1065:, such as desert racers, use straps called "limiting straps" to limit the suspensions' downward travel to a point within safe limits for the linkages and shock absorbers. This is necessary, since these trucks are intended to travel over very rough terrain at high speeds, and even become airborne at times. Without something to limit the travel, the suspension bushings would take all the force, when suspension reaches "full droop", and it can even cause the coil springs to come out of their "buckets", if they are held in by compression forces only. A limiting strap is a simple strap, often from nylon of a predetermined length, that stops downward movement at a pre-set point before theoretical maximum travel is reached. The opposite of this is the "bump-stop", which protects the suspension and the vehicle (as well as the occupants) from the violent "bottoming" of the suspension, caused when an obstruction (or a hard landing) causes suspension to run out of upward travel without fully absorbing the energy of the stroke. Without bump-stops, a vehicle that "bottoms out", will experience a very hard shock when the suspension contacts the bottom of the frame or body, which is transferred to the occupants and every connector and weld on the vehicle. Factory vehicles often come with plain rubber "nubs" to absorb the worst of the forces, and insulate the shock. A desert race vehicle, which must routinely absorb far higher impact forces, might be provided with pneumatic or hydro-pneumatic bump-stops. These are essentially miniature shock absorbers (dampers) that are fixed to the vehicle in a location, such, that the suspension will contact the end of the piston when it nears the upward travel limit. These absorb the impact far more effectively than a solid rubber bump-stop will, essential, because a rubber bump-stop is considered a "last-ditch" emergency insulator for the occasional accidental bottoming of the suspension; it is entirely insufficient to absorb repeated and heavy bottoming, such as a high-speed off-road vehicle encounters.
237:
2094:, had overlapping and sometimes interleaved road wheels to distribute the load more evenly on the tank's track, and therefore on the ground. This apparently made a significant contribution to speed, range and track life, as well as providing a continuous band of protection. It has not been used since the end of that war, probably due to the maintenance requirements of more complicated mechanical parts working in mud, sand, rocks, snow, and ice; as well as due to cost. Rocks and frozen mud often got stuck between the overlapping wheels, which could prevent them from turning, or would cause damage to the road wheels. If one of the interior road wheels were damaged, it would require other road wheels to be removed in order to access the damaged road wheel, making the process more complicated and time-consuming.
1164:, which are subject to decay over time. For high-stress suspensions, such as off-road vehicles, polyurethane bushings are available, which offer more longevity under greater stresses. However, due to weight and cost considerations, structures are not made more rigid than necessary. Some vehicles exhibit detrimental vibrations involving the flexing of structural parts, such as when accelerating while turning sharply. Flexibility of structures, such as frames and suspension links, can also contribute to springing, especially to damping out high-frequency vibrations. The flexibility of wire wheels contributed to their popularity in times when cars had less advanced suspensions.
267:
804:
width, CG height, spring and damper rates, roll centre heights of front and rear, anti-roll bar stiffness and tire pressure/construction. The roll rate of a vehicle can, and usually, does differ front-to-rear, which allows for the tuning ability of a vehicle for transient and steady-state handling. The roll rate of a vehicle does not change the total amount of weight transfer on the vehicle, but shifts the speed and percentage of weight transferred on a particular axle to another axle through the vehicle chassis. Generally, the higher the roll rate on an axle of a vehicle, the faster and higher percentage the weight transfer on that
1518:, fore-aft linked suspension system, together with in-board front brakes, had a much smaller unsprung weight than existing coil spring or leaf designs. The interconnection transmitted some of the force deflecting a front wheel up over a bump, to push the rear wheel down on the same side. When the rear wheel met that bump a moment later, it did the same in reverse, keeping the car level front to rear. The 2CV had a design brief to be able to be driven at speed over a ploughed field, such as by a farmer transporting chicken eggs. It originally featured friction dampers and
169:
352:
1616:
2083:, getting spring force from twisting bars inside the hull — this sometimes had less travel than the Christie type, but was significantly more compact, allowing more space inside the hull, with the consequent possibility to install larger turret rings, and thus, heavier main armament. Torsion-bar suspension, sometimes including shock absorbers, has been the dominant heavy armored vehicle suspension since World War II. Torsion bars may take space under or near the floor, which may interfere with making the tank low to reduce exposure.
1094:
rear, can be used to tune handling. Some racecars are tuned with -2 to -7° camber, depending on the type of handling desired, and tire construction. Often, too much camber will result in the decrease of braking performance due to a reduced contact patch size through excessive camber variation in suspension geometry. The amount of camber change in bump is determined by the instantaneous front view swing arm (FVSA) length of suspension geometry, or in other words, the tendency of the tire to camber inward when compressed in bump.
1759:
145:
714:
768:
they both have heavy springs, the actual spring rates for a 2,000 lb (910 kg) racecar and a 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) truck are very different. A luxury car, taxi, or passenger bus would be described as having soft springs, for the comfort of their passengers or driver. Vehicles with worn-out or damaged springs ride lower to the ground, which reduces the overall amount of compression available to the suspension, and increases the amount of body lean.
1918:(motorbikes) lean towards the center of curvature while turning, which improves stability and decreases the chances of toppling. But vehicles with more than two wheels, and equipped with a conventional suspension system, could not do the same until now, so the passengers feel the outward inertial force, which reduces the stability of riders and their comfort as well. This kind of tilting suspension system is the solution to the problem. If the road does not have
784:
wheel 1 in (2.5 cm) (without moving the car), the spring more than likely compresses a smaller amount. If the spring moved 0.75 in (19 mm), the lever arm ratio would be 0.75:1. The wheel rate is calculated by taking the square of the ratio (0.5625) times the spring rate, thus obtaining 281.25 lbs/inch (49.25 N/mm). The ratio is squared because it has two effects on the wheel rate: it applies to both the force and the distance traveled.
3768:
3758:
988:
849:
653:
447:
48:
788:
are not independent, when viewed from the side under acceleration or braking, the pivot point is at infinity (because both wheels have moved) and the spring is directly inline with the wheel contact patch. The result is often, that the effective wheel rate under cornering is different from what it is under acceleration and braking. This variation in wheel rate may be minimised by locating the spring as close to the wheel as possible.
1301:
1152:
values of anti-squat commonly cause wheel hop during braking. It is important to note, that the value of 100% means, that all of the weight transfer is being carried through suspension linkage. However, this does not mean that the suspension is incapable of carrying additional loads (aerodynamic, cornering, etc.) during an episode of braking, or forward acceleration. In other words, no "binding" of the suspension is to be implied.
1503:: two Championships; Lexus GX470 2004 as the 4×4 of the year with KDSS; the 2005 PACE award). These systems by Kinetic generally decouple at least two vehicle modes (roll, warp (articulation), pitch, and/or heave (bounce)) to simultaneously control each mode's stiffness and damping by using interconnected shock absorbers, and other methods. In 1999, Kinetic was bought out by Tenneco. Later developments by the Catalan company
1054:
wheel can cause serious control problems, or directly cause damage. "Bottoming" can be caused by the suspension, tires, fenders, etc. running out of space to move, or the body or other components of the car hitting the road. Control problems caused by lifting a wheel are less severe, if the wheel lifts when the spring reaches its unloaded shape than they are, if travel is limited by contact of suspension members (See
1145:
of braking effort at the front wheels must be known. Then, multiply the tangent by the front wheel braking effort percentage and divide by the ratio of the center of gravity height to the wheelbase. A value of 50% would mean, that half of the weight transfer to the front wheels; during braking, it is being transmitted through front suspension linkage, and half is being transmitted through front suspension springs.
153:
1554:) with suspension units on each side connected to each other by a fluid-filled pipe. The fluid transmitted the force of road bumps from one wheel to the other (on the same principle as Citroën 2CV's mechanical system described above), and because each suspension unit contained valves to restrict the flow of fluid, also served as a shock absorber. Moulton went on to develop a replacement for
1983:
248:-drawn carts had the platform swing on iron chains attached to the wheeled frame of the carriage. This system remained the basis for most suspension systems until the turn of the 19th century, although the iron chains were replaced with the use of leather straps called thoroughbraces by the 17th century. No modern automobiles have used the thoroughbrace suspension system.
371:. With the advantage of a damped suspension system on his 'Mors Machine', Henri Fournier won the prestigious Paris-to-Berlin race on 20 June 1901. Fournier's superior time was 11 hours 46 minutes and 10 seconds, while the best competitor was Léonce Girardot in a Panhard with a time of 12 hours, 15 minutes, and 40 seconds.
