4719:
2895:
2279:
2139:
3530:
involving structures. This is because by using the dereferencing ampersand only one word (typically 4 bytes on a 32 bit machine, 8 bytes on a 64 bit machine) is required to be passed into the function, namely the memory location to the variable. Otherwise, if pass-by-value is used, the argument needs
144:
An aggregate class is a class with no user-declared constructors, no private or protected non-static data members, no base classes, and no virtual functions. Such a class can be initialized with a brace-enclosed comma-separated list of initializer-clauses. The following code has the same semantics in
2402:
Member variables can be initialized in an initializer list, with utilization of a colon, as in the example below. This differs from the above in that it initializes (using the constructor), rather than using the assignment operator. This is more efficient for class types, since it just needs to be
353:
C++ classes have their own members. These members include variables (including other structures and classes), functions (specific identifiers or overloaded operators) known as member functions, constructors and destructors. Members are declared to be either publicly or privately accessible using the
2947:
A destructor is the inverse of a constructor. It is called when an instance of a class is destroyed, e.g. when an object of a class created in a block (set of curly braces "{}") is deleted after the closing brace, then the destructor is called automatically. It will be called upon emptying of the
3033:
For a derived class: During the runtime of the base class constructor, the derived class constructor has not yet been called; during the runtime of the base class destructor, the derived class destructor has already been called. In both cases, the derived class member variables are in an invalid
1982:
While some operators, as specified above, takes two terms, sender on the left and the argument on the right, some operators have only one argument - the sender, and they are said to be "unary". Examples are the negative sign (when nothing is put on the left of it) and the "logical
1441:
The code above made use of a constructor to "construct" the return value. For clearer presentation (although this could decrease efficiency of the program if the compiler cannot optimize the statement into the equivalent one above), the above code can be rewritten as:
135:
by default. In practice, structs are typically reserved for data without functions. When deriving a struct from a class/struct, default access-specifier for a base class/struct is public. And when deriving a class, default access specifier is private.
375:
A class defined outside all functions is a global class because its objects can be created from anywhere in the program. If it is defined within a function body then it's a local class because objects of such a class are local to the function scope.
3249:
are used to define the class members that can occupy less storage than an integral type. This field is applicable only for integral types (int, char, short, long, etc.) and enumeration types (e.g. std::byte) and excludes float or double.
1047:
by concatenation of the parent class fields with the child class fields, but this is not required by the standard. This choice of layout makes referring to a derived class via a pointer to the parent class type a trivial operation.
3140:
However, the compiler may add padding between the variables or at the end of the structure to ensure proper data alignment for a given computer architecture, often padding variables to be 32-bit aligned. For example, the structure
1962:
The '=' (assignment) operator between two variables of the same structure type is overloaded by default to copy the entire content of the variables from one to another. It can be overwritten with something else, if necessary.
1180:, then the fields of both parents need to be stored in some order, but (at most) only one of the parent classes can be located at the front of the derived class. Whenever the compiler needs to convert a pointer from the
792:. Each datatype can have its own built-in functions (referred to as member functions) that have access to all (public and private) members of the datatype. In the body of these non-static member functions, the keyword
362:
access specifiers respectively. Any member encountered after a specifier will have the associated access until another specifier is encountered. There is also inheritance between classes which can make use of the
1026:
It is common practice to separate the class or structure declaration (called its interface) and the definition (called its implementation) into separate units. The interface, needed by the user, is kept in a
798:
can be used to refer to the object for which the function is called. This is commonly implemented by passing the address of the object as an implicit first argument to the function. Take the above
299:(Plain Old Data Structure) is a non-union aggregate class that has no non-static data members of type non-POD-struct, non-POD-union (or array of such types) or reference, and has no user-defined
2881:
was defined for the class, both of the above declarations will call this user defined constructor, whose defined code will be executed, but no default values will be assigned to the variable b.
311:. In most cases, a POD-struct will have the same memory layout as a corresponding struct declared in C. For this reason, POD-structs are sometimes colloquially referred to as "C-style structs".
2951:
The syntax for declaring a destructor is similar to that of a constructor. There is no return value and the name of the function is the same as the name of the class with a tilde (~) in front.
2599:
The declaration of a constructor looks like a function with the same name as the datatype. In fact, a call to a constructor can take the form of a function call. In that case an initialized
3030:
If not declared by user both are available in a class by default but they now can only allocate and deallocate memory from the objects of a class when an object is declared or deleted.
2403:
constructed directly; whereas with assignment, they must be first initialized using the default constructor, and then assigned a different value. Also some types (like references and
1192:, the compiler will provide an automatic conversion from the address of the derived class to the address of the base class fields (typically, this is a simple offset calculation).
323:
Two POD-struct types are layout-compatible if they have the same number of nonstatic data members, and corresponding nonstatic data members (in order) have layout-compatible types.
2948:
memory location storing the variables. Destructors can be used to release resources, such as heap-allocated memory and opened files when an instance of that class is destroyed.
2198:
can be overloaded in C++ classes. The square bracket must contain exactly one argument, while the round bracket can contain any specific number of arguments, or no arguments.
