Binary prefix - Knowledge

5804:. IBM Press. quote: "To help avoid inaccuracy (especially with the larger prefixes) and potential ambiguity, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 2000 adopted a set of prefixes specifically for binary multipliers (See IEC 60027-2). Their use is now supported by the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and incorporated into ISO 80000. They are also required by EU law and in certain contexts in the US. However, most documentation and products in the industry continue to use SI prefixes when referring to binary multipliers. In product documentation, follow the same standard that is used in the product itself (for example, in the interface or firmware). Whether you choose to use IEC prefixes for powers of 2 and SI prefixes for powers of 10, or use SI prefixes for a dual purpose ... be consistent in your usage and explain to the user your adopted system." 1591:, bytes, or bits), computer professionals also started using the long-established metric system prefixes "kilo", "mega", "giga", etc., defined to be powers of 10, to mean instead the nearest powers of two; namely, 2 = 1024, 2 = 1024, 2 = 1024, etc. The corresponding metric prefix symbols ("k", "M", "G", etc.) where used with the same binary meanings. The symbol for 2 = 1024 could be written either in lower case ("k") or in uppercase ("K"). The latter was often used intentionally to indicate the binary rather than decimal meaning. This convention, which could not be extended to higher powers, was widely used in the documentation of the 2688: 2656: 2674: 2486:'s (IUPAC) Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IDCNS) proposed the prefixes "kibi" (short for "kilobinary"), "mebi" ("megabinary"), "gibi" ("gigabinary") and "tebi" ("terabinary"), with respective symbols "kb", "Mb", "Gb" and "Tb", for binary multipliers. The proposal suggested that the SI prefixes should be used only for powers of 10; so that a disk drive capacity of "500 gigabytes", "0.5 terabytes", "500 GB", or "0.5 TB" should all mean 2877:. The names and symbols for the prefixes corresponding to 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, and 2 are, respectively: kibi, Ki; mebi, Mi; gibi, Gi; tebi, Ti; pebi, Pi; and exbi, Ei. Thus, for example, one kibibyte would be written: 1 KiB = 2 B = 1024 B, where B denotes a byte. Although these prefixes are not part of the SI, they should be used in the field of information technology to avoid the incorrect usage of the SI prefixes. 5245:"These prefixes for binary multiples, which were developed by IEC Technical Committee (TC) 25, Quantities and units, and their letter symbols, with the strong support of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) and the IEEE, were adopted by the IEC as Amendment 2 to IEC International Standard IEC 60027-2: Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology – Part 2: Telecommunications and electronics." 2596:(NIST) supports the ISO/IEC standards for "Prefixes for binary multiples" and has a web page documenting them, describing and justifying their use. NIST suggests that in English, the first syllable of the name of the binary-multiple prefix should be pronounced in the same way as the first syllable of the name of the corresponding SI prefix, and that the second syllable should be pronounced as 3299:[Art. 8. In the weights and measures of capacity, each of the decimal measures of these two kinds will have its double and its half, in order to give to the sale of the various articles all the convenience that one can desire. There will therefore be the double-litre and the half-litre, the double-hectogram and the half-hectogram, and so on.] 5555:

persons who use computers without much concern for their construction or inner working. These persons will normally interpret kilo, mega, etc., in their proper decimal sense. The second goal speaks to specialists – the prefixes for binary multiples make it possible for persons who work in the information sciences to communicate with precision.

746:) continued using those same terms and symbols with the decimal meaning. Since then, the major standards organizations have expressly disapproved the use of SI prefixes to denote binary multiples, and recommended or mandated the use of the IEC prefixes for that purpose, but the use of SI prefixes in this sense has persisted in some fields. 3463:"The 8K core stores were getting fairly common in this country in 1954. The 32K store started mass production in 1956; it is the standard now for large machines and at least 200 machines of the size (or its equivalent in the character addressable machines) are in existence today (and at least 100 were in existence in mid-1959)." Note: The 2450:, alleging that Seagate overrepresented the amount of usable storage by 7% on hard drives sold between 22 March 2001 and 26 September 2007. The case was settled without Seagate admitting wrongdoing, but agreeing to supply those purchasers with free backup software or a 5% refund on the cost of the drives. 5881: 3369:

Also, random access devices are advantageous over serial access devices for backing store applications only when the memory capacity is less than 1 Mbyte. For capacities of 4 Mbyte and 16 Mbyte serial access stores with shift register lengths of 256 bit and 1024 bit, respectively, look

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Although Western Digital maintained that their usage of units is consistent with "the indisputably correct industry standard for measuring and describing storage capacity", and that they "cannot be expected to reform the software industry", they agreed to settle in March 2006 with 14 June 2006 as the

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The most recent version of the physical hardware, the "3.5-inch diskette" cartridge, had 720 512-byte blocks (single-sided). Since two blocks comprised 1024 bytes, the capacity was quoted "360 KB", with the binary sense of "K". On the other hand, the quoted capacity of "1.44 MB" of the High

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This standard is prepared with two goals in mind: (1) to preserve the SI prefixes as unambiguous decimal multipliers and (2) to provide alternative prefixes for those cases where binary multipliers are needed. The first goal affects the general public, the wide audience of technical and nontechnical

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The BIPM standard JCGM 200:2012 "International vocabulary of metrology – Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition" lists the IEC binary prefixes and states "SI prefixes refer strictly to powers of 10, and should not be used for powers of 2. For example, 1 kilobit should not

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in fees and expenses to San Francisco lawyers Adam Gutride and Seth Safier, who filed the suit. The settlement called for Western Digital to add a disclaimer to their later packaging and advertising. Western Digital had this footnote in their settlement. "Apparently, Plaintiff believes that he could

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business computer (1973) could have "64K", "96K", or "128K" bytes of memory. The use of SI prefixes, and the use of "K" instead of "k" remained popular in computer-related publications well into the 21st century, although the ambiguity persisted. The correct meaning was often clear from the context;

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The IEC 60027-2 standard recommended operating systems and other software were updated to use binary or decimal prefixes consistently, but incorrect usage of SI prefixes for binary multiples is still common. At the time, the IEEE decided that their standards would use the prefixes "kilo", etc. with

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Vroegh claimed that a 256 MB Flash Memory Device had only 244 MB of accessible memory. "Plaintiffs allege that Defendants marketed the memory capacity of their products by assuming that one megabyte equals one million bytes and one gigabyte equals one billion bytes." The plaintiffs wanted

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The relative difference between the values in the binary and decimal interpretations increases, when using the SI prefixes as the base, from 2.4% for kilo to nearly 27% for the quetta prefix. Although the prefixes ronna and quetta have been defined, as of 2022 no names have been officially assigned

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Early cases (2004–2007) were settled prior to any court ruling with the manufacturers admitting no wrongdoing but agreeing to clarify the storage capacity of their products on the consumer packaging. Accordingly, many flash memory and hard disk manufacturers have disclosures on their packaging and

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ISS Technology Update – Hewlett Packard Enterprise, volume 9, issue 1, quote: 'To reduce confusion, vendors are pursuing one of two remedies: they are changing SI prefixes to the new binary prefixes, or they are recalculating the numbers as powers of ten. HP is considering modifying its storage

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The parties agreed that manufacturers could continue to use the decimal definition so long as the definition was added to the packaging and web sites. The consumers could apply for "a discount of ten percent off a future online purchase from Defendants' Online Stores Flash Memory Device".

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Art. 8. Dans les poids et mesures de capacité, chacune des mesures décimales de ces deux genres aura son double et sa moitié, afin de donner à la vente des divers objets toute la commodité que l'on peut désirer. Il y aura donc le double-litre et le demi-litre, le double-hectogramme et le

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era. A common source of confusion was the discrepancy between the capacities of hard drives specified by manufacturers, using those prefixes in the decimal sense, and the numbers reported by operating systems and other software, that used them in the binary sense, such as the

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These SI prefixes refer strictly to powers of 10. They should not be used to indicate powers of 2 (for example, one kilobit represents 1000 bits and not 1024 bits). The IEC has adopted prefixes for binary powers in the international standard IEC 60027-2: 2005, third edition,

2565::2008 standard cancels and replaces subclauses 3.8 and 3.9 of IEC 60027-2:2005 (those defining prefixes for binary multiples). The only significant change is the addition of explicit definitions for some quantities. In 2009, the prefixes kibi-, mebi-, etc. were defined by 2550:

Amendment 2) The standard reaffirmed the BIPM's position that the SI prefixes should always denote powers of 10. The third edition of the standard, published in 2005, added prefixes "zebi" and "yobi", thus matching all then-defined SI prefixes with binary counterparts.