1514:. Suspension in the 2CV was extremely soft — the longitudinal link was making pitch softer, instead of making roll stiffer. It relied on extreme anti-dive and anti-squat geometries to compensate for that. This resulted in a softer axle-crossing stiffness that anti-roll bars would have otherwise compromised. The leading arm / trailing arm
720:
718:
715:
719:
214:, which are at odds with each other. The tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. It is important for the suspension to keep the road wheel in contact with the road surface as much as possible, because all the road or ground forces acting on the vehicle do so through the contact patches of the
1870:
In semi-independent suspensions, the wheels of an axle are able to move relative to one another, as in an independent suspension, but the position of one wheel has an effect on the position and attitude of the other wheel. This effect is achieved through the twisting or deflecting of suspension parts
1140:
The method of determining anti-dive or anti-squat depends on whether suspension linkages react to the torque of braking and accelerating. For example, with inboard brakes and half-shaft-driven rear wheels, the suspension linkages do not react, but with outboard brakes and a swing-axle driveline, they
1127:
In this respect, the instant centers are more important to the handling of the vehicle, than the kinematic roll center alone, in that the ratio of geometric-to-elastic weight transfer is determined by the forces at the tires and their directions in relation to the position of their respective instant
1093:
changes due to wheel travel, body roll and suspension system deflection or compliance. In general, a tire wears and brakes best at -1 to -2° of camber from vertical. Depending on the tire and the road surface, it may hold the road best at a slightly different angle. Small changes in camber, front and
935:
Unsprung weight transfer is calculated based on weight of the vehicle's components that are not supported by the springs. This includes tires, wheels, brakes, spindles, half the control arm's weight, and other components. These components are then (for calculation purposes) assumed to be connected to
787:
Wheel rate on independent suspension is fairly straightforward. However, special consideration must be taken with some non-independent suspension designs. Take the case of the straight axle. When viewed from the front or rear, the wheel rate can be measured by the means above. Yet, because the wheels
758:
of the spring. Vehicles that carry heavy loads, will often have heavier springs to compensate for the additional weight that would otherwise collapse a vehicle to the bottom of its travel (stroke). Heavier springs are also used in performance applications, where the loading conditions experienced are
1850:
Because the wheels are not constrained to remain perpendicular to a flat road surface in turning, braking, and varying load conditions, control of the wheel camber is an important issue. Swinging-arm was common in small cars that were sprung softly, and could carry large loads, because the camber is
1494:
have also been explored in some recent studies, and their potential benefits in enhancing vehicle ride and handling have been demonstrated. The control system can also be used for further improving performance of interconnected suspensions. Apart from academic research, an
Australian company Kinetic
1486:
Interconnected suspension, unlike semi-active/active suspensions, could easily decouple different vehicle vibration modes in a passive manner. Interconnections can be realized by various means, such as mechanical, hydraulic, and pneumatic. Anti-roll bars are one of the typical examples of mechanical
1144:
To determine the percentage of front suspension braking anti-dive for outboard brakes, it is first necessary to determine the tangent of the angle between a line drawn, in side view, through the front tire patch and the front suspension instant center, and the horizontal. In addition, the percentage
1053:
Travel is the measure of distance from the bottom of the suspension stroke (such as when the vehicle is on a jack, and the wheel hangs freely) to the top of the suspension stroke (such as when the vehicle's wheel can no longer travel in an upward direction toward the vehicle). Bottoming or lifting a
1151:
Forward acceleration anti-squat is calculated in a similar manner and with the same relationship between percentage and weight transfer. Anti-squat values of 100% and more are commonly used in drag racing, but values of 50% or less are more common in cars that have to undergo severe braking. Higher
1136:
Anti-dive and anti-squat are percentages that indicate the degree to which the front dives under braking, and the rear squats under acceleration. They can be thought of as the counterparts for braking and acceleration, as jacking forces are to cornering. The main reason for the difference is due to
1080:
Damping controls the travel speed and resistance of the vehicle's suspension. An undamped car will oscillate up and down. With proper damping levels, the car will settle back to a normal state in a minimal amount of time. Most damping in modern vehicles can be controlled by increasing or decreasing
926:
In most conventional applications, when weight is transferred through intentionally compliant elements, such as springs, dampers, and anti-roll bars, the weight transfer is said to be "elastic", while the weight which is transferred through more rigid suspension links, such as A-arms and toe links,
783:
Wheel rate is usually equal to or considerably less than the spring rate. Commonly, springs are mounted on control arms, swing arms or some other pivoting suspension member. Consider the example above, where the spring rate was calculated to be 500 lbs/inch (87.5 N/mm), if one were to move the
1123:
of the vertical load on the tire and the lateral force generated by it points directly into the instant center, the suspension links will not move. In this case, all weight transfer at that end of the vehicle will be geometric in nature. This is key information used in finding the force-based roll
803:
Roll rate is analogous to a vehicle's ride rate, but for actions that include lateral accelerations, causing a vehicle's sprung mass to roll. It is expressed as torque per degree of roll of the vehicle sprung mass. It is influenced by factors including but not limited to vehicle sprung mass, track
762:
Springs that are too hard or too soft cause the suspension to become ineffective – mostly because they fail to properly isolate the vehicle from the road. Vehicles that commonly experience suspension loads heavier than normal, have heavy or hard springs, with a spring rate close to the upper limit
2086:
As with cars, wheel travel and spring rate affect the bumpiness of ride, and the speed at which rough terrain can be negotiated. It may be significant, that a smooth ride, which is often associated with comfort, increases the accuracy when firing on the move. It also reduces shock on optics and
1749:
Because it assures constant camber, dependent (and semi-independent) suspension is most common on vehicles that need to carry large loads as a proportion of the vehicle's weight, that have relatively soft springs and that do not (for cost and simplicity reasons) use active suspensions. The use of
1185:
For most purposes, the weight of suspension components is unimportant. But at high frequencies caused by road surface roughness, the parts isolated by rubber bushings act as a multi-stage filter to suppress noise and vibration better than can be done with only tires and springs. (The springs work
1172:
Automobiles can be heavily laden with luggage, passengers, and trailers. This loading will cause a vehicle's tail to sink downwards. Maintaining a steady chassis level is essential to achieving the proper handling that the vehicle was designed for. Oncoming drivers can be blinded by the headlight
1115:
Due to the fact that the wheel and tire's motion is constrained by the vehicle's suspension links, the motion of the wheel package in the front view will scribe an imaginary arc in space with an "instantaneous center" of rotation at any given point along its path. The instant center for any wheel
767:
of the load. Riding in an empty truck meant for carrying loads can be uncomfortable for passengers, because of its high spring rate relative to the weight of the vehicle. A race car could also be described as having heavy springs, and would also be uncomfortably bumpy. However, even though we say
1917:
The tilting suspension system improves stability, traction, the turning radius of a vehicle, and the comfort of riders as well. While turning right or left, passengers or objects on a vehicle feel the G-force or inertial force outward the radius of the curvature, which is why two-wheeler riders
1477:
With the help of a control system, various semi-active/active suspensions realize an improved design compromise among different vibration modes of the vehicle; namely: bounce, roll, pitch and warp modes. However, the applications of these advanced suspensions are constrained by cost, packaging,
830:
percentage is a simplified method of describing lateral load transfer distribution front to rear, and subsequently handling balance. It is the effective wheel rate, in roll, of each axle of the vehicle as a ratio of the vehicle's total roll rate. It is commonly adjusted through the use of
918:
The total amount of weight transfer is only affected by four factors: the distance between wheel centers (wheelbase in the case of braking, or track width in the case of cornering), the height of the center of gravity, the mass of the vehicle, and the amount of acceleration experienced.
717:
922:
The speed at which weight transfer occurs, as well as through which components it transfers, is complex, and is determined by many factors; including, but not limited to: roll center height, spring and damper rates, anti-roll bar stiffness, and the kinematic design of suspension links.
1655:
that holds wheels parallel to each other and perpendicular to the axle. When the camber of one wheel changes, the camber of the opposite wheel changes in the same way (by convention, on one side, this is a positive change in the camber, and on the other side, this a negative change).
1473:
have also been developed for vehicles. Examples include the electromagnetic suspension of Bose, and the electromagnetic suspension developed by prof. Laurentiu Encica. In addition, the new
Michelin wheel with embedded suspension functioning on an electric motor is also similar.
952:(total weight less the unsprung weight), the front and rear roll center heights, and the sprung center of gravity height (used to calculate the roll moment arm length). Calculating the front and rear sprung weight transfer will also require knowing the roll couple percentage.
1948:
system is a suspension arrangement, in which there are some trailing arms fitted with some idler wheels. Due to articulation between the driving section and the followers, this suspension is very flexible. This kind of suspension is appropriate for extremely rough terrain.
960:
times the sprung weight times the roll moment arm length divided by the effective track width. The front sprung weight transfer is calculated by multiplying the roll couple percentage times the total sprung weight transfer. The rear is the total minus the front transfer.