2556:
When no arguments are given to the constructor in the example above, it is equivalent to calling the following constructor with no arguments (a default constructor):
3134:, so each of the member variables consume four bytes of memory. The entire structure, therefore, consumes at least (or exactly) eight bytes of memory, as follows.
1758:(&) means "pass by reference". When the function is called, a reference to the variable will be passed to the function, rather than the value of the variable.
3049:
In C++, class declarations can be generated from class templates. Such class templates represent a family of classes. An actual class declaration is obtained by
4542:
4226:
2261:
keyword can also be overloaded. These memory-or-pointer-related operators must process memory-allocating functions after overloading. Like the assignment (
1244:
84:. The private members are not accessible outside the class; they can be accessed only through member functions of the class. The public members form an
3053:
the template with one or more template arguments. A template instantiated with a particular set of arguments is called a template specialization.
3930:
3907:
3881:
3858:
3781:
3758:
3735:
1743:, indicated that the argument variable will not be changed by the function. The second incidence at the end of the declaration promises the
4534:
4723:
1998:
Sender of unary operators may be on the left or on the right of the operator. The following is a list of unary overloadable operators:
1043:
The layout of non-POD classes in memory is not specified by the C++ standard. For example, many popular C++ compilers implement single
320:
Data members are allocated so that later members have higher addresses within an object, except where separated by an access-specifier.
1154:'s fields. A properly written C++ program shouldn't make any assumptions about the layout of inherited fields, in any case. Using the
3934:
3911:
3885:
3862:
3785:
3762:
3739:
1214:
1044:
4219:
2331:
Sometimes programmers may want their variables to take a default or specific value upon declaration. This can be done by declaring
4191:
4178:
1785:
which calls one single argument. The variable on the left of the operator is the sender while that on the right is the argument.
4446:
4748:
4140:
4039:
4004:
4461:
4431:
4688:
4212:
3474:// Does nothing in this case; if the bit-field's width were large enough, it would change the union's size to fit
4130:
3805:
4451:
3843:
2934:
2318:
2178:
1966:
Operators must be overloaded one by one, in other words, no overloading is associated with one another. For example,
4080:
4683:
3085:
The memory consumption of a structure is at least the sum of the memory sizes of constituent variables. Take the
957:
function is declared in the body of the class and defined by qualifying it with the name of the class followed by
337:, points to its initial member and vice versa, implying that there is no padding at the beginning of a POD-struct.
3527:
3069:. Therefore, overloaded operators allow classes to be manipulated just like integers and floating-point numbers,
96:
2719:
Specific program actions, which may or may not relate to the variable, can be added as part of the constructor.
3231:
2332:
392:
39:
2119:
parameter essentially means nothing but a convention to show that the sender is on the left of the operator.
304:
1781:
Binary operators (operators with two arguments) are overloaded by declaring a function with an "identifier"
4678:
4673:
4055:
3693:
53:(the first two are collectively referred to as non-union classes) that has data and functions (also called
24:
4105:
4342:
3235:
3131:
3127:
2916:
2905:
2300:
2289:
2160:
2149:
3568:
keyword acts as a pointer to the current object. Its type is that of a pointer to the current object.
936:// "name_" and "age_" are the member variables. The "this" keyword is an
4634:
4405:
1032:
296:
92:
1276:
By convention, overloaded operators should behave nearly the same as they do in built-in datatypes (
4479:
4471:
4456:
4372:
4357:
4322:
4296:
2071:
The syntax of an overloading of a unary operator, where the sender is on the right, is as follows:
1256:
327:
3077:), and pointers to classes can be dereferenced in the same way as pointers to built-in datatypes.
4514:
4504:
3698:
3555:
793:
3575:
keyword is especially important for member functions with the class itself as the return value:
2912:
2296:
2156:
4387:
4347:
3954:
3044:
1262:
3983:
Browning, J. Burton; Sutherland, Bruce (2020), Browning, J. Burton; Sutherland, Bruce (eds.),
4410:
1019:
above are called senders, and each of them will refer to their own member variables when the
85:
4698:
4509:
4395:
4352:
4337:
3534:
Since pass-by-reference exposes the original structure to be modified by the function, the
482:
The above definitions are functionally equivalent. Either code will define objects of type
100:
3220:+-+-+-+-+--+--+----+--------+ |c|C|D|X|s |XX| i | d | +-+-+-+-+--+--+----+--------+
8:
4441:
3688:
3538:
keyword should be used to guarantee that the function does not modify the parameter (see
3521:
3234:
and initialize its member variables, memory consumption of structures is not necessarily
1770:
1196:
300:
2407:
types) cannot be assigned to and therefore must be initialized in the initializer list.
4572:
3832:
3703:
3531:
to be copied every time the function is called, which is costly with large structures.
2477:
Default values can be given to the last arguments to help initializing default values.
942:// was invoked. Its type is "const Person*", because the function is declared
4188:
4175:
4028:
Lakos, John; Romeo, Vittorio; Khlebnikov, Rostislav; Meredith, Alisdair (2021-12-16).
1247:, in order to not conflict with uses of the identifier 'final' in existing codebases.
