(new trial)
1236:Depositions
1050:In personam
928:corporation
885:Description
649:Tort reform
283:Trespassers
248:Malpractice
243:Entrustment
163:False light
4993:Categories
4770:2011-12-12
4721:2013-10-03
4681:2013-10-03
4599:2016-01-11
4379:2024-01-11
4354:2018-04-04
4286:2013-10-04
4176:2013-10-04
4086:2021-12-20
3993:2 November
3946:2013-10-04
3921:2013-10-04
3900:2019-10-20
3869:2021-05-30
3849:2017-12-12
3791:2016-10-25
3785:La Tercera
3766:2016-10-25
3649:2006-07-29
3478:2013-10-03
3410:2016-01-17
3330:2013-10-03
3174:2015-10-31
3130:21 January
2903:References
2880:class suit
2750:typicality
2741:Numerosity
2733:typicality
2725:numerosity
2627:Section 11
2612:Section 11
2575:See also:
2535:insolvency
2515:government
2428:overdrafts
2400:misselling
2290:Article 32
2263:See also:
2089:erga omnes
2073:suing the
1845:settlement
1831:Criticisms
1807:mass torts
1803:litigation
1772:plaintiffs
1760:plaintiffs
1748:plaintiffs
1666:Advantages
1650:Statistics
1456:Certiorari
1400:Injunction
1288:Settlement
1171:Crossclaim
909:common law
862:class suit
758:common law
661:Quasi-tort
613:Injunction
606:Incidental
425:Conspiracy
150:Defamation
127:Conversion
42:common law
4925:April 15,
4897:April 15,
4659:March 21,
4593:"Rule 23"
4213:See also
4139:17 August
4112:17 August
4061:17 August
4038:17 August
4016:17 August
3676:Ontario:
3588:2 October
3566:2 October
3529:cite book
3254:1740-1461
3217:11th Cir.
3162:0362-4331
2888:pleonasms
2705:civil law
2621:To have "
2541:blackmail
2501:parties.
2371:Irish law
2327:760 crore
2154:§ 147 ZPO
1933:, 2009).
1925:Argentina
1860:extortion
1847:. These "
1752:defendant
1723:plaintiff
1719:defendant
1680:witnesses
1337:voir dire
1318:defendant
1313:plaintiff
1221:Discovery
1186:Impleader
1115:Complaint
1103:Pleadings
1021:Diversity
875:civil law
768:Contracts
708:Australia
516:Liability
476:Necessity
364:liability
288:Licensees
208:Seduction
4837:(2012).
4712:Archived
4621:: 1371.
4532:Archived
4349:BBC News
4233:Archived
4218:Archived
4185:cite web
4106:Lexology
3891:Archived
3700:Archived
3658:cite web
3617:12 March
3557:Archived
3494:Archived
3469:Archived
3434:(2015).
3366:Archived
3308:Archived
3286:21 March
3073:Archived
3033:15549646
3013:(1987).
2796:See also
2765:superior
2754:adequacy
2737:adequacy
2623:standing
2606:Standing
2469:statuten
2408:against
2406:hauliers
2036:Manitoba
1696:asbestos
1684:exhibits
1617:(2013).
1449:Mandamus
1355:Judgment
1146:Demurrer
1136:) )
1134:2005 Act
1044:Personal
783:Property
778:Evidence
628:Replevin
596:Punitive
583:Remedies
457:Defences
391:Nuisance
362:absolute
293:Invitees
120:chattels
110:Trespass
50:Tort law
4635:1122354
4496:(2023).
3722:1995906
3262:4611237
3117:Reuters
2614:of the
2365:Ireland
2214:inhibit
2133:Germany
2040:Ontario
2009:Ontario
1953:Austria
1672:lawsuit
1405:Damages
1385: )
1381:De novo
1334: (
1308:Parties
1176:Joinder
1153: (
1132: (
1032:Removal
894:History
870:lawsuit
796:estates
623:Detinue
618:Tracing
601:Special
591:Damages
471:Consent
258:medical
154:Slander
82:Battery
77:Assault
59:Outline
4978:Europe
4820:,
4797:
4633:
4403:
3823:
3720:
3517:
3444:
3260:
3252:
3215: (
3160:
3031:
3021:
2935:May 5,
2926:
2884:equity
2735:, and
2683:U.S.C.
