411:
it is recommended that the trees are felled, and the plant matter is destroyed by burning. There are no known clones of willow tree that are resistant or immune to the disease. Breeding for resistance is not a control method that is employed due to the limited incidence and impact of watermark disease.
389:
After emerging from its latent phase, branches will wilt and turn reddish-brown as the bacteria colonize the xylem. Bacterial colonies occlude xylem vessels, impeding circulation. The spread of the pathogen continues within the xylem, and the infection will transfer hosts with wounding or propagation
410:
The most effective form of management of watermark disease is the removal of infected willow trees. Laws in certain communities that use willow commercially for cricket bats require the removal of infected trees. It is recommended to look for symptoms between May and
October. If symptoms are present
267:
Symptoms of watermark disease include wilting and browning of stems. Infected branches and trunks can be identified by red-brown staining in the sapwood that is restricted to the outer most rings. More severe symptoms include death of the entire tree. Shoot development from infected branches usually
385:
is naturally dispersed in air and water. There is no evidence of the spread of the pathogen through insect vectors or seeds. The propagation of willows vegetatively reveal infection in young (one to three years old) willow trees, suggesting the pathogen can survive latently in propagating material.
228:
vessels, impeding circulation. Early signs of the disease are wilting or dried-out, dead leaves on intermittent branches throughout the tree's crown. Cross sections from affected branches show a watery, transparent discoloration to an orange-brown staining in the wood. Cross sections of a killed
363:
infects the xylem of its host. Studies using large amounts of inoculum released from infected hosts reveal that the bacteria do not readily infect other hosts. Experimental attempts at inoculation have resulted in only 10% of hosts successfully developing symptoms. Culturing
402:
of Europe in lowlands; however, the disease has also been observed at elevation in Japan. Inoculation studies have suggested that climate is a key factor, yet differences between known environments suggest more research is needed to understand the environmental range of
476:
374:
has a long incubation period prior to the development of symptoms. The presence of the pathogen on foliage during this latent phase does not mean infection, and willows with
264:, white willow in Europe, has been shown to be particularly susceptible to watermark disease and is the host on which most observations of watermark disease have been made.
378:
present in the latent phase may never develop symptoms. As with most bacterial plant pathogens, the bacteria require a wound or opening such as stomata to enter the plant.
608:
Maes, Martine; Huvenne, Hanneke; Messens, Eric (June 2009). "Brenneria salicis, the bacterium causing watermark disease in willow, resides as an endophyte in wood".
878:
447:
839:
538:
Gremmen, J.; Kam, M. de (1981-10-01). "New developments in research into the
Watermark disease of White willow (Salix alba) in the Netherlands".
934:
891:
652:
260:, or willows. Watermark disease typically occurs in willow in lowland areas, but has been observed in mountainous areas of Japan as well.
430:, authors: L. Hauben, M. Steenackers, and J. Swings; Applied and Environmental Microbiology, October 1998, p.3966-3971, Vol.64, No.10
826:
865:
870:
939:
896:
268:
results in the spread of the pathogen onto these shoots. An identifiable sign of the casual pathogen is oozing of
272:
from wounded, stained wood. The pathogen is capable of infecting plant matter without creating symptoms as well.
514:
451:
852:
929:
906:
718:
573:
Sakamoto; Takikawa; Sasaki (1999-10-01). "Occurrence of watermark disease of willows in Japan".
844:
742:
659:
398:
Watermark disease was first investigated in cultivated willows in
England and is common among
112:
688:"Monitoring of endophytic Brenneria salicis in willow and its relation to watermark disease"
800:
8:
66:
551:
140:
31:
787:
633:
625:
621:
590:
586:
555:
496:
90:
732:
Video on watermark disease in the UK in the 1960s from the East
Anglian Film Archive
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547:
488:
245:
78:
883:
765:
54:
492:
923:
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594:
559:
500:
205:
256:
The only known susceptible host of watermark disease are trees of the genus
857:
637:
368:
has shown to be difficult, further complicating the study of the pathogen.
239:
831:
731:
704:
687:
428:
PCR-Based
Detection of the Causal Agent of Watermark Disease in Willows
234:
224:
ssp.) trees. Watermark disease affects infected trees by occluding the
779:
813:
208:
103:
736:
818:
759:
686:
Maes, M; Baeyen, S; De Croo, H; De Smet, K; Steenackers, M (2002).
42:
238:, is very sensitive to watermark disease, while the crack willow,
774:
653:"Watermark Disease of Cricket Bat Willow: Guidelines for Growers"
805:
218:
The bacterium is known to cause 'watermark disease' in willow (
225:
220:
212:
475:
Turner, J. G.; Davis, J. M. L.; Guven, K. (January 1992).
248:
of these two species have shown intermediate sensitivity.