4706:
4436:
4362:
4136:
4035:
4000:
3839:
3539:
3514:
3126:
The structure consists of two integers. In many current C++ compilers, integers are
2857:// Allocate memory, then call default constructor, and b will have value '0'.
1165:
operators will ensure that pointers are properly converted from one type to another.
973:
is declared as public which is necessary if it is to be used from outside the class.
31:
2780:
Default constructors are called when constructors are not defined for the classes.
2265:) operator, they are also overloaded by default if no specific declaration is made.
4377:
4367:
4331:
4317:
4251:
3992:
3683:
3526:
Many programmers prefer to use the ampersand (&) to declare the arguments of a
1988:
334:
246:// D has a sub-aggregate of type C. In such cases initializer-clauses can be nested
132:
124:
62:
2242:
Contents of the bracket in the operator call are specified in the second bracket.
4614:
4195:
4182:
4029:
3708:
3070:
1269:, can be overloaded to suit the needs of programmers. These operators are called
1162:
58:
54:
4327:
3996:
314:
4743:
4655:
4524:
3809:
3066:
35:
3984:
2872:// Reserve space for a on the stack, and b will have an unknown garbage value.
4737:
4583:
4489:
4484:
4400:
4256:
3939:
3916:
3890:
3867:
3790:
3767:
3744:
3713:
1766:
1240:
1206:
127:
members and base classes by default. A structure is a class defined with the
4156:
3973:
ISO International
Standard ISO/IEC 14882:2020(E) – Programming Language C++.
1739:
keyword appears twice in the above code. The first occurrence, the argument
4557:
4519:
4494:
3560:
To facilitate classes' ability to reference themselves, C++ implements the
3062:
1159:
939:// expression whose value is the address of the object for which the member
4629:
2830:// Calls default constructor, and b will be initialized with '0'.
1537:
declaration and define the function of the operator in the global scope:
1155:
1028:
2768:
With the above constructor, a "Hello!" will be printed when the default
1217:. Subclasses of a class are prevented from overriding methods marked as
76:. By default access to members of a C++ class declared with the keyword
4598:
4426:
3238:. Another example of non-constant memory size is template structures.
1284:, etc.), but this is not required. One can declare a structure called
4619:
4567:
3246:
2664:
An alternate syntax that does the same thing as the above example is
1755:
495:
3021:
2125:
arguments can be added to the end of the declaration if applicable.
1296:
the sum, instead of the product, of the integers might be returned:
1221:
by the parent class. Final classes cannot be inherited. This allows
4624:
4593:
4588:
4562:
4056:"16BPP.net: Blog / The Performance Impact of C++'s 'final' Keyword"
3671:
1984:
1744:
1230:
1150:
object without having to consider anything about the definition of
341:
2245:
In addition to the operators specified above, the arrow operator (
106:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
3674:(*) is necessary to convert it into a reference to be returned.
505:
can be used as follows to create newly defined variables of the
4547:
1226:
4577:
4552:
4499:
4246:
4235:
2474:
Note that the curly braces cannot be omitted, even if empty.
1762:
395:. Declaration of members are placed within this declaration.
333:
A pointer to a POD-struct object, suitably converted using a
315:
Properties shared between structs in C and POD-structs in C++
307:. A POD-struct could be said to be the C++ equivalent of a C
20:
4027:
3065:
tries to make every aspect of a class look like that of the
3027:
Both have same name as the class in which they are declared.
1533:
Programmers can also put a prototype of the operator in the
4639:
3073:
of classes can be declared with the square-bracket syntax (
1891:
The following is a list of binary overloadable operators:
1747:
that the sender would not be changed by the function run.
1728:
represents the member variable from the argument variable
219:// initialize an object of type C with an initializer-list
1724:
above represents the sender's own member variable, while
379:
2201:
The following declaration overloads the square bracket.
2100:
above stands for the operator to be overloaded. Replace
61:) as its members whose access is governed by the three
4204:
3806:"What's this "POD" thing in C++ I keep hearing about?"
3279:// Possible values 0..3, occupies first 2 bits of int
3230:
As structures may make use of pointers and arrays to
2915:. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are
2603:
type variable can be thought of as the return value:
2299:. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are
2159:. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are
1829:/* variable names are independent of the names of the
1805:/* we can initialize a structure variable this way as
1138:
Therefore, any code that manipulates the fields of a
3297:// Possible values 0..7, occupies next 3 bits of int
3227:
represents padded bytes based on 4 bytes alignment.
2084:
When the sender is on the left, the declaration is:
1031:
and the implementation is kept separately in either
3388:Unions are also allowed to have bit-field members:
2218:The content inside the bracket is specified in the
88:to the class and are accessible outside the class.
3982:
3940:ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E): Programming Languages - C++
3917:ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E): Programming Languages - C++
3891:ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E): Programming Languages - C++
3868:ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E): Programming Languages - C++
3831:
3791:ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E): Programming Languages - C++
3768:ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E): Programming Languages - C++
3745:ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E): Programming Languages - C++
1168:Multiple inheritance is not as simple. If a class
3022:Similarities between constructors and destructors
4735:
3829:
1776:
501:After one of these declarations (but not both),
1977:
1118:pointing to it might look like this in memory:
3903:
3901:
4220:
3775:
3752:
1808:if calling a constructor with only the first
91:Instances of a class data type are known as
4081:"The Performance Benefits of Final Classes"
3924:
3898:
3875:
3852:
3731:
3729:
2225:Round bracket is overloaded a similar way.