2653:remove
2539:legal
2488:Russia
2480:Poland
2422:apply
2117:France
2042:, and
2005:Quebec
1996:Canada
1882:Ethics
1756:assets
1644:before
1577:entire
1513:US law
1438:Appeal
1395:Remedy
1326:Pro se
1151:Answer
1057:In rem
956:equity
794:, and
792:trusts
756:Other
743:Taiwan
713:Canada
666:Delict
633:Trover
358:Strict
44:series
4849:: 181
4764:(PDF)
4749:(PDF)
4715:(PDF)
4708:(PDF)
4631:JSTOR
4535:(PDF)
4528:(PDF)
4170:(PDF)
3965:(PDF)
3894:(PDF)
3887:(PDF)
3643:(PDF)
3636:(PDF)
3560:(PDF)
3553:(PDF)
3472:(PDF)
3465:(PDF)
3258:S2CID
2966:5 May
2862:Notes
2642:Rule
2593:, or
2496:Spain
2417:Italy
2375:Irish
2335:Delhi
2253:India
2081:Chile
2053:Vioxx
1788:trial
1780:bonds
1768:venue
1688:trial
1298:Trial
1161:Reply
1078:Venue
864:, or
788:Wills
760:areas
738:Japan
733:India
718:China
671:civil
443:Fraud
253:legal
157:Libel
4972:2012
4927:2024
4899:2024
4872:and
4868:See
4855:2019
4795:ISBN
4661:2018
4570:2020
4414:2017
4401:ISBN
4224:and
4191:link
4141:2020
4114:2020
4063:2020
4040:2020
4018:2020
3995:2012
3821:ISBN
3743:help
3718:SSRN
3664:link
3619:2013
3590:2015
3568:2015
3535:link
3515:ISBN
3442:ISBN
3288:2018
3250:ISSN
3198:2020
3158:ISSN
3132:2024
3029:OCLC
3019:ISBN
2968:2015
2937:2024
2924:ISBN
2558:The
2533:and
2392:the
2357:and
2267:and
2188:The
2109:and
1980:The
1957:The
1874:and
1740:tort
1715:Mace
1567:and
1332:Jury
673:and
360:and
115:land
4847:106
4623:doi
4326:doi
3813:doi
3242:doi
2369:In
2019:in
1782:to
1698:).
1553:all
934:or
4995::
4915:.
4889:.
4845:.
4841:.
4779:^
4757:82
4755:.
4751:.
4710:.
4651:.
4629:.
4619:84
4617:.
4578:^
4558:41
4556:.
4552:.
4530:.
4509:.
4492:,
4480:^
4470:.
4452:.
4441:^
4431:.
4372:.
4347:.
4322:37
4320:.
4316:.
4251:.
4187:}}
4183:{{
4131:.
4104:.
4079:.
3967:.
3819:.
3783:.
3759:.
3734::
3732:}}
3728:{{
3660:}}
3656:{{
3607:.
3531:}}
3527:{{
3467:.
3419:^
3402:.
3391:^
3383:,
3361:,
3346:,
3303:,
3278:.
3256:.
3248:.
3236:.
3224:^
3156:.
3152:.
3114:.
3096:.
3079:.
3046:52
3027:.
2976:^
2958:.
2945:^
2739:.
2731:,
2727:,
2644:23
2589:,
2544:).
2377::
2361:.
2300:.
2113:.
2038:,
2034:,
1682:,
1674:.
1563:,
1542:.
860:,
852:A
790:,
4929:.
4901:.
4857:.
4803:.
4773:.
4724:.
4684:.
4663:.
4637:.
4625::
4602:.
4572:.
4513:.
4474:.
4456:.
4435:.
4416:.
4382:.
4357:.
4332:.
4328::
4302:.
4289:.
4193:)
4179:.
4143:.
4116:.
4089:.
4065:.
4042:.
4020:.
3997:.
3949:.
3924:.
3903:.
3872:.
3829:.
3815::
3794:.
3769:.
3745:)
3741:(
3724:.
3666:)
3652:.
3621:.
3592:.
3570:.
3537:)
3523:.
3481:.
3450:.
3413:.
3333:.
3290:.
3264:.
3244::
3238:7
3200:.
3177:.
3134:.
3100:.
3083:.
3035:.
2970:.
2939:.
2325:â‚ą
2229:(
2192:(
2176:(
2168:(
1961:(
1485:e
1478:t
1471:v
1427:)
1421:)
1412:(
1398:(
1358:(
1340:)
1157:)
1118:(
1067:)
1047:(
1034:)
1014:(
841:e
834:t
827:v
677:)
61:)
57:(
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.