278:
Automobiles were initially developed as self-propelled versions of horse-drawn vehicles. However, horse-drawn vehicles had been designed for relatively slow speeds, and their suspension was not well suited to the higher speeds permitted by the internal combustion engine.
620:, or their equivalent from the centre of the differential to each wheel. But the wheels cannot entirely rise and fall independently of each other; they are tied by a yoke that goes around the differential, below and behind it. This method has had little use in the
955:
The roll axis is the line through the front and rear roll centers that the vehicle rolls around during cornering. The distance from this axis to the sprung center of gravity height is the roll moment arm length. The total sprung weight transfer is equal to the
1076:
is the control of motion or oscillation, as seen with the use of hydraulic gates and valves in a vehicle's shock absorber. This may also vary, intentionally or unintentionally. Like spring rate, the optimal damping for comfort may be less, than for control.
1329:
Automakers are aware of the inherent limitations of steel springs — that these springs tend to produce undesirable oscillations, and carmakers have developed other types of suspension materials and mechanisms in attempts to improve performance:
1102:
Roll center height is a product of suspension instant center heights and is a useful metric in analyzing weight transfer effects, body roll and front to rear roll stiffness distribution. Conventionally, roll stiffness distribution is tuned adjusting
745:
The spring rate (or suspension rate) is a component in setting the vehicle's ride height or its location in the suspension stroke. When a spring is compressed or stretched, the force it exerts, is proportional to its change in length. The
969:
Jacking forces are the sum of the vertical force components experienced by suspension links. The resultant force acts to lift the sprung mass, if the roll center is above ground, or compress it, if underground. Generally, the higher the
1362:
Shock absorbers damp out the (otherwise simple harmonic) motions of a vehicle up and down on its springs. They must also damp out much of the wheel bounce when the unsprung weight of a wheel, hub, axle, and sometimes brakes and the
939:
The weight transfer for cornering in the front would be equal to the total unsprung front weight times the G-force times the front unsprung center of gravity height divided by the front track width. The same is true for the rear.
593:, invented by Albert Hotchkiss, was the most popular rear suspension system used in American cars from the 1930s to the 1970s. The system uses longitudinal leaf springs attached both forward and behind the differential of the
1568:, worked with the same principle, but instead of rubber spring units, it used metal spheres divided internally by a rubber diaphragm. The top half contained pressurised gas, and the lower half the same fluid as used on the
1858:
Wishbone and multi-link allow the engineer more control over the geometry, to arrive at the best compromise, than swing axle, MacPherson strut, or swinging arm do; however, the cost and space requirements may be greater.
1922:
or banking, it will not affect the comfort with this suspension system, the vehicle tilt and decrease in the height of the center of gravity with an increase in stability. This suspension is also used in fun vehicles.
1232:
in order to improve aerodynamics and fuel efficiency. Modern formula cars that have exposed wheels and suspension typically use streamlined tubing rather than simple round tubing for their suspension arms to reduce
2008:, have specialized suspension requirements. They can weigh more than seventy tons, and are required to move as quickly as possible over very rough or soft ground. Their suspension components must be protected from
2486:
716:
1237:. Also typical is the use of rocker-arm, push rod, or pull rod-type suspensions, that, among other things, place the spring/damper unit inboard and out of the air stream to further reduce air resistance.
1823:
Transverse leaf springs when used as a suspension link, or four-quarter elliptics on one end of a car are similar to wishbones in geometry, but are more compliant. Examples are the front of the original
1384:
For example, a hydropneumatic Citroën will "know" how far off the ground the car is supposed to be, and constantly resets to achieve that level, regardless of load. However, this type of suspension will
1725:
Longitudinal semi-elliptical springs used to be common, and are still used in heavy-duty trucks and aircraft. They have the advantage, that the spring rate can easily be made progressive (non-linear).
1197:
This is the main functional advantage of aluminum wheels over steel wheels. Aluminum suspension parts have been used in production cars, and carbon fiber suspension parts are common in racing cars.
1107:
rather than roll center height (as both tend to have a similar effect on the sprung mass), but the height of the roll center is significant when considering the amount of jacking forces experienced.
1119:
A component of the tire's force vector points from the contact patch of the tire through instant center. The larger this component is, the less suspension motion will occur. Theoretically, if the
1245:
Production methods improve, but cost is always a factor. The continued use of the solid rear axle, with unsprung differential, especially on heavy vehicles, seems to be the most obvious example.
1572:
system. The fluid transmitted suspension forces between the units on each side, whilst the gas acted as the springing medium through the diaphragm. This is the same principle as the Citroën
948:
Sprung weight transfer is the weight transferred by only the weight of the vehicle resting on its springs, and not by total vehicle weight. Calculating this requires knowing the vehicle's
2796:
2662:
1643:
Suspension systems can be broadly classified into two subgroups: dependent and independent. These terms refer to the ability of opposite wheels to move independently of each other. A
1690:
Dependent systems may be differentiated by the system of linkages used to locate them, both longitudinally and transversely. Often, both functions are combined in a set of linkages.
1426:
systems use electronic monitoring of vehicle conditions, coupled with the means to change the behavior of vehicle suspension in real time to directly control the motion of the car.
1507:
have devised a simpler system design based on single-acting cylinders. After some projects on competition, Creuat is active in providing retrofit systems for some vehicle models.
321:
was later refined and made to work years later. Springs were not only made of metal; a sturdy tree branch could be used as a spring, such as with a bow. Horse-drawn carriages and
2020:
to reduce ground loading on poor surfaces. Some wheels are too big and too confined to turn, so skid steering is used with some wheeled, as well as with tracked vehicles.
2087:
other equipment. The unsprung weight and track link weight may limit speed on roads, and can affect the useful lifetime of the vehicle's track, and its other components.
2490:
1596:
in 2002. The system was changed in favour of coil springs over dampers due to cost reasons towards the end of the vehicle's life. When it was decommissioned in 2006, the
1487:
interconnections, while it has been stated, that fluidic interconnections offer greater potential and flexibility in improving both the stiffness and damping properties.
1914:)). With the addition of these suspension systems, there is a further tilting or leaning mechanism that connects the suspension system with the vehicle body (chassis).
915:
Weight transfer during cornering, acceleration, or braking is usually calculated per individual wheel, and compared with the static weights for the same wheels.
1419:, whose viscosity can be changed electromagnetically — thereby giving variable control without switching valves, which is faster and thus more effective.
1381:
If suspension is externally controlled, then it is a semi-active or active suspension — the suspension is reacting to signals from an electronic controller.
605:
to manufacture. Also, the dynamic defects of this design were suppressed by the enormous weight of U.S. passenger vehicles before the implementation of the
1678:
suspension is a third type. In this case, the motion of one wheel does affect the position of the other, but they are not rigidly attached to each other.
2716:
1137:
the different design goals between front and rear suspension, whereas suspension is usually symmetrical between the left and the right of the vehicle.
2778:
236:
2800:
1974:
that are part of the vehicle. Although either sort helps to smooth the path and reduce ground pressure, many of the same considerations apply.
795:
in ride (also referred to as "heave"). This can be useful in creating a metric for suspension stiffness and travel requirements for a vehicle.
3026:
2983:
1454:, announced in 2009, uses linear electric motors in place of hydraulic or pneumatic actuators that have generally been used up until recently.
2388:
3088:
827:
3797:
1746:, depending on whether or not differential is carried on the axle. Live-axle is simpler, but unsprung weight contributes to wheel bounce.
1446:
1990 as an option that added an extra 20% to the price of luxury models. Citroën has also developed several active suspension models (see
3792:
2735:
2632:
2602:
2572:
2542:
2512:
2344:
2271:
1389:
instantly compensate for body roll due to cornering. Citroën's system adds about 1% to the cost of the car versus passive steel springs.
2016:
weapons. Tracked AFVs can have as many as nine road wheels on each side. Many wheeled AFVs have six or eight large wheels. Some have a
791:
Wheel rates are usually summed and compared with the sprung mass of a vehicle to create a "ride rate" and the corresponding suspension
282:
The first workable spring-suspension required advanced metallurgical knowledge and skill, and only became possible with the advent of
2689:
1851:
independent of load. Some active and semi-active suspensions maintain ride height, and therefore the camber, independent of load. In
1899:) is not a different type or geometry of construction; moreover, it is a technology addition to the conventional suspension system.
574:
at the extreme rear of the transmission, which was attached to the engine. A similar method like this was used in the late 1930s by
1736:, even on expensive models. It had the advantages of simplicity and low unsprung weight (compared to other solid-axle designs).
601:
to the frame. Although scorned by many
European car makers of the time, it was accepted by American car makers, because it was
3052:
348:
re-introduced leather strap suspension, which gave a swinging motion instead of the jolting up-and-down of spring suspension.