4227:
4213:
4128:
3991:, Berkeley, CA: Apress, pp. 205–207,
3989:C++20 Recipes: A Problem-Solution Approach
788:An important feature of the C++ class are
131:keyword. Its members and base classes are
4103:
2935:Learn how and when to remove this message
2319:Learn how and when to remove this message
2179:Learn how and when to remove this message
370:
3726:
2911:Relevant discussion may be found on the
2295:Relevant discussion may be found on the
2155:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1135:┏━━━━┳━━━━┓ ┃P::x┃C::y┃ ┗━━━━┻━━━━┛ ↑ p
498:after the closing braces are mandatory.
384:Non-union classes are declared with the
348:
3830:Henricson, Mats; Nyquist, Erik (1997).
2833:// Object created using no parentheses.
2128:
2104:with the datatype of the return value (
1250:
4736:
4447:Resource acquisition is initialization
3564:keyword for all member functions. The
2775:
1195:For more on multiple inheritance, see
380:Basic declaration and member variables
4208:
4078:
4023:
4021:
3312:// Moves to end of next integral type
3080:
1832:member variables of the structure. */
1229:for method lookup, thus allowing the
1132:pointing to it might look like this:
777:Executing the above code will output
4462:Substitution failure is not an error
4432:Curiously recurring template pattern
3512:
3137:+----+----+ | a | b | +----+----+
2888:
2806:// Object created using parentheses.
2272:
2132:
1243:in C++, and is instead defined as a
969:are private (default for class) and
139:
4689:Comparison of programming languages
3798:
3545:
3342:// Pads 4 bits in between c & d
1970:is not necessarily the opposite of
980:, printing can be simplified into:
783:
486:as having two public data members,
13:
4018:
3808:. Comeau Computing. Archived from
3038:
1292:stores an integer, but by calling
1233:of method calls on final classes.
340:A POD-struct may be used with the
95:and can contain member variables,
14:
4760:
4189:Cplusplus.com tutorial lesson 2.5
4176:Cplusplus.com tutorial lesson 5.2
4129:Stroustrup, Bjarne (2013-07-10).
3823:
1921:< > == != <= >=
1913:^ & ! << >>
326:A POD-struct may contain unnamed
119:In C++, a class defined with the
4718:
4717:
3670:is a pointer, so the use of the
2893:
2277:
2137:
1773:of operators cannot be changed.
19:For background information, see
4149:
4122:
4097:
4072:
4048:
4034:. Addison-Wesley Professional.
3976:
3967:
3947:
3089:structure below as an example.
2860:// Object creation without new.
2268:
4684:Comparison of ALGOL 68 and C++
3542:), when this is not intended.
2884:
1038:
290:
1:
3719:
3241:
3056:
2980:"I'm deleting "
1777:Binary overloadable operators
4749:Class (computer programming)
4132:The C++ Programming Language
3694:Class (computer programming)
3075:some_structure variable_name
1978:Unary overloadable operators
1225:, the removal of the use of
25:Class (computer programming)
7:
4480:Comparison of C++ compilers
4198:, accessed in February 2006
4031:Embracing Modern C++ Safely
3997:10.1007/978-1-4842-5713-5_6
3677:
1209:limits the ways in which a
103:defined by the programmer.
10:
4765:
4679:Comparison of Java and C++
4674:Compatibility of C and C++
4185:, accessed in January 2006
3553:
3519:
3042:
2062:Post-increment / decrement
1254:
1142:object can manipulate the
802:type as an example again:
18:
4715:
4697:
4664:
4648:
4607:
4533:
4470:
4419:
4386:
4305:
4242:
2051:Pre-increment / decrement
1121:┏━━━━┓ ┃P::x┃ ┗━━━━┛ ↑ p
976:With the member function
953:In the above example the
38:declared with any of the
4457:Special member functions
4373:Template metaprogramming
4104:TylerMSFT (2021-08-03).
4079:Brand, Sy (2020-03-02).
3577:
3390:
3252:
3143:
3091:
2953:
2879:user defined constructor
2782:
2772:constructor is invoked.
2721:
2666:
2605:
2558:
2479:
2409:
2337:
2018:Positive / negative sign
1787:
1539:
1444:
1298:
1078:
1053:
982:
804:
511:
437:
401:
147:
99:, member functions, and
4234:
3834:Industrial Strength C++
3699:Class-based programming
3556:this (computer science)
3385:4 byte int 4 byte int
1908:Arithmetic calculation
3045:Template (programming)
2992:" with age "
2249:), the starred arrow (
2194:and the round bracket
1945:= <<= >>=
1888:'3' would be printed.
1811:argument specified. */
1288:in which the variable
1271:overloadable operators
1257:Operators in C and C++
1051:For example, consider
1023:function is executed.