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the industry-standard definition of a megabyte (MByte) for flash devices is one million (1,000,000) bytes, where the operating system uses two to the twentieth power, or 1,048,576 bytes. Similarly, for a gigabyte (GByte), the number is 1,000,000,000 and 1,073,741,824

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is organized in platters and tracks whose sizes and counts are determined by mechanical engineering constraints so that the capacity of a disk drive has hardly ever been a simple multiple of a power of 2. For example, the first commercially sold disk drive, the

2614:("Prefixes for Binary Multiples") was elevated to a full-use standard by the IEEE Standards Association after a two-year trial period. as of April 2008, the IEEE Publications division does not require the use of IEC prefixes in its major magazines such as 1722:, where each track was divided into blocks of user-specified size; and the block sizes were recorded on the disk, subtracting from the usable capacity. For example, the IBM 3336 disk pack was quoted to have a 200-megabyte capacity, achieved only with a single 4367:

kilo (K). (1) A prefix indicating 1000. (2) In statements involving size of computer storage, a prefix indicating 2, or 1024. mega (M). (1) A prefix indicating one million. (2) In statements involving size of computer storage, a prefix indicating 2, or

5631:"A lot can happen in a decade. You can hold the Nokia N800 in your hand, yet it's a near-exact match for a high-end desktop PC from 10 years ago. It has a 320-megahertz processor, 128 megabytes of RAM, and a few gigabytes of available mass storage." 2395:

the defendants to use the customary values of 1024 for megabyte and 1024 for gigabyte. The plaintiffs acknowledged that the IEC and IEEE standards define a MB as one million bytes but stated that the industry has largely ignored the IEC standards.

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command, let the user choose between binary or decimal multipliers. However, some continue to use the SI symbols with the binary meanings, even when reporting disk or file sizes. Some programs may also use "K" instead of "k", with either meaning.

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By the mid-1960s, binary addressing had become the standard architecture in most computer designs, and main memory sizes were most commonly powers of two. This is the most natural configuration for memory, as all combinations of states of their

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The ambiguous usage of the prefixes "kilo ("K" or "k"), "mega" ("M"), and "giga" ("G"), as meaning both powers of 1000 or (in computer contexts) of 1024, has been recorded in popular dictionaries, and even in some obsolete standards, such as

4173:"The 1.44-megabyte (MB) value associated with the 3.5-inch disk format does not represent the actual size or free space of these disks. Although its size has been popularly called 1.44 MB, the correct size is actually 1.40 MB." 1614:

In other documents, however, the metric prefixes and their symbols were used to denote powers of 10, but usually with the understanding that the values given were approximate, often truncated down. Thus, for example, a 1967 document by

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bytes, and thus was marketed as "1200 KB" with the binary sense of "KB". However, the capacity was also quoted "1.2 MB", which was a hybrid decimal and binary notation, since the "M" meant 1000 × 1024. The precise value was

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In computing and storage systems, a kB (kiloByte) is actually 1,024 (2^10) bytes, since the measurement is based on a base 2, or binary, number system. The term kB comes from the fact that 1,024 is nominally, or approximately,

4492:"kB See kilobyte." "Kbyte Kilobyte. Indicates 2 bytes." "Kilobyte Either 1000 or 2 or 1024 bytes." The standard also defines megabyte and gigabyte with a note that an alternative notation for base 2 is under development. 2275:

responded with a suggestion to use bK as an abbreviation for 1024 and bK2 or bK for 1024, though he noted that neither the Greek letter nor lowercase letter b would be easy to reproduce on computer printers of the day.