3002:
2959:
2930:
1209:
are the most compact arrangement for front-engined vehicles, where space between the wheels is required to place the engine.
112:
3371:
2103:
2060:
was a variation which used a combination of bell crank and exterior coil springs, in use from the 1930s to the 1990s. The
84:
1668:
allows wheels to rise and fall on their own without affecting the opposite wheel. Suspensions with other devices, such as
1264:
systems, which can be treated as an integrated unit of gas spring and damping components, used by the French manufacturer
780:
Wheel rate is the effective spring rate when measured at the wheel, as opposed to simply measuring the spring rate alone.
763:
for that vehicle's weight. This allows the vehicle to perform properly under a heavy load, when control is limited by the
1580:, but is self-contained, and does not require an engine-driven pump to provide hydraulic pressure. The downside is, that
218:. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from damage and wear. The design of front and
624:. Its use around 1900 was probably due to the poor quality of tires, which wore out quickly. By removing a good deal of
240:
American carriage showcasing thoroughbrace suspension—note the black straps running across the side of the undercarriage
3487:
3288:
2470:
1639:
This diagram is not exhaustive; notably, it excludes elements, such as trailing arm links, and those that are flexible.
1415:
Toyota introduced switchable shock absorbers in the 1983 Soarer. Delphi currently sells shock absorbers filled with a
91:
3081:
2419:
2248:
1292:
Traditional springs and dampers are referred to as passive suspensions — most vehicles are suspended in this manner.
1194:
These are usually small, except that the suspension is related to whether the brakes and differential(s) are sprung.
1035:
896:
700:
494:
131:
1862:
Semi-trailing arm is in between, being a variable compromise between the geometries of swinging arm and swing axle.
1017:
878:
682:
476:
3497:
1728:
A single transverse leaf spring for both front wheels and/or both back wheels, supporting solid axles, was used by
1212:
Inboard brakes (which reduce unsprung weight) are probably avoided more due to space considerations than to cost.
2035:
suspensions adopted from agricultural, automotive, or railway machinery, but even these had very limited travel.
1510:
Historically, the first mass-production car with front-to-rear mechanical interconnected suspension was the 1948
1490:
Considering the considerable commercial potentials of hydro-pneumatic technology (Corolla, 1996), interconnected
1009:
870:
674:
468:
65:
1148:
For inboard brakes, the same procedure is followed, but using the wheel center instead of contact patch center.
286:. Obadiah Elliott registered the first patent for a spring-suspension vehicle; each wheel had two durable steel
98:
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2374:
1013:
874:
678:
606:
472:
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of wheel suspension using a geared flywheel, but without adding significant mass. It was initially employed in
69:
20:
1116:
package can be found by following imaginary lines drawn through suspension links to their intersection point.
3522:
2038:
Speeds increased due to more powerful engines, and the quality of ride had to be improved. In the 1930s, the
2017:
418:
3129:
3074:
2436:
2027:
had fixed suspension with no designed movement whatsoever. This unsatisfactory situation was improved with
1815:
1229:
80:
1205:
Designs differ as to how much space they take up, and where it is located. It is generally accepted, that
3802:
3597:
2130:
27:
2822:
616:, which is sometimes called "semi-independent". Like true independent rear suspension, this employs two
325:
used this system, and it is still used today in larger vehicles, mainly mounted in the rear suspension.
258:
By the middle of the 19th century, elliptical springs might additionally start to be used on carriages.
3434:
3283:
3265:
2203:
1911:
1875:
1804:
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1470:
290:
on each side and the body of the carriage was fixed directly to the springs which were attached to the
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2193:
2001:
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1347:
1277:
1174:
727:
266:
3512:
3364:
3169:
3144:
1722:
Fully elliptical springs usually need supplementary location links, and are no longer in common use
1496:
1364:
998:
859:
755:
663:
555:
457:
2238:
2206:— also known as "unequal length A arm", one of the design parameters of double wishbone suspension
2046:
inside a vehicle's armored hull, by changing the direction of force deforming the spring, using a
3482:
3454:
1002:
863:
667:
461:
58:
531:, rear suspension has many constraints, and the development of the superior, but more expensive
3472:
3462:
3275:
2215:
2080:
2072:
vehicles was similar to the
Hortsmann type, with suspension sequestered within the track oval.
1967:
1771:
1664:
1463:
1318:
532:
521:
404:
393:
345:
34:
2640:
2610:
2580:
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2520:
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By approximately 1750, leaf springs began appearing on certain types of carriage, such as the
206:
and allows relative motion between the two. Suspension systems must support both road holding/
3312:
3124:
2113:
1810:
632:
341:
283:
2307:
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were equipped with springs; wooden springs in the case of light one-horse vehicles to avoid
105:
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2146:
2057:
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1220:
The suspension attachment must match the frame design in geometry, strength and rigidity.
8:
3592:
3572:
3357:
3295:
3109:
2925:. Geoffrey Howard, John P. Whitehead (4th ed.). Warrendale, Pa.: SAE International.
2163:
2039:
1742:
In a front-engine rear-drive vehicle, dependent rear suspension is either "live-axle" or
1459:
769:
207:
2325:
2149:- independent suspension combined with a transverse fiber reinforced plastic leaf spring
168:
3738:
3643:
3020:
2977:
2158:
1729:
1335:
378:
1177:
counteracts this by inflating cylinders in the suspension to lift the chassis higher.
355:
Henri
Fournier on his uniquely damped and racewinning 'Mors Machine', photo taken 1902
328:
Leaf springs were the first modern suspension system, and, along with advances in the
3757:
3532:
3467:
3419:
3401:
3332:
3008:
2998:
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2415:
2301:
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1954:
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936:
a vehicle with zero sprung weight. They are then put through the same dynamic loads.
510:
360:
351:
332:, heralded the single greatest improvement in road transport until the advent of the
252:
3040:
2863:
2760:
2090:
Most German WWII half-tracks and their tanks introduced during the war, such as the
1660:
suspensions are also in this category, as they rigidly connect the wheels together.
3607:
3414:
3300:
3179:
3047:
2108:
1971:
1919:
1903:
1790:
1763:
1615:
1550:, and used rubber cones as the springing medium (these were first used on the 1959
1451:
1234:
1206:
1062:
631:
Rear-wheel drive vehicles today frequently use a fairly complex fully-independent,
579:
525:
422:
1758:
1564:
313:. Ancient military engineers used leaf springs in the form of bows to power their
3627:
3557:
3194:
3184:
2890:"Leaning vehicle with tilting front wheels and suspension therefor US 8317207 B2"
2189:
1970:
fixed to the ground; and some, such as tractors, snow vehicles, and tanks run on
1559:
1254:
910:
625:
617:
590:
219:
187:
2717:"The Bose 'Magic Carpet' Car Suspension System Is Finally Headed For Production"
1902:
This kind of suspension system mainly consists of independent suspension (e.g.,
772:
can sometimes have spring rate requirements other than vehicle weight and load.
148:
Part of car suspension system consists of shock absorber, axle, frame and spring
3728:
3542:
3537:
3428:
3424:
3218:
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3114:
1829:
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1161:
832:
816:
389:
382:
368:
191:
3012:
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2889:
1750:
dependent front suspension has become limited to heavier commercial vehicles.
1511:
1257:
to absorb impacts and dampers (or shock absorbers) to control spring motions.
403:, and became more common in mass market cars from 1932. Today, most cars have
3786:
3771:
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3439:
3409:
3305:
3174:
3139:
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1927:
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1308:
The majority of land vehicles are suspended by steel springs of these types:
1073:
949:
621:
586:
in 1948, which used helical springs that could not take fore-and-aft thrust.
400:
337:
231:
2840:
724:
385:
made by the Brush Motor
Company. Today, coil springs are used in most cars.
3680:
3617:
3587:
3582:
3327:
3249:
2992:
2949:
2920:
2198:
2168:
2135:
2091:
2076:
1939:
1733:
1657:
1593:
1577:
1547:
1515:
1104:
1090:
1055:
754:
of a spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided by the change in
636:
613:
322:
314:
303:
271:
211:
436:
144:
3761:
3685:
3658:
3653:
3517:
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3208:
3203:
3134:
2175:
2043:
2032:
2028:
2024:
1833:
1743:
1716:
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is, unlike the Citroën system, not height-adjustable, or self-levelling.