780:Calvin: 30 Hobbes: 20
371:Global and local class
107:Differences between a
16:Type of data structure
4515:Oracle Solaris Studio
3520:Further information:
2040:Logical / bitwise NOT
1255:Further information:
349:Declaration and usage
4543:Comparison of C IDEs
4353:Operator overloading
4338:Function overloading
4171:General References:
2904:factual accuracy is
2288:factual accuracy is
2148:factual accuracy is
2129:Overloading brackets
1948:Compound assignment
1940:Logical disjunction
1932:Logical conjunction
1916:Bitwise calculation
1783:operator (something)
1752:const integer& k
1741:const integer& k
1251:Overloaded operators
303:and no user-defined
101:overloaded operators
30:A class in C++ is a
4442:One Definition Rule
4110:learn.microsoft.com
3919:§9.2 Class members
3893:§9.2 Class members
3870:§9.2 Class members
3689:Virtual inheritance
3522:evaluation strategy
2776:Default constructor
2191:The square bracket
2112:, structures etc.)
2010:Position of sender
1956:(no general usage)
1924:Logical comparison
1197:virtual inheritance
301:assignment operator
4608:Superset languages
4510:Intel C++ Compiler
4328:Exception handling
4194:2009-03-30 at the
4181:2009-04-03 at the
4135:. Addison-Wesley.
3793:§8.5.1 Aggregates
3770:§8.5.1 Aggregates
3704:Object composition
3081:Memory consumption
2745:"Hello!"
1245:contextual keyword
1146:fields inside the
1035:or compiled form.
622:"Hobbes"
604:"Calvin"
4731:
4730:
4707:Bjarne Stroustrup
4490:Borland Turbo C++
4437:Most vexing parse
4378:Virtual functions
4142:978-0-13-352285-3
4106:"final Specifier"
4041:978-0-13-738051-0
4006:978-1-4842-5713-5
3838:. Prentice Hall.
3666:As stated above,
3540:const-correctness
3223:in memory, where
3217:could look like
2945:
2944:
2937:
2690:"Wales"
2635:"Wales"
2329:
2328:
2321:
2189:
2188:
2181:
2069:
2068:
1960:
1959:
1294:Integer * Integer
480:
479:
140:Aggregate classes
63:access specifiers
32:user-defined type
4756:
4721:
4720:
4388:Standard Library
4343:Move constructor
4332:Exception safety
4323:Copy constructor
4229:
4222:
4215:
4206:
4205:
4165:
4164:
4153:
4147:
4146:
4126:
4120:
4119:
4117:
4116:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4091:
4076:
4070:
4069:
4067:
4066:
4052:
4046:
4045:
4025:
4016:
4015:
4014:
4013:
3980:
3974:
3971:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3961:
3955:"thiscall (C++)"
3951:
3945:
3928:
3922:
3905:
3896:
3879:
3873:
3856:
3850:
3849:
3837:
3827:
3821:
3820:
3818:
3817:
3802:
3796:
3779:
3773:
3756:
3750:
3733:
3684:Access modifiers
3669:
3662:
3659:
3656:
3653:
3650:
3647:
3644:
3641:
3638:
3635:
3632:
3629:
3626:
3623:
3620:
3617:
3614:
3611:
3608:
3605:
3602:
3599:
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3593:
3590:
3587:
3584:
3581:
3574:
3567:
3563:
3537:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3499:
3496:
3493:
3490:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3478:
3475:
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3469:
3466:
3463:
3460:
3457:
3454:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3439:
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3433:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3397:
3394:
3381:Memory structure
3376:
3373:
3370:
3367:
3364:
3361:
3358:
3355:
3352:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3325:
3322:
3319:
3316:
3313:
3310:
3307:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3295:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3283:
3280:
3277:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3262:
3259:
3256:
3226:
3213:
3210:
3207:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3171:
3168:
3165:
3162:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3104:
3101:
3098:
3095:
3088:
3076:
3017:
3014:
3011:
3008:
3005:
3002:
2999:
2996:
2993:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2981:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2969:
2966:
2963:
2960:
2957:
2940:
2933:
2929:
2926:
2920:
2917:reliably sourced
2897:
2896:
2889:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2864:
2861:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2834:
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2801:
2798:
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2755:
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2746:
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2359:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2324:
2317:
2313:
2310:
2304:
2301:reliably sourced
2281:
2280:
2273:
2264:
2260:
2257:keyword and the
2256:
2252:
2248:
2238:
2221:
2214:
2197:
2193:
2184:
2177:
2173:
2170:
2164:
2161:reliably sourced
2141:
2140:
2133:
2124:
2118:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2093:
2080:
2001:
2000:
1994:
1989:exclamation mark
1973:
1969:
1894:
1893:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1863:
1860:
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1621:
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1597:
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1579:
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1549:
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1469:
1466:
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1434:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
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1404:
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1398:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1383:
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1374:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1268:
1238:
1223:devirtualization
1220:
1205:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1131:
1127:
1117:
1113:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
989:
986:
979:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
949:
946:
943:
940:
937:
934:
931:
928:
925:
922:
919:
916:
913:
910:
907:
904:
901:
898:
895:
892:
889:
886:
883:
880:
877:
874:
871:
868:
865:
862:
859:
856:
853:
850:
847:
844:
841:
838:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
820:
817:
814:
811:
810:<iostream>
808:
801:
796:
790:member functions
784:Member functions
773:
770:
767:
764:
761:
758:
755:
752:
749:
746:
743:
740:
737:
734:
731:
728:
725:
722:
719:
716:
713:
710:
707:
704:
701:
698:
695:
692:
689:
686:
683:
680:
677:
674:
671:
668:
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
650:
647:
644:
641:
638:
635:
632:
629:
626:
623:
620:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
584:
581:
578:
575:
572:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
554:
551:
548:
545:
542:
539:
536:
533:
530:
527:
524:
521:
518:
517:<iostream>
515:
508:
504:
493:
489:
485:
474:
471:
468:
465:
462:
459:
456:
453:
450:
447:
444:
441:
432:
429:
426:
423:
420:
417:
414:
411:
408:
405:
398:
397:
391:
387:
366:
361:
357:
335:reinterpret cast
310:
286:
283:
280:
277:
274:
271:
268:
265:
262:
259:
256:
253:
250:
247:
244:
241:
238:
235:
232:
229:
226:
223:
220:
217:
214:
211:
208:
205:
202:
199:
196:
193:
190:
187:
184:
181:
178:
175:
172:
169:
166:
163:
160:
157:
154:
151:
145:both C and C++.