685:
481:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, Section B
572:
607:
275:Signs and symptoms of watermark disease caused by
921:
474:
470:
468:
229:tree's main stem are blanched completely white.
465:
537:
448:"Research Institute for Nature and Forest"
443:Willow Resistance to the Watermark Disease
703:
727:- the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
650:
279:are summarized in the following table.
922:
438:
436:
935:Bacterial tree pathogens and diseases
741:
740:
907:ffd998d6-9702-4184-b54d-29e67c5f73cf
540:European Journal of Forest Pathology
251:
477:"Watermark disease of tree willows"
433:
13:
680:
552:10.1111/j.1439-0329.1981.tb00103.x
14:
951:
712:
622:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.01873.x
587:10.1046/j.1365-3059.1999.00368.x
515:"Brenneria salicis (watermark)"
381:Like many bacterial pathogens,
355:
651:Patrick, K.N. (January 1991).
644:
601:
566:
531:
507:
421:
1:
414:
393:
166:(Day 1924) Krasil’nikov 1949
7:
244:, is considerably less so.
10:
956:
940:Bacteria described in 1924
610:Environmental Microbiology
445:, author: M. Steenackers.
749:
493:10.1017/S026972700000748X
146:
139:
118:
111:
32:Scientific classification
30:
23:
698:(Special Issue 2): 528.
692:Plant Protection Science
191:(Day 1924) Chester 1939
181:Pseudomonas saliciperda
177:Martinec and Kocur 1963
163:Pseudobacterium salicis
390:of infected material.
211:that is pathogenic on
159:(Day 1924) Magrou 1937
16:Species of bacterium
67:Gammaproteobacteria
705:10.17221/10545-PPS
232:The white willow,
156:Phytomonas salicis
930:Pectobacteriaceae
917:
916:
884:brenneria-salicis
751:Brenneria salicis
743:Taxon identifiers
721:Brenneria salicis
405:Brenneria salicis
383:Brenneria salicis
376:Brenneria salicis
372:Brenneria salicis
366:Brenneria salicis
361:Brenneria salicis
353:
352:
277:Brenneria salicis
270:Brenneria salicis
252:Host and symptoms
201:Brenneria salicis
197:
196:
192:
185:
178:
170:Erwinia amylovora
167:
160:
153:
149:Bacterium salicis
122:Brenneria salicis
91:Pectobacteriaceae
25:Brenneria salicis
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910:
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860:
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658:. Archived from
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616:(6): 1453–1462.
605:
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570:
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546:(5–6): 334–339.
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511:
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472:
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450:. Archived from
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308:early leaf fall
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190:
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176:
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158:
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79:Enterobacterales
21:
20:
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719:Type strain of
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681:Further reading
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575:Plant Pathology
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396:
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311:necrotic spots
305:abnormal color
254:
188:Erwinia salicis
186:
179:
168:
161:
154:
135:
129:
126:
120:
107:
93:
81:
69:
57:
45:
17:
12:
11:
5:
953:
943:
942:
937:
932:
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888:
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849:
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823:
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797:
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713:External links
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581:(5): 613–619.
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55:Pseudomonadota
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206:Gram-negative
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113:Binomial name
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667:. Retrieved
660:the original
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522:. Retrieved
519:www.cabi.org
518:
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456:. Retrieved
452:the original
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356:Pathogenesis
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330:ooze (sign)
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487:: 105–117.
338:Whole plant
241:S. fragilis
128:(Day 1924)
924:Categories
669:2017-10-24
524:2017-10-24
458:2009-02-18
415:References
400:Salix alba
394:Management
262:Salix alba
630:1462-2920
595:1365-3059
560:1439-0329
501:2053-5910
209:bacterium
104:Brenneria
845:10030987
766:Q4961270
760:Wikidata
638:19220404
345:dieback
324:dieback
314:wilting
288:Symptoms
152:Day 1924
141:Synonyms
86:Family:
50:Phylum:
43:Bacteria
38:Domain:
832:3221943
775:BacDive
246:Hybrids
235:S. alba
174:salicis
130:Hauben
98:Genus:
74:Order:
62:Class:
904:NZOR:
871:960083
819:ERWISA
806:972734
723:at Bac
636:
628:
593:
558:
499:
342:death
301:Leaves
213:plants
132:et al.
897:55214
858:21936
840:IRMNG
793:68RGS
663:(PDF)
656:(PDF)
320:Stems
258:Salix
226:xylem
221:Salix
204:is a
172:var.
892:NCBI
879:LPSN
866:ITIS
827:GBIF
814:EPPO
780:4308
725:Dive
634:PMID
626:ISSN
591:ISSN
556:ISSN
497:ISSN
134:1999
853:ISC
801:EoL
788:CoL
700:doi
618:doi
583:doi
548:doi
489:doi
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696:38
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614:11
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589:.
579:48
577:.
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544:11
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517:.
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485:98
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467:^
435:^
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.