1534:
1500:
1433:
1405:
1323:
1312:
1269:
1155:
971:
740:
602:
563:
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430:
374:
287:
2779:"After 30 years, Bose-developed suspension tech will go into production"
1562:. This system, manufactured under licence by Dunlop in Coventry, called
1532:
was also an early adopter of interconnected suspension. A system dubbed
3743:
3705:
3547:
3380:
3322:
2181:
2069:
2047:
1852:
1780:
1447:
1432:
developed several prototypes from 1982 onwards, and introduced them to
1429:
1351:
571:
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528:
513:
333:
172:
161:
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1265:
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3164:
3119:
2209:
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2009:
1652:
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1539:
1526:
at the front with telescopic dampers/shock absorbers front and rear.
792:
594:
517:
411:
310:
1672:
that link the wheels in some way, are still classed as independent.
987:
848:
652:
446:
47:
3492:
3149:
2185:
2141:
2118:
2013:
1987:
1841:
1825:
1669:
1436:, where they have been fairly effective, but have now been banned.
1416:
1409:
1300:
1273:
1189:
318:
299:
295:
157:
2736:"Bose's Revolutionary Adaptive Suspension Gets a Reboot for 2019"
2437:"2022 Rivian R1T First Drive Review: Electric Off-Road Dominance"
2306:. Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania: Sheldon Axle Company. 1912. p.
1604:
957:
764:
559:
547:
426:
329:
302:, and steel springs in larger vehicles. These were often made of
199:
2303:
Leaf
Springs: Their Characteristics and Methods of Specification
835:, but can also be changed through the use of different springs.
628:, as independent rear suspensions do, it made them last longer.
3663:
3477:
2065:
1837:
1592:, and was used on several models; the last car to use it being
1439:
598:
1990:
tank's suspension has road wheels mounted on wheel trucks, or
1495:
had some success with various passive or semi-active systems (
410:
The part on which pre-1950 springs were supported is called a
3648:
3552:
3349:
2690:"Bose Sells Off Its Revolutionary Electromagnetic Suspension"
2061:
1992:
1907:
1800:
1776:
The variety of independent systems is greater, and includes:
575:
364:
203:
183:
152:
2826:
2054:'s suspension was directly descended from Christie designs.
336:. The British steel springs were not well-suited for use on
3670:
3159:
2051:
2005:
1874:
The most common type of semi-independent suspension is the
1551:
1281:
805:
635:
to locate the rear wheels securely, while providing decent
317:, with little success at first. The use of leaf springs in
291:
215:
2994:
Car suspension : repair, maintenance and modification
1982:
306:
and usually took the form of multiple layer leaf springs.
3391:
1855:, optimal camber change when turning, is more important.
566:
and two narrow rods. The torque tube surrounded the true
2155:— a Greek all-terrain supercar, with a unique suspension
1504:
516:, rear suspension has few constraints, and a variety of
2487:"BMW Technology Guide : Self-levelling suspension"
1977:
437:
Difference between rear suspension and front suspension
399:
In 1922, independent front suspension was pioneered on
245:
160:
mechanism: tie rod, steering arm, king pin axis (using
1284:. A number of different types of each have been used:
1180:
1156:
Flexibility and vibration modes of suspension elements
433:
in secrecy, but has since spread to wider motorsport.
1542:, and went on to be used on a variety of BMC models.
1370:
1081:
the resistance to fluid flow in the shock absorber.
72:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2330:. London, United Kingdom: Charles Knight & Co.
1367:bounces up and down on the springiness of a tire.
1392:Semi-active suspensions include devices, such as
425:. This has the ability to increase the effective
417:In 2002, a new passive suspension component, the
3784:
2460:
2428:
1607:models also featured interconnected suspension.
1315:– AKA Hotchkiss, Cart, or semi-elliptical spring
1190:Contribution to unsprung weight and total weight
642:
2212:— a part to make a suspension setup more rigid.
1719:used for location (transverse or longitudinal)
2633:"Suspension Basics 9 - Hydropneumatic Springs"
2414:. London: Tata McGraw-Hill. pp. 293–294.
2064:, but nonetheless independent, suspensions of
1865:
1478:weight, reliability, and/or other challenges.
1458:introduced an active suspension system called
1160:In some modern cars, flexibility is mainly in
309:Leaf springs have been around since the early
3365:
3082:
2904:Encyclopedia of German Tanks of World War Two
2655:
2461:Milliken, William; Milliken, Douglas (1994).
1481:
1357:
2951:Automotive suspension & steering systems
1886:
2513:"Suspension Basics 4 - Torsion Bar Springs"
2409:
1966:Some vehicles, such as trains, run on long
1442:introduced low-bandwidth active suspension
1131:
1016:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
930:
877:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
681:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
475:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3372:
3358:
3089:
3075:
3025:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2982:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2799:. Amt.nl. 19 November 2008. Archived from
2434:
2391:. chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. 30 June 1901
1930:) which increases the speed at cornering.
1753:
1600:manufacturing line was over 40 years old.
1253:Most conventional suspensions use passive
3055:The ABCs of Chassis Frame and Suspensions
2714:
2240:Vehicle Dynamics: Theory and Applications
1933:
1926:Some trains also use tilting suspension (
1619:Common types seen from behind; in order:
1346:Gas and hydraulic fluid under pressure -
1036:Learn how and when to remove this message
974:, the more jacking force is experienced.
943:
897:Learn how and when to remove this message
822:
701:Learn how and when to remove this message
495:Learn how and when to remove this message
132:Learn how and when to remove this message
2947:
2042:was developed, which allowed the use of
1981:
1952:This kind of suspension was used in the
1757:
1685:
1614:
1396:and switchable shock absorbers, various
1299:
1223:
712:
350:
265:
235:
167:
151:
143:
33:For broader coverage of this topic, see
3096:
2990:
2465:. SAE International. pp. 617–620.
1693:Examples of location linkages include:
3785:
2918:
2861:
2687:
2573:"Suspension Basics 6 - Rubber Springs"
2294:
2272:"Suspension Basics 1 - Why We Need It"
1287:
1248:
294:. Within a decade, most British horse
3353:
3070:
2435:Moloughney, Tom (28 September 2021).
2339:
2337:
2323:
2233:
2192:- conceptually similar to automobile
1651:(a simple 'cart' axle) or a (driven)
1546:was developed by suspension engineer
1215:
1097:
1089:See dependent and independent below.
811:By 2021, some vehicles were offering
270:The front suspension components of a
2902:Peter Chamberlain and Hilary Doyle,
2825:. Australia: Kinetic. Archived from
2733:
2543:"Suspension Basics 5 - Coil Springs"
2345:"Suspension Basics 3 - Leaf Springs"
2227:
2127:– a test rig for high-speed vehicles
2104:Automotive suspension design process
1978:Armoured fighting vehicle suspension
1400:solutions, as well as systems, like
1276:and rubber cone systems used by the
1014:adding citations to reliable sources
981:
875:adding citations to reliable sources
842:
679:adding citations to reliable sources
646:
473:adding citations to reliable sources
440:
261:
70:adding citations to reliable sources
41:
3798:Armoured fighting vehicle equipment
3041:Tie Rods Part of Suspension Systems
2625:
2603:"Suspension Basics 8 - Air Springs"
2595:
2565:
2535:
2505:
1961:
1186:mainly in the vertical direction.)
1181:Isolation from high frequency shock
977:
340:'s rough roads of the time, so the
13:
3793:Automotive suspension technologies
3488:Continuously variable transmission
2912:
2410:Jain, K.K.; Asthana, R.B. (2002).
2334:
2264:
1881:
1762:Rear independent suspension on an
1371:Semi-active and active suspensions
838:
730:- maximum to minimum demonstration
14:
3819:
3034:
2688:Howard, Bill (15 November 2017).
2663:"Technical Development | Chassis"
1304:Pneumatic spring on a semitrailer
1200:
1167:
1110:
1084:
964:
156:Part of car front suspension and
3767:
3766:
3756:
986:
847:
651:
554:to restrain this force, for his
445:
367:first fitted an automobile with
46:
2896:
2882:
2862:Harris, William (11 May 2005).
2855:
2833:
2823:"Kinetic Suspension Technology"
2815:
2789:
2771:
2753:
2727:
2715:Cheromcha, Kyle (22 May 2018).
2708:
2681:
2479:
2454:
2324:Adams, William Bridges (1837).
612:Another Frenchman invented the
244:An early form of suspension on
57:needs additional citations for
16:Suspension system for a vehicle
3379:
3062:Suspension Geometry Calculator
2403:
2381:
2367:
2317:
1450:). A fully active system from
734:
607:Corporate Average Fuel Economy
1:
3523:Automated manual transmission
2221:
2018:Central Tire Inflation System
1576:system, and provides similar
1228:Certain modern vehicles have
775:
643:Spring, wheel, and roll rates
570:and exerted the force to its
3130:Electronic Stability Control
2797:"Electromagnetic suspension"
2184:- design used in most large
2079:, the other common type was
1832:, and the early examples of
1816:Semi-trailing arm suspension
1623:Live axle with a Watt's link
1260:Some notable exceptions are
1230:height adjustable suspension
815:with ride-height adjustable
798:
538:
7:
3598:Semi-automatic transmission
2954:(7th ed.). Australia.