130:
122:
114:
110:
79:
59:member functions
55:member variables
52:
48:
44:
4764:
4763:
4759:
4758:
4757:
4755:
4754:
4753:
4734:
4733:
4732:
4727:
4711:
4693:
4667:other languages
4666:
4660:
4644:
4603:
4529:
4466:
4415:
4382:
4301:
4238:
4233:
4202:
4196:Wayback Machine
4183:Wayback Machine
4169:
4168:
4155:
4154:
4150:
4143:
4127:
4123:
4114:
4112:
4102:
4098:
4089:
4087:
4077:
4073:
4064:
4062:
4054:
4053:
4049:
4042:
4026:
4019:
4011:
4009:
4007:
3981:
3977:
3972:
3968:
3959:
3957:
3953:
3952:
3948:
3929:
3925:
3906:
3899:
3880:
3876:
3857:
3853:
3846:
3828:
3824:
3815:
3813:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3780:
3776:
3757:
3753:
3734:
3727:
3722:
3709:Type conversion
3680:
3667:
3664:
3663:
3660:
3657:
3654:
3651:
3648:
3645:
3642:
3639:
3636:
3633:
3630:
3627:
3624:
3621:
3618:
3615:
3612:
3609:
3606:
3603:
3600:
3597:
3594:
3591:
3588:
3585:
3582:
3579:
3572:
3565:
3561:
3558:
3552:
3535:
3524:
3518:
3510:
3509:
3506:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3467:
3464:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3452:
3449:
3446:
3444:// Does nothing
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3428:
3425:
3422:
3419:
3416:
3413:
3410:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3386:
3378:
3377:
3374:
3371:
3368:
3365:
3362:
3359:
3356:
3353:
3350:
3347:
3344:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3320:
3317:
3314:
3311:
3308:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3275:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3244:
3224:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3211:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3145:
3138:
3128:32-bit integers
3124:
3123:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3096:
3093:
3086:
3083:
3074:
3067:basic datatypes
3059:
3047:
3041:
3039:Class templates
3024:
3019:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3003:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2991:
2988:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2941:
2930:
2924:
2921:
2910:
2902:This section's
2898:
2894:
2887:
2875:
2874:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2859:
2856:
2853:
2850:
2847:
2844:
2841:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2808:
2805:
2802:
2799:
2796:
2793:
2790:
2787:
2784:
2778:
2769:
2766:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2704:
2701:
2698:
2695:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2677:
2674:
2671:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2652:
2649:
2646:
2643:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2628:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2607:
2600:
2597:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2563:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2520:
2517:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2472:
2471:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2423:
2420:
2417:
2414:
2411:
2404:
2400:
2399:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2357:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2325:
2314:
2308:
2305:
2294:
2286:This section's
2282:
2278:
2271:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2235:arg1, arg2, ...