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Of 187 different relevant systems, 131 utilize a straight binary system internally, whereas 53 utilize the decimal system (primarily binary coded decimal) and 3 systems utilize a binary coded alphanumeric system of

589:), that were commonly used in the computer industry to indicate the nearest powers of two. For example, a memory module whose capacity was specified by the manufacturer as "2 megabytes" or "2 MB" would hold 2 × 2 = 3626:

All-monolithic storage ... (1024-bit NMOS) This new improvement of processor storage makes system expansion more economical. Real storage capacity is available in 512K increments ranging from 512K to 2,048K

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Some operating systems and other software use either the IEC binary multiplier symbols ("Ki", "Mi", etc.) or the SI multiplier symbols ("k", "M", "G", etc.) with decimal meaning. Some programs, such as the

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for instance, in a binary-addressed computer, the true memory size had to be either a power of 2, or a small integer multiple thereof. Thus a "512 megabyte" RAM module was generally understood to have

2767:. However, some disk manufacturers have used the IEC prefixes to avoid confusion. The decimal meaning of SI prefixes is usually also intended in measurements of data transfer rates, and clock speeds. 1846:, and their capacities was usually specified with SI-like prefixes "K" and "M" with either decimal or binary meaning. The capacity of the disks was often specified without accounting for the internal 5947:

The definitions of kilo, giga, and mega based on powers of two are included only to reflect common usage. IEEE/ASTM SI 10-1997 states "This practice frequently leads to confusion and is deprecated."

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in 1984. For example, a hard drive marketed as "1 TB" could be reported as having only "931 GB". The confusion was compounded by fact that RAM manufacturers used the binary sense too.

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utilities to report disk capacity with correct decimal and binary values side-by-side (for example, "300 GB (279.4 GiB)"), and report cache sizes with binary prefixes ("1 GiB")'.

2633:(SI), expressly prohibits the use of SI prefixes to denote binary multiples, and recommends the use of the IEC prefixes as an alternative since units of information are not included in the SI. 2417:

was filed in the Superior Court for the City and County of San Francisco, Case No. CGC-05-442812. The case was subsequently moved to the Northern District of California, Case No. 05-03353 BZ.

1831:, have released recommendations stating that properly-written software and documentation should specify clearly whether prefixes such as "K", "M", or "G" mean binary or decimal multipliers. 3230: 1751:

when formatted as 306 × 4 tracks and 32 256-byte sectors per track, which was quoted as "10 MB". Similarly, a "300 GB" hard drive can be expected to offer only slightly more than

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describes the IEC prefixes in its online dictionary, but acknowledges that the SI prefixes and the symbols "K", "M" and "G" are still commonly used with the binary sense for memory sizes.

5167: 2896: 2647:) adopted the IEC-recommended binary prefixes via the harmonization document HD 60027-2:2003-03. The European Union (EU) has required the use of the IEC binary prefixes since 2007. 5814: 5592:: Elevate status of standard from trial-use to full-use. Editorial staff will be notified to implement the necessary changes. The standard will be due for a maintenance action in 2007. 2307:, who uses decimal notation like 1 MB = 1000 kB, proposed that the powers of 1024 be designated as "large kilobytes" and "large megabytes", with abbreviations KKB and MMB. 2336:

The different interpretations of disk size prefixes led to class action lawsuits against digital storage manufacturers. These cases involved both flash memory and hard disk drives.

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While the binary prefixes are almost always used with the units of information, bits and bytes, they may be used with any other unit of measure, when convenient. For example, in

3273:"La Loi Du 18 Germinal An 3: Décision de tracer le mètre, unité fondamentale, sur une règle de platine. Nomenclature des " mesures républicaines ". Reprise de la triangulation" 2229: 2225: 2072:

bits per second. Seagate specified the sustained transfer rate of some hard disk drive models with both decimal and IEC binary prefixes. The standard sampling rate of music

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bytes or b) 2 bytes. ... As used in this document, the terms kilobyte (kB) means 2 or 1024 bytes, megabyte (MB) means 1024 kilobytes, and gigabyte (GB) means 1024 megabytes.

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Some computer industry participants, such as Hewlett-Packard (HP), and IBM have adopted or recommended IEC binary prefixes as part of their general documentation policies.

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Brown, Richard J. C. (2022-04-27). "Reply to 'Facing a shortage of the Latin letters for the prospective new SI symbols: alternative proposal for the new SI prefixes'".

2233: 5682:"The processor has a memory subsystem with separate first-level 32-Kbyte instruction and data caches, and a 512-Kbyte unified second-level cache." Authors are with IBM. 2581:

their metric definitions, but allowed the binary definitions to be used in an interim period as long as such usage was explicitly pointed out on a case-by-case basis.