2922:Car suspension and handling
2841:"Alex Moulton Mgf Hydragas"
2734:Chin, Chris (21 May 2018),
2377:. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
2131:Ackermann steering geometry
2097:
1866:Semi-independent suspension
1499:: three Championships; the
1471:electromagnetic suspensions
927:is said to be "geometric".
535:layout has been difficult.
222:of a car may be different.
175:RF01 Racing Car Suspension.
28:Suspension (disambiguation)
21:Driver's license suspension
10:
3824:
3435:Internal combustion engine
2864:"How Car Suspensions Work"
2761:"How Car Suspensions Work"
2327:English Pleasure Carriages
2204:Short long arms suspension
2188:, with compressed gas and
2178:- vehicle ground clearance
2002:armoured fighting vehicles
1937:
1769:
1680:Twist-beam rear suspension
1632:Double wishbone suspension
1603:Some of the last post-war
1588:was introduced in 1973 on
1538:was introduced in 1962 on
1492:hydropneumatic suspensions
1482:Interconnected suspensions
1374:
1358:Dampers or shock absorbers
1295:
1068:
908:
738:
229:
225:
32:
25:
18:
3752:
3734:Hybrid vehicle drivetrain
3721:
3636:
3623:Transmission control unit
3563:Limited-slip differential
3528:Electrorheological clutch
3453:
3400:
3387:
3274:
3258:
3237:
3227:
3193:
3102:
2463:Race Car Vehicle Dynamics
2194:Hydropneumatic suspension
2138:– self centering steering
1897:Leaning Suspension System
1893:Tilting Suspension System
1887:Tilting Suspension System
1530:British Motor Corporation
1417:magneto-rheological fluid
1348:hydropneumatic suspension
1278:British Motor Corporation
1175:Self-levelling suspension
1048:
728:Hydropneumatic suspension
597:. These springs transmit
3513:Dual-clutch transmission
3048:How Car Suspensions Work
2991:Spender, Julian (2019).
1732:, before and soon after
1610:
1132:Anti-dive and anti-squat
931:Unsprung weight transfer
396:in a suspension system.
19:Not to be confused with
3483:Constant-velocity joint
2948:Schnubel, Mark (2020).
2919:Bastow, Donald (2004).
2243:. Spring. p. 455.
1754:Independent suspensions
1462:in its top-of-the-line
1240:
522:independent suspensions
3463:Automatic transmission
2412:Automobile Engineering
2389:"The Washington Times"
2081:torsion bar suspension
2023:The earliest tanks of
1997:
1934:Rocker bogie mechanism
1772:Independent suspension
1767:
1665:Independent suspension
1640:
1464:Mercedes-Benz CL-Class
1319:Torsion bar suspension
1305:
1280:, most notably on the
944:Sprung weight transfer
823:Roll couple percentage
819:and adaptive dampers.
731:
533:independent suspension
405:independent suspension
356:
346:Concord, New Hampshire
275:
241:
176:
165:
149:
35:Suspension (mechanics)
2489:. BMW. Archived from
2114:Multi-link suspension
1985:
1811:Multi-link suspension
1761:
1686:Dependent suspensions
1618:
1340:Gas under pressure -
1303:
1224:Air resistance (drag)
739:Further information:
723:
633:multi-link suspension
354:
342:Abbot-Downing Company
330:construction of roads
269:
239:
171:
155:
147:
3568:Locking differential
3503:Direct-shift gearbox
2375:"wagon and carriage"
2147:Corvette leaf spring
2058:Horstmann suspension
1645:dependent suspension
1558:for BMC's successor
1010:improve this section
871:improve this section
813:dynamic roll control
770:Performance vehicles
675:improve this section
558:was attached to the
469:improve this section
407:on all four wheels.
377:first appeared on a
66:improve this article
26:For other uses, see
3593:Preselector gearbox
3573:Manual transmission
3097:Automotive handling
2583:on 28 November 2014
2164:Magnetic levitation
2040:Christie suspension
1895:(also known as the
1836:, and the backs of
1522:. Later models had
1460:Active Body Control
1288:Passive suspensions
1249:Springs and dampers
3803:Vehicle technology
3739:Electric generator
3644:Wheel hub assembly
3053:Robert W. Temple,
2667:75 Years of TOYOTA
2643:on 29 January 2015
2613:on 29 January 2015
2282:on 29 January 2015
2159:List of auto parts
2004:(AFVs), including
1998:
1768:
1730:Ford Motor Company
1682:is such a system.
1641:
1524:tuned mass dampers
1520:tuned mass dampers
1306:
1216:Force distribution
1098:Roll center height
759:more significant.
732:
421:, was invented by
379:production vehicle
357:
276:
242:
177:
166:
150:
3780:
3779:
3533:Epicyclic gearing
3402:Automotive engine
3347:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3336:
3333:Semi-trailing arm
3309:
3292:
3004:978-1-78500-661-6
2961:978-1-337-56733-6
2932:978-1-4686-0339-2
2829:on 11 April 2009.
2803:on 4 January 2010
1972:continuous tracks
1424:active suspension
1377:Active suspension
1207:MacPherson struts
1063:off-road vehicles
1046:
1045:
1038:
907:
906:
899:
793:natural frequency
721:
711:
710:
703:
609:(CAFE) standard.
511:front-wheel drive
505:
504:
497:
284:industrialisation
262:Modern suspension
182:is the system of
142:
141:
134:
116:
3815:
3808:Vehicle dynamics
3770:
3769:
3760:
3637:Wheels and tires
3608:Torque converter
3374:
3367:
3360:
3351:
3350:
3330:
3303:
3301:MacPherson strut
3286:
3259:Semi-independent
3235:
3234:
3180:Vehicle dynamics
3091:
3084:
3077:
3068:
3067:
3057:, September 1969
3030:
3024:
3016:
2987:
2981:
2973:
2944:
2907:
2900:
2894:
2893:
2886:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2875:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2757:
2751:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2639:. Archived from
2629:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2609:. Archived from
2599:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2588:
2579:. Archived from
2569:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2549:. Archived from
2539:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2519:. Archived from
2509:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2396:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2351:. Archived from
2341:
2332:
2331:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2278:. Archived from
2268:
2262:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2231:
2216:Other suspension
2109:MacPherson strut
1962:Tracked vehicles
1904:MacPherson strut
1799:Upper and lower
1791:MacPherson strut
1452:Bose Corporation
1235:aerodynamic drag
1124:center as well.
1041:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1021:
990:
982:
978:Other properties
902:
895:
891:
888:
882:
851:
843:
722:
706:
699:
695:
692:
686:
655:
647:
618:universal joints
526:rear-wheel drive
500:
493:
489:
486:
480:
449:
441:
423:Malcolm C. Smith
304:low-carbon steel
198:that connects a
137:
130:
126:
123:
117:
115:
81:"Car suspension"
74:
50:
42:
3823:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3813:
3812:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3748:
3717:
3632:
3628:Universal joint
3558:Hotchkiss drive
3449:
3396:
3383:
3378:
3348:
3339:
3284:Double wishbone
3270:
3254:
3223:
3189:
3185:Weight transfer
3098:
3095:
3037:
3018:
3017:
3005:
2975:
2974:
2962:
2933:
2915:
2913:Further reading
2910:
2901:
2897:
2888:
2887:
2883:
2873:
2871:
2870:. United States
2860:
2856:
2846:
2844:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2821:
2820:
2816:
2806:
2804:
2795:
2794:
2790:
2783:Motor Authority
2777:
2776:
2772:
2759:
2758:
2754:
2745:
2743:
2732:
2728:
2713:
2709:
2699:
2697:
2686:
2682:
2672:
2670:
2661:
2660:
2656:
2646:
2644:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2616:
2614:
2601:
2600:
2596:
2586:
2584:
2571:
2570:
2566:
2556:
2554:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2526:
2524:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2496:
2494:
2485:
2484:
2480:
2473:
2459:
2455:
2445:
2443:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2408:
2404:
2394:
2392:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2373:
2372:
2368:
2358:
2356:
2343:
2342:
2335:
2322:
2318:
2300:
2299:
2295:
2285:
2283:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2255:
2253:
2251:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2190:hydraulic fluid
2100:
1980:
1964:
1942:
1936:
1920:super-elevation
1912:double wishbone
1889:
1884:
1882:Other instances
1868:
1805:double wishbone
1774:
1756:
1713:Mumford linkage
1688:
1647:normally has a
1638:
1613:
1560:British Leyland
1484:
1379:
1373:
1360:
1298:
1290:
1251:
1243:
1226:
1218:
1203:
1192:
1183:
1170:
1162:rubber bushings
1158:
1134:
1113:
1100:
1087:
1071:
1051:
1042:
1031:
1025:
1022:
1007:
991:
980:
967:
946:
933:
913:
911:Weight transfer
903:
892:
886:
883:
868:
852:
841:
839:Weight transfer
825:
801:
778:
752:spring constant
743:
737:
713:
707:
696:
690:
687:
672:
656:
645:
626:unsprung weight
591:Hotchkiss drive
541:
501:
490:
484:
481:
466:
450:
439:
381:in 1906 in the
369:shock absorbers
264:
234:
228:
220:rear suspension
192:shock absorbers
138:
127:
121:
118:
75:
73:
63:
51:
38:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3821:
3811:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3778:
3777:
3775:
3774:
3764:
3753:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3729:Electric motor
3725:
3723:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3715:
3714:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3646:
3640:
3638:
3634:
3633:
3631:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3543:Friction drive
3540:
3538:Fluid coupling
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3459:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3448:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3429:Plug-in hybrid
3422:
3417:
3412:
3406:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3377:
3376:
3369:
3362:
3354:
3345:
3344:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3337:
3325:
3320:
3318:Sliding pillar
3315:
3310:
3298:
3293:
3280:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3255:
3253:
3252:
3247:
3241:
3239:
3232:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3200:
3198:
3191:
3190:
3188:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3115:Center of mass
3112:
3106:
3104:
3100:
3099:
3094:
3093:
3086:
3079:
3071:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3050:
3044:
3043:
3036:
3035:External links
3033:
3032:
3031:
3003:
2997:. Wiltshire .