2229:
2219:
2205:
2195:
2192:
2185:
2174:
2168:
2165:
2154:
2146:This section's
2142:
2138:
2131:
2122:
2116:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2092:operator@ (int)
2088:
2075:
1992:
1980:
1971:
1967:
1905:+ - * / %
1886:
1885:
1882:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1779:
1751:
1740:
1736:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1719:
1718:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1439:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1293:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1266:
1259:
1253:
1236:
1218:
1203:
1189:
1185:
1184:type to either
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1163:type conversion
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1136:
1129:
1125:
1124:An instance of
1122:
1115:
1111:
1110:An instance of
1108:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1041:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1009:
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4408:
4403:
4401:Smart pointers
4398:
4392:
4390:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4348:new and delete
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3554:Main article:
3551:
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3382:
3253:
3243:
3240:
3219:
3144:
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3092:
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3079:
3058:
3055:
3043:Main article:
3040:
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3028:
3023:
3020:
2954:
2943:
2942:
2901:
2899:
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2886:
2883:
2877:However, if a
2783:
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2606:
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2410:
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2327:
2326:
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2240:
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2187:
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2145:
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2130:
2127:
2095:
2094:
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2067:
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2063:
2060:
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2055:
2052:
2049:
2045:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2034:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2023:
2022:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2011:
2008:
2007:General usage
2005:
1979:
1976:
1958:
1957:
1954:
1950:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1941:
1938:
1934:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1918:
1917:
1914:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1902:
1901:
1900:General usage
1898:
1788:
1778:
1775:
1540:
1445:
1299:
1252:
1249:
1134:
1120:
1079:
1054:
1040:
1037:
983:
805:
785:
782:
779:
742:": "
688:": "
523:<string>
512:
478:
477:
438:
435:
402:
381:
378:
372:
369:
350:
347:
346:
345:
338:
331:
324:
321:
316:
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292:
289:
148:
141:
138:
116:
105:
36:data structure
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4761:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4741:
4739:
4726:
4725:
4714:
4708:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4700:
4696:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4671:
4669:
4663:
4657:
4654:
4653:
4651:
4647:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4615:Objective-C++
4613:
4612:
4610:
4606:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4584:Visual Studio
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
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4483:
4481:
4478:
4477:
4475:
4473:
4469:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4452:Rule of three
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
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4424:
4422:
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4349:
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4329:
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4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
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4308:
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4298:
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4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
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4270:
4268:
4265:
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4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
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4223:
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4211:
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4207:
4203:
4197:
4193:
4190:
4187:
4184:
4180:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4172:
4162:
4161:C++ Reference
4158:
4152:
4144:
4138:
4134:
4133:
4125:
4111:
4107:
4100:
4086:
4085:C++ Team Blog
4082:
4075:
4061:
4057:
4051:
4043:
4037:
4033:
4032:
4024:
4022:
4008:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3985:"Inheritance"
3979:
3970:
3956:
3950:
3943:
3941:
3936:
3932:
3927:
3920:
3918:
3913:
3909:
3904:
3902:
3894:
3892:
3887:
3883:
3878:
3871:
3869:
3864:
3860:
3855:
3847:
3845:0-13-120965-5
3841:
3836:
3835:
3826:
3812:on 2009-01-19
3811:
3807:
3801:
3794:
3792:
3787:
3783:
3778:
3771:
3769:
3764:
3760:
3755:
3748:
3746:
3741:
3737:
3732:
3730:
3725:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
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3682:
3681:
3675:
3673:
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3569:
3557:
3549:
3543:
3541:
3532:
3529:
3523:
3516:
3389:
3380:
3379:
3251:
3248:
3239:
3237:
3233:
3228:
3218:
3142:
3135:
3133:
3129:
3090:
3078:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3063:syntax of C++
3054:
3052:
3051:instantiating
3046:
3032:
3029:
3026:
3025:
2952:
2949:
2939:
2936:
2928:
2918:
2914:
2908:
2907:
2900:
2891:
2890:
2882:
2880:
2781:
2773:
2720:
2665:
2604:
2557:
2478:
2475:
2408:
2336:
2334:
2323:
2320:
2312:
2302:
2298:
2292:
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2284:
2275:
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2243:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2223:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2199:
2183:
2180:
2172:
2162:
2158:
2152:
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2144:
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2113:
2091:
2087:
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2074:
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2039:
2036:
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2031:
2028:
2025:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2002:
1999:
1996:
1990:
1986:
1975:
1964:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1928:
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1923:
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1915:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1889:
1786:
1784:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1767:associativity
1764:
1759:
1757:
1748:
1746:
1733:
1538:
1443:
1297:
1291:
1274:
1272:
1264:
1258:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1241:reserved word
1234:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1200:
1198:
1193:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1157:
1133:
1119:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1024:
981:
974:
888:Person::Print
803:
797:
791:
778:
510:
499:
497:
436:
400:
399:
396:
394:
377:
368:
343:
339:
336:
332:
329:
325:
322:
319:
318:
312:
306:
302:
298:
146:
137:
134:
126:
104:
102:
98:
94:
89:
87:
83:
75:
71:
67:
64:
60:
56:
41:
37:
33:
26:
22:
4722:
4656:Embedded C++
4558:Code::Blocks
4525:Watcom C/C++
4312:
4201:
4170:
4160:
4151:
4131:
4124:
4113:. Retrieved
4109:
4099:
4088:. Retrieved
4084:
4074:
4063:. Retrieved
4059:
4050:
4030:
4010:, retrieved
3988:
3978:
3969:
3958:. Retrieved
3949:
3942:§18.1 Types
3938:
3926:
3915:
3889:
3877:
3866:
3854:
3833:
3825:
3814:. Retrieved
3810:the original
3800:
3789:
3777:
3766:
3754:
3743:
3665:
3570:
3559:
3547:
3533:
3525:
3387:
3245:
3229:
3222:
3216:
3149:BytesAndSuch
3139:
3125:
3084:
3060:
3050:
3048:
2950:
2946:
2931:
2925:January 2009
2922:
2903:
2878:
2876:
2779:
2767:
2718:
2663:
2598:
2576:""
2555:
2503:""
2476:
2473:
2401:
2333:constructors
2330:
2315:
2309:January 2009
2306:
2287:
2269:Constructors
2244:
2241:
2234:
2233:operator() (
2230:
2224:
2217:
2210:
2206:
2200:
2190:
2175:
2169:January 2009
2166:
2147:
2121:
2114:
2096:
2089:
2083:
2079:operator@ ()
2076:
2070:
1997:
1981:
1965:
1961:
1890:
1887:
1880:'\n'
1782:
1780:
1760:
1749:
1734:
1720:
1532:
1440:
1289:
1275:
1270:
1260:
1235:
1222:
1210:
1201:
1194:
1167:
1160:dynamic_cast
1137:
1123:
1109:
1050:
1042:
1025:
1010:
975:
952:
930:'\n'
789:
787:
776:
500:
481:
383:
374:
352:
294:
143:
123:keyword has
118:
90:
81:
73:
69:
65:
29:
4665:Relative to
4485:Borland C++
4396:I/O Streams
3747:§9 Classes
3714:final (C++)
2885:Destructors
2231:return_type
2207:return_type
2102:return_type
2090:return_type
2077:return_type
2029:Dereference
1929:&&
1156:static_cast
1045:inheritance
1039:Inheritance
918:':'
367:specifier.