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These three possible meanings of "k" and "K" ("1024", "1000", or "approximately 1000") were used loosely around the same time, sometimes by the same company. The

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bytes) hard disk drive was introduced in 2007. Decimal prefixes were generally used by information processing publications when comparing hard disk capacities.

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Tape drive and media manufacturers have generally used SI decimal prefixes to specify the maximum capacity, although the actual capacity would depend on the

6086: 4826: 4788: 2683:'s partition editor uses IEC prefixes to display partition sizes. The total capacity of the 120 × 10-byte disk is displayed as "111.79 GiB". 2460:

On 22 January 2020, the district court of the Northern District of California ruled in favor of the defendant, SanDisk, upholding its use of "GB" to mean

4900: 3279:, Year 3: Decision to draw the fundamental unit metre on a platinum ruler. Nomenclature of "Republican measures". Resumption of the triangulation.]. 2277: 4079: 1853:

The early 8-inch diskette formats could contain less than a megabyte with the capacities of those devices specified in kilobytes, kilobits or megabits.

4901:"Why is the capacity of my Secure Digital memory card (as reported by many operating systems) different than the capacity that is listed on its label?" 4232: 6097: 5328: 3650:

One type, designated as the small core memory (SCM) is a many bank coincident current type memory with a total of 64K words of 60 bit length (K=1024).

1827:, have been updated to use "MB" and "GB" to denote decimal prefixes when displaying disk drive capacities and file sizes. Some manufacturers, such as 1699:

In specifying disk drive capacities, manufacturers have always used conventional decimal SI prefixes representing powers of 10. Storage in a rotating

6570: 4463: 2543:(IEC). The prefixes "kibi", "mebi", "gibi" and "tebi" were retained, but with the symbols "Ki" (with capital "K"), "Mi", "Gi" and "Ti" respectively. 2532: 2483: 6126: 5674: 4051: 2733:. For example, a "512-megabyte" or "512 MB" memory module holds 512 MiB; that is, 512 × 2 bytes, not 512 × 10 bytes. 5822: 1164: 3074: 1537: 6553: 3807: 453: 6472: 3093: 715: 243: 5471: 2936: 2593: 2555: 2536: 704: 5364: 6514: 6304: 6216: 6162:"Toshiba Introduces Two 1.8-inch Hard Disk Drive Families For Both High Performance and Long Battery Life in Mobile Computing Applications" 2968: 2626: 1148: 697: 3907: 2546:

In January 1999, the IEC published this proposal, with additional prefixes "pebi" ("Pi") and "exbi" ("Ei"), as an international standard (

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sue an egg company for fraud for labeling a carton of 12 eggs a 'dozen', because some bakers would view a 'dozen' as including 13 items."

6601: 5933:"JEDEC Standard No. 100B.01 – Terms, Definitions, and Letter Symbols for Microcomputers, Microprocessors, and Memory Integrated Circuits" 2345:

web sites clarifying the formatted capacity of the devices or defining MB as 1 million bytes and 1 GB as 1 billion bytes.

2271:) to denote 1024, κ to denote 1024, and so on. (At the time, memory size was small, and only K was in widespread use.) In the same year, 6161: 5217: 3735: 2424:

Western Digital offered to compensate customers with a free download of backup and recovery software valued at US$ 30. They also paid $

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Early computers used one of two addressing methods to access the system memory; binary (base 2) or decimal (base 10). For example, the

6515:"When One Billion does not equal One Billion, or: Why your computer's disk drive capacity doesn't appear to match the stated capacity" 3663: 3562:

when describing the performance of IT systems the larger units 'kilobytes' (kB) Strictly speaking, k means the 'binary thousand' 1024

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On the other hand, the SI prefixes with powers of ten meanings are generally used for the capacity of external storage units, such as

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This article is about powers-of-two prefixes for measurement units like bit and byte. For notations for the radix of a numeral, see

5727: 4315: 4037:, 100628561, Rev D, March 2011, sec 5.2.3, p. 10 (18th page of the pdf), states the drive's sustained transfer speed as "89 to 160 3704: 4210: 4183: 4034: 2600:. NIST has stated the SI prefixes "refer strictly to powers of 10" and that the binary definitions "should not be used" for them. 2029:

frequencies are always quoted using SI prefixes in their decimal sense. For example, the internal clock frequency of the original