2988:
2960:
2945:
2931:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2908:
2895:
2881:
2854:
2832:
2814:
2788:
2785:. 15 May 2018.
2770:
2767:. 11 May 2005.
2752:
2740:Digital Trends
2726:
2707:
2680:
2669:. Toyota. 2012
2654:
2624:
2594:
2564:
2534:
2523:on 10 May 2010
2504:
2493:on 16 May 2018
2478:
2472:978-1560915263
2471:
2453:
2427:
2420:
2402:
2380:
2366:
2333:
2316:
2293:
2263:
2249:
2235:Jazar, Reza N.
2225:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2207:
2201:
2196:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2171:
2161:
2156:
2150:
2144:
2139:
2133:
2128:
2122:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2099:
2096:
1979:
1976:
1963:
1960:
1938:Main article:
1935:
1932:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1867:
1864:
1848:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1830:Panhard Dyna Z
1818:
1813:
1808:
1797:
1788:
1786:Sliding pillar
1783:
1770:Main article:
1755:
1752:
1740:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1726:
1723:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1706:Watt's linkage
1703:
1698:
1687:
1684:
1676:Semi-dependent
1637:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1626:Sliding pillar
1624:
1620:
1612:
1609:
1590:Austin Allegro
1574:hydropneumatic
1483:
1480:
1402:hydropneumatic
1398:self-levelling
1375:Main article:
1372:
1369:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1354:
1344:
1338:
1327:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1297:
1294:
1289:
1286:
1262:hydropneumatic
1250:
1247:
1242:
1239:
1225:
1222:
1217:
1214:
1202:
1201:Space occupied
1199:
1191:
1188:
1182:
1179:
1169:
1168:Load levelling
1166:
1157:
1154:
1133:
1130:
1112:
1111:Instant center
1109:
1099:
1096:
1086:
1085:Camber control
1083:
1070:
1067:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1043:
994:
992:
985:
979:
976:
966:
965:Jacking forces
963:
945:
942:
932:
929:
909:Main article:
905:
904:
855:
853:
846:
840:
837:
833:anti-roll bars
824:
821:
817:air suspension
800:
797:
777:
774:
736:
733:
709:
708:
659:
657:
650:
644:
641:
540:
537:
524:are used. For
503:
502:
453:
451:
444:
438:
435:
390:Leyland Motors
383:Brush Runabout
263:
260:
227:
224:
140:
139:
54:
52:
45:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3820:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3790:
3788:
3773:
3765:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3754:
3751:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3720:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3673:
3672:
3669:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3635:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3603:Shift-by-wire
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3452:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3440:Petrol engine
3438:
3436:
3433:
3430:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3410:Diesel engine
3408:
3407:
3405:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3393:
3386:
3382:
3375:
3370:
3368:
3363:
3361:
3356:
3355:
3352:
3334:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3307:
3306:Chapman strut
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3290:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3267:
3264:
3263:
3261:
3257:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3226:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3192:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3175:Unsprung mass
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3140:Inboard brake
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3101:
3092:
3087:
3085:
3080:
3078:
3073:
3072:
3069:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3056:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3042:
3039:
3038:
3028:
3022:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2989:
2985:
2979:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2957:
2953:
2952:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2928:
2924:
2923:
2917:
2916:
2905:
2899:
2891:
2885:
2869:
2868:HowStuffWorks
2865:
2858:
2842:
2836:
2828:
2824:
2818:
2802:
2798:
2792:
2784:
2780:
2774:
2766:
2765:HowStuffWorks
2762:
2756:
2741:
2737:
2730:
2722:
2718:
2711:
2695:
2691:
2684:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2598:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2568:
2553:on 1 May 2012
2552:
2548:
2544:
2538:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2508:
2492:
2488:
2482:
2474:
2468:
2464:
2457:
2442:
2438:
2431:
2423:
2421:0-07-044529-X
2417:
2413:
2406:
2390:
2384:
2376:
2370:
2355:on 8 May 2010
2354:
2350:
2346:
2340:
2338:
2329:
2328:
2320:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2304:
2297:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2267:
2252:
2250:9780387742434
2246:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2230:
2226:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2126:
2125:7 post shaker
2123:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2095:
2093:
2088:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1995:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1975:
1973:
1969:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1941:
1931:
1929:
1928:Tilting Train
1924:
1921:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1879:
1877:
1872:
1863:
1860:
1856:
1854:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1821:
1820:Swinging arm
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1796:
1795:Chapman strut
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1765:
1760:
1751:
1747:
1745:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1724:
1721:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:Satchell link
1696:
1695:
1694:
1691:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1671:
1667:
1666:
1661:
1659:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1617:
1608:
1606:
1601:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1536:
1531:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1479:
1475:
1472:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1425:
1420:
1418:
1413:
1412:suspensions.
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1388:
1382:
1378:
1368:
1366:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1343:
1339:
1337:
1333:
1332:
1331:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1302:
1293:
1285:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1256:
1246:
1238:
1236:
1231:
1221:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1198:
1195:
1187:
1178:
1176:
1165:
1163:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1129:
1125:
1122:
1117:
1108:
1106:
1105:antiroll bars
1095:
1092:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1066:
1064:
1059:
1057:
1040:
1037:
1029:
1026:December 2016
1019:
1015:
1011:
1005:
1004:
1000:
995:This section
993:
989:
984:
983:
975:
973:
962:
959:
953:
951:
950:sprung weight
941:
937:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
901:
898:
890:
887:December 2016
880:
876:
872:
866:
865:
861:
856:This section
854:
850:
845:
844:
836:
834:
829:
820:
818:
814:
809:
807:
796:
794:
789:
785:
781:
773:
771:
766:
760:
757:
753:
749:
742:
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694:
691:December 2016
684:
680:
676:
670:
669:
665:
660:This section
658:
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649:
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640:
638:
634:
629:
627:
623:
622:United States
619:
615:
610:
608:
604:
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587:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
562:by a lateral
561:
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536:
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530:
527:
523:
519:
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512:
507:
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454:This section
452:
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443:
442:
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428:
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420:
415:
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408:
406:
402:
401:Lancia Lambda
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315:siege engines
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232:Concord coach
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83: –
82:
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77:Find sources:
71:
67:
61:
60:
55:This article
53:
49:
44:
43:
40:
36:
29:
22:
3681:Racing slick
3618:Transfer box
3588:Park-by-wire
3583:Parking pawl
3498:Differential
3473:Direct-drive
3455:Transmission
3445:Steam engine
3390:Part of the
3389:
3328:Trailing arm
3250:De Dion tube
3228:
3110:Car handling
3054:
2993:
2950:
2921:
2906:, 1978, 1999
2903:
2898:
2884:
2872:. Retrieved
2867:
2857:
2845:. Retrieved
2835:
2827:the original
2817:
2805:. Retrieved
2801:the original
2791:
2782:
2773:
2764:
2755:
2744:, retrieved
2739:
2729:
2720:
2710:
2698:. Retrieved
2693:
2683:
2671:. Retrieved
2666:
2657:
2645:. Retrieved
2641:the original
2637:Initial Dave
2636:
2627:
2615:. Retrieved
2611:the original
2607:Initial Dave
2606:
2597:
2585:. Retrieved
2581:the original
2577:Initial Dave
2576:
2567:
2555:. Retrieved
2551:the original
2547:Initial Dave
2546:
2537:
2525:. Retrieved
2521:the original
2517:Initial Dave
2516:
2507:
2495:. Retrieved
2491:the original
2481:
2462:
2456:
2444:. Retrieved
2440:
2430:
2411:
2405:
2393:. Retrieved
2383:
2369:
2357:. Retrieved
2353:the original
2349:Initial Dave
2348:
2326:
2319:
2312:leaf spring.