291:POD-structs
4738:Categories
4599:Qt Creator
4582:Microsoft
4520:Visual C++
4495:C++Builder
4427:As-if rule
4363:References
4115:2024-04-23
4090:2024-04-23
4065:2024-04-23
4012:2024-04-24
3960:2009-01-26
3816:2009-01-20
3720:References
3643:imag_part_
3631:imag_part_
3625:real_part_
3613:real_part_
3247:Bit fields
3242:Bit fields
3057:Properties
2209:operator (
1771:precedence
1761:Note that
1265:, such as
1215:subclassed
509:datatype:
496:semicolons
365:protected:
305:destructor
297:POD-struct
4630:C++/WinRT
4472:Compilers
4368:Templates
4358:Operators
4297:Libraries
4060:16bpp.net
3515:reference
2913:talk page
2297:talk page
2157:talk page
2004:Operator
1897:Operator
1756:ampersand
1263:operators
1239:is not a
1172:inherits
945:// const.
97:constants
86:interface
70:protected
4724:Category
4699:Designer
4649:Dialects
4594:KDevelop
4589:NetBeans
4563:CodeLite
4318:Concepts
4306:Features
4192:Archived
4179:Archived
3937:(2003).
3921:para. 17
3914:(2003).
3895:para. 14
3888:(2003).
3872:para. 12
3865:(2003).
3788:(2003).
3765:(2003).
3742:(2003).
3678:See also
3672:asterisk
3586:operator
3528:function
3513:Pass by
3492:unsigned
3477:unsigned
3462:unsigned
3447:unsigned
3432:unsigned
3417:unsigned
3402:unsigned
3360:unsigned
3345:unsigned
3330:unsigned
3315:unsigned
3300:unsigned
3282:unsigned
3264:unsigned
3236:constant
3001:<<
2995:<<
2989:<<
2983:<<
2977:<<
2906:disputed
2748:<<
2742:<<
2290:disputed
2220:argument
2211:argument
2150:disputed
1877:<<
1865:<<
1745:compiler
1659:operator
1602:operator
1450:operator
1361:operator
1261:In C++,
1231:inlining
927:<<
921:<<
915:<<
909:<<
879://C++ 11
807:#include
757:<<
745:<<
739:<<
727:<<
703:<<
691:<<
685:<<
673:<<
520:#include
514:#include
360:private:
342:offsetof
40:keywords
4620:C++/CLI
4573:Eclipse
4568:Dev-C++
4411:Strings
4313:Classes
4252:Outline
3944:para. 5
3795:para. 2
3772:para. 1
3749:para. 4
3598:Complex
3580:Complex
3550:keyword
3232:declare
3132:default
3097:TwoNums
3087:TwoNums
2253:), the
2026:* &
1835:Integer
1814:Integer
1790:Integer
1692:Integer
1671:Integer
1653:Integer
1650:Integer
1614:Integer
1599:Integer
1566:Integer
1560:default
1551:Integer
1545:Integer
1480:Integer
1462:Integer
1447:Integer
1394:Integer
1373:Integer
1358:Integer
1325:Integer
1319:default
1310:Integer
1304:Integer
1286:Integer
1267:+ - * /
1227:vtables
1213:can be
1207:keyword
1128:with a
1114:with a
1021:Print()
961:. Both
843:private
393:keyword
356:public:
328:padding
125:private
93:objects
82:private
66:private
4625:C++/CX
4548:Anjuta
4157:"this"
4139:
4038:
4003:
3842:
3649:return
3255:struct
3203:double
3146:struct
3094:struct
3071:arrays
3034:state.
2959:Person
2785:struct
2770:Person
2724:Person
2681:Person
2629:Person
2620:Person
2601:Person
2561:Person
2494:string
2482:Person
2424:string
2412:Person
2352:string
2346:Person
2340:Person
2259:delete
2251:->*
2222:part.
2054:right
2043:right
2032:right
2021:right
1754:, the
1689:return
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