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Before the IEC standard, several alternative proposals existed for unique binary prefixes, starting in the late 1960s. In 1996,

1931:. Some operating systems displayed the capacity of those disks using the binary sense of "MB", as "1.4 MB" (which would be 5310: 5221: 5192: 3235: 2356: 3852: 5536: 5081: 5000: 4485: 2851: 2640:(SAE) prohibits the use of SI prefixes with anything but a power-of-1000 meaning, but does not cite the IEC binary prefixes. 4011: 6192: 5438: 4966: 5389: 4936: 3616: 3018: 1958:, "megabyte" and "MB" usually meant 1024 bytes. Thus a "700-MB" (or "80-minute") CD has a nominal capacity of about 1916:

Density ("HD") version was again a hybrid decimal and binary notation, since it meant 1440 pairs of 512-byte sectors, or

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On the other hand, a hard disk whose capacity is specified by the manufacturer as "10 gigabytes" or "10 GB", holds

5188: 3555: 5787: 3953: 1807:, still use "MB" and "GB" to denote binary prefixes even when displaying disk drive capacities and file sizes, as did 4431: 4396: 4360: 3523: 3490: 6410: 3640: 6458: 6443: 5033: 4502: 2793: 2249: 688:

providing that measurement. This kind of ambiguity is often confusing to computer system users and has resulted in

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As of 2023, the use of SI prefixes with the binary meanings is still prevalent for specifying the capacity of the

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in the binary sense, for use in storage capacity measurements. However, other computer industry sectors (such as

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These devices contain the following number of bits: 4Gb has 4,294,967,296 bits ... 32Gb has 34,359,738,368 bits

2281: 2240:. Some of these standards specifically limited the binary meaning to multiples of "byte" ("B") or "bit" ("b"). 439: 4911: 3388:

ACM '59: Preprints of Papers Presented at the 14th National Meeting of the Association for Computing Machinery

1175:(Qi, 1024) for their binary counterparts, but as of 2022, no corresponding binary prefixes have been adopted. 6748: 5255: 4087: 2630: 560: 5910: 5160: 4243: 2889: 2589:

The IEC standard binary prefixes are supported by other standardization bodies and technical organizations.

6665: 6105: 5332: 5108:""Defendant Western Digital Corporation's Brief in Support of Plaintiff's Motion for Preliminary Approval"" 4621: 4521: 3722:

Central Memory is organized into 32K, 65K, or 131K words (60-bit) in 8, 16, or 32 banks of 4096 words each.

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Figure 1 gives storage (memory) capacity ranges of the various models in "Capacity 8-bit bytes, 1 K = 1024"

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map to a valid address, allowing easy aggregation into a larger block of memory with contiguous addresses.

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JEDEC continues to include the customary binary definitions of "kilo", "mega", and "giga" in the document

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have been generally specified in decimal gigabytes ("GB"), that is, 1000 bytes. In particular, a typical "

1946:). User complaints forced both Apple and Microsoft to issue support bulletins explaining the discrepancy. 6738: 6137: 5486:

The definitions of kilo, giga, and mega based on powers of two are included only to reflect common usage.

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Kbyte. Kilobyte. Indicates 2 bytes. Mbyte. Megabyte. Indicates 2bytes. Gbyte is used in the Foreword.

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IBM Tells MiniScribe It Is Cutting Back On Winchester Orders, Computer System News, 1 Jan 1984, p. 1

2916: 2687: 2300:. This convention is still used on some calculators to present binary floating point-numbers today. 6753: 6743: 5498: 3014:"A terminology standard for underwater acoustics and the benefits of international standardization" 3312:"A Third Survey of Domestic Electronic Digital Computing Systems: Chapter III Analysis and Trends" 6563:

A summary of the organizations, software, and so on that have implemented the new binary prefixes

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or similar refers to prefixes such as kilo, mega, giga, etc., borrowed from the similarly named

2260:"2" to mean "binary"; so that, for example, "one dikilobyte" would mean "1024 bytes", denoted "K 5354:"International vocabulary of metrology – Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM)" 3915: 3343:

Lin, Yeong; Mattson, R. (September 1972). "Cost-performance evaluation of memory hierarchies".