2311:
2302:
2296:
2284:. Retrieved
2280:the original
2276:Initial Dave
2275:
2266:
2254:. Retrieved
2239:
2229:
2199:Scrub radius
2169:Maglev train
2136:Caster angle
2121:– a test rig
2092:Panther tank
2089:
2085:
2077:World War II
2074:
2056:
2044:coil springs
2037:
2022:
1999:
1991:
1965:
1953:
1951:
1946:rocker-bogie
1945:
1943:
1940:Rocker-bogie
1925:
1916:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1890:
1873:
1871:under load.
1869:
1861:
1857:
1849:
1775:
1748:
1741:
1734:World War II
1717:Leaf springs
1692:
1689:
1675:
1674:
1663:
1662:
1644:
1642:
1602:
1597:
1585:
1581:
1578:ride quality
1569:
1563:
1555:
1548:Alex Moulton
1543:
1533:
1528:
1516:swinging arm
1509:
1489:
1485:
1476:
1468:
1443:
1438:
1428:
1421:
1414:
1391:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1365:differential
1361:
1328:
1307:
1291:
1259:
1252:
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1227:
1219:
1211:
1204:
1196:
1193:
1184:
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1143:
1139:
1135:
1126:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1101:
1088:
1079:
1072:
1060:
1056:Triumph TR3B
1052:
1032:
1023:
1008:Please help
996:
968:
954:
947:
938:
934:
925:
921:
917:
914:
893:
884:
869:Please help
857:
826:
812:
810:
802:
790:
786:
782:
779:
761:
751:
747:
744:
697:
688:
673:Please help
661:
637:ride quality
630:
614:De Dion tube
611:
588:
583:
556:differential
542:
508:
506:
491:
482:
467:Please help
455:
416:
409:
398:
394:torsion bars
387:
375:Coil springs
373:
358:
327:
323:Ford Model T
308:
288:leaf springs
281:
277:
272:Ford Model T
257:
250:
243:
212:ride quality
186:, tire air,
179:
178:
128:
119:
109:
102:
95:
88:
76:
64:Please help
59:verification
56:
39:
3659:Alloy wheel
3518:Drive wheel
3508:Drive shaft
3468:Chain drive
3276:Independent
3160:Tire / Tyre
3135:Fishtailing
3103:Main topics
2843:. Mgfcar.de
2694:ExtremeTech
2176:Ride height
2068:/Grant and
2033:coil spring
2029:leaf spring
2025:World War I
1968:rail tracks
1853:sports cars
1834:Peugeot 403
1744:deDion axle
1701:Panhard rod
1570:Hydrolastic
1556:Hydrolastic
1544:Hydrolastic
1540:Morris 1100
1535:Hydrolastic
1512:Citroën 2CV
1501:Dakar Rally
1434:Formula One
1406:hydrolastic
1394:air springs
1352:oleo struts
1342:air springs
1324:Coil spring
1313:Leaf spring
1270:hydrolastic
972:roll center
828:Roll couple
748:spring rate
741:Spring rate
735:Spring rate
603:inexpensive
584:bathtub car
564:leaf spring
552:torque tube
431:Formula One
162:ball joints
3787:Categories
3744:Alternator
3392:Automobile
3381:Powertrain
3323:Swing axle
3313:Multi-link
3289:Jaguar IRS
3266:Twist beam
3229:Suspension
3170:Understeer
3155:Suspension
3013:1137029310
2970:1084318123
2941:1269617688
2874:6 February
2746:29 January
2700:29 January
2647:29 January
2617:29 January
2587:29 January
2557:29 January
2527:29 January
2359:29 January
2286:29 January
2222:References
2182:Oleo strut
2070:M4 Sherman
2048:bell crank
2010:land mines
1876:twist beam
1781:Swing axle
1635:MacPherson
1629:Swing axle
1448:hydractive
1430:Lotus Cars
1268:; and the
776:Wheel rate
756:deflection
725:Citroën BX
572:ball joint
568:driveshaft
544:Henry Ford
518:beam axles
334:automobile
230:See also:
180:Suspension
173:Van Diemen
122:April 2010
92:newspapers
3613:Transaxle
3578:Manumatic
3548:Gearshift
3420:Fuel cell
3245:Beam axle
3238:Dependent
3214:Pneumatic
3165:Transaxle
3145:Oversteer
3120:Downforce
3021:cite book
2978:cite book
2847:16 August
2807:16 August
2721:The Drive
2446:5 October
2441:InsideEVs
2395:16 August
2210:Strut bar
2153:Korres P4
2000:Military
1955:Curiosity
1670:sway bars
1653:live axle
1466:in 1999.
1128:centers.
1121:resultant
997:does not
858:does not
799:Roll rate
662:does not
595:live axle
456:does not
412:dumb iron
388:In 1920,
359:In 1901,
319:catapults
311:Egyptians
296:carriages
3772:Category
3711:Tubeless
3696:Run-flat
3676:Off-road
3493:Coupling
3415:Electric
3296:Dubonnet
3150:Steering
3125:Drifting
2237:(2008).
2186:aircraft
2142:Coilover
2119:4-poster
2098:See also
2014:antitank
1842:AC Aceca
1826:Fiat 500
1598:Hydragas
1586:Hydragas
1582:Hydragas
1565:Hydragas
1469:Several
1456:Mercedes
1410:hydragas
1336:bushings
1274:hydragas
485:May 2014
300:taxation
208:handling
196:linkages
158:steering
3219:Torsion
2256:24 June
2050:. The
1988:Grant I
1958:rover.
1828:, then
1710:WOBLink
1658:De Dion
1605:Packard
1334:Rubber
1296:Springs
1266:Citroën
1255:springs
1074:Damping
1069:Damping
1018:removed
1003:sources
958:G-force
879:removed
864:sources
765:inertia
683:removed
668:sources
578:and by
560:chassis
550:used a
548:Model T
539:History
477:removed
462:sources
427:inertia
419:inerter
338:America
226:History
202:to its
200:vehicle
188:springs
106:scholar
3762:Portal
3722:Hybrid
3686:Radial
3664:Hubcap
3478:Clutch
3425:Hybrid
3394:series
3195:Spring
3011:
3001:
2968:
2958:
2939:
2929:
2673:16 May
2497:16 May
2469:
2418:
2247:
2066:M3 Lee
1993:bogies
1838:AC Ace
1505:Creuat
1440:Nissan
1422:Fully
1408:, and
1173:beam.
1091:Camber
1049:Travel
599:torque
580:Hudson
253:Landau
204:wheels
108:
101:
94:
87:
79:
3706:Spare
3649:Wheel
3553:Giubo
3231:types
3197:types
2062:bogie
2006:tanks
1986:This
1908:A-arm
1801:A-arm
1611:Types
1444:circa
1061:Many
576:Buick
392:used
365:Paris
292:axles
216:tires
184:tires
113:JSTOR
99:books
3701:Snow
3691:Rain
3671:Tire
3209:Leaf
3204:Coil
3027:link
3009:OCLC
2999:ISBN
2984:link
2966:OCLC
2956:ISBN
2937:OCLC
2927:ISBN
2876:2020
2849:2012
2809:2012
2748:2020
2742:, US
2702:2020
2696:. US
2675:2018
2649:2015
2619:2015
2589:2015
2559:2015
2529:2015
2499:2018
2467:ISBN
2448:2021
2416:ISBN
2397:2012
2361:2015
2288:2015
2258:2012
2245:ISBN
2052:T-34
2012:and
1944:The
1891:The
1840:and
1766:car.
1649:beam
1594:MG F
1552:Mini
1350:and
1282:Mini
1241:Cost
1141:do.
1001:any
999:cite
862:any
860:cite
806:axle
666:any
664:cite
589:The
529:cars
520:and
514:cars
509:For
460:any
458:cite
361:Mors
210:and
194:and
85:news
3654:Rim
2075:By
2031:or
1764:AWD
1497:WRC
1387:not
1058:.)
1012:by
873:by
750:or
677:by
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471:by
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