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Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology – Part 2: Telecommunications and electronics

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While early documentation specified those memory sizes as exact numbers such as 4096, 8192, or

1504: 526: 475: 5446:. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. 29. Archived from 3437:

Gruenberger, Fred; Burgess, C. R.; Gruenberger, Fred (October 1960). "Letters to the Editor".

1811:. Thus, for example, the capacity of a "10 MB" (decimal "M") disk drive could be reported as " 16:

Symbol placed before units of digital information to indicate multiplication by a power of two

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DeRespinis, F., Hayward, P., Jenkins, J., Laird, A., McDonald, L., and Radzinski, E. (2011):

5225: 3750: 1986: 3311: 3272: 3087:"List of Resolutions for the 27th meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures" 6733: 6660: 6610: 5982: 5961: 3482: 3352: 3191: 3031: 2933:

The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty: International System of Units (SI)

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had 256 bytes per sector, 13 sectors per track, 35 tracks per side, or a total capacity of

1511: 479: 6024: 5314: 5218:"(IUCr) 1996 Report – IUPAC Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IDCNS)" 4735: 4135: 2836: 8: 6497: 5716: 4795: 4702: 4677: 1815:", and that of a "300 GB" drive as "279.4 GB". Some operating systems, such as 538: 20: 5542: 5187:

IUCr IUPAC Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IDCNS) (1997-02-13) .

4323: 3710: 3581: 3356: 3195: 3035: 6462: 6250: 6056: 5666: 5621: 5059: 4635: 4588: 4547: 4506: 4207: 4187: 4058: 3682: 3454: 3401: 3254: 3209: 3187: 3144: 3065: 3049: 2752: 2730: 2718: 2447: 2316: 1828: 681: 556: 6255: 5932: 5313:(Press release). International Electrotechnical Commission. 2005-08-15. Archived from 2988: 2691:

GNOME's system monitor uses IEC prefixes to show memory size and networking data rate.

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proposed that, instead of prefixes, binary powers of two were indicated by the letter

6634: 5571: 5532: 5277: 4763: 4481: 4427: 4392: 4356: 4052:"Marketing Bulletin: Advanced Format 4K Sector Transition Frequently Asked Questions" 3551: 3519: 3486: 3258: 3213: 3148: 3136: 3118: 3069: 3057: 2847: 2808: 2655: 2637: 2384: 2320: 1804: 1715:

sectors of 100 characters each, for a total quoted capacity of 5 million characters.

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IEEE Standard Control and Status Register (CSR) Architecture for Microcomputer Buses

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The proposal was not accepted by IUPAC at the time, but was taken up in 1996 by the

2051:

Similarly, digital information transfer rates are quoted using decimal prefixe. The

5860: 5658: 5613: 5524: 5267: 4978: 4625: 4578: 4537: 4473: 4419: 4384: 4348: 4233:"Data Interchange on 12,7 mm 384-Track Magnetic Tape Cartridges – Ultrium-1 Format" 3674: 3596: 3458: 3446: 3391: 3360: 3276: 3246: 3199: 3128: 3123: 3039: 2756: 2707: 2372: 2174: 1630:

words" as "65K words" (rather than "64K" or "66K"), while the documentation of the

743: 685: 6392: 5085: 5012: 4291: 3012:

Ainslie, Michael A.; Halvorsen, Michele B.; Robinson, Stephen P. (January 2022) .

2928: 1163:

for 1000. In analogy to the existing binary prefixes, a consultation paper of the

6574: 6557: 5256:"IUCR 1999 report on IUPAC Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols" 4684: 4462: 4214: 4003: 2412: 1847: 542: 6423: 6305:"Ubuntu implements units policy, will switch to base-10 units in future release" 6199: 5425: 4477: 4388: 2960: 5617: 5528: 5447: 4759: 4423: 4352: 3250: 3204: 3169: 3132: 2611: 2315:

The ambiguous meanings of "kilo", "mega", "giga", etc., has caused significant

2272: 1808: 1719: 1596: 708: 45: 6562: 5272: 4944: 3364: 1732:

Decimal megabytes were used for disk capacity by the CDC in 1974. The Seagate

6727: 3061: 3053: 3044: 3013: 2798: 2722: 2364: 1499: 701: 483: 6283: 5717:"Rules for SAE Use of SI (Metric) Units] – Section C.1.12 – SI prefixes" 5568:"IEEE-SA Standards Board Standards Review Committee (RevCom) Meeting Agenda" 5196: 2673: 2669:-byte capacity of these RAM modules is stated as "512 MB" on the label. 6371: 5281: 4689: 3945: 3140: 2760: 2726: 2562: 2388: 2304: 2116: 2073: 2052: 2026: 1978: 1970: 1955: 1839: 1574: 754: 646:

and a file whose size is listed as "2.3 GB" may have a size closer to

238: 5692: 4630: 4607: 4583: 4566: 4542: 4525: 4114:

CDS 100 ... stores over 600 kilobits, Model 650 ... store 1.5 megabits ...

3678: 3671:

ISCA '76: Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Symposium on Computer Architecture

3450: 3396: 3383: 2834: 2446:, San Francisco Superior Court, Case No. CGC-06-453195) was filed against 1569:(1953) used a decimal system, and could address ten thousand 7-bit words. 6414: 5436: 4267: 4157: 3577: 2846:(in French and English) (8th ed.). Paris: STEDI Media. p. 127. 2748: 2699: 2566: 2547: 714:

Prior to the 1999 IEC standard, some industry organizations, such as the

563: 553: 471: 5930: 5662: 5604:

Wallich, Paul (April 2008). "Tools & toys: Hacking the Nokia N800".

2569:

in their own right, independently of the kibibyte, mebibyte, and so on.

1901:

bytes. It was later upgraded to 16 sectors per track, giving a total of

6579: 6413:. International Electrotechnical Commission. 2007-02-12. Archived from 5642:

Gschwind, Michael; Erb, David; Manning, Sid; Nutter, Mark (June 2007).

4158:"Determining Actual Disk Size: Why 1.44 MB Should Be 1.40 MB" 3832:

unambiguously uses MB to characterize HDD capacity in millions of bytes

3600: 3174: 2289: 1700: 1608: 6473:"There is no such thing as a 1.44 MB standard format floppy disc" 6325: 5644:"An Open Source Environment for Cell Broadband Engine System Software" 5139: 4519: 3974: 3417:

data may be analyzed, ... without resorting to auxiliary tape storage.

5847: 5136:"Settlement Website for Cho v. Seagate Technology (US) Holdings, Inc" 2915:

See also Dinan v. SanDisk LLC, No. 20-15287 (9th Cir. Feb. 11, 2021)

2772: 2257: 2170: 1912:

bytes, which was described as "140KB" using the binary sense of "K".

1737: 1533: 758: 548:

The binary prefixes "kibi", "mebi", etc. were defined in 1999 by the

55: 27: 5503:. JEDEC Solid State Technology Association. August 2014. p. 7. 5168:

United States District Court for the Northern District of California

4564: 4526:"Letters to the editor: Abbreviations for computer and memory sizes" 3119:"How many yottabytes in a quettabyte? Extreme numbers get new names" 2897:

United States District Court for the Northern District of California

696:

standard and are supported by other standards bodies, including the

6712: 6707: 6702: 5472:"mega (M) (as a prefix to units of semiconductor storage capacity)" 3464: 3384:"A generalized analysis of variance program utilizing binary logic" 2961:"International System of Units (SI): Prefixes for binary multiples" 2360: 2088: 1816: 1600: 5586:(SCC14) IEEE Trial-Use Standard for Prefixes for Binary Multiples 6686: 6681: 4837: 4654: 3642:

Control Data 7600 Computer System: Preliminary System Description

3530:

kB (kilobyte; actually 1024 bytes) KB (kilobyte; kB is preferred)

3420:

Note: the IBM 704 core memory units had 4096 36-bit words. Up to

3333:

Hunting Trouble on 28 Megacycles, A. L. Blais, QST, January 1930.

2917:

https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=16989791406584358656

2644: 2376: 2368: 2267:

In 1968, Donald Morrison proposed to use the Greek letter kappa (

1891: 1705: 1663: 1631: 1592: 1566: 1554: 1158: 689: 215: 5260:

Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography

4128:"Working with Disks: An intro to floppy disks and floppy drives" 2435: 1167:' Consultative Committee for Units (CCU) suggested the prefixes 692:. The IEC 60027-2 binary prefixes have been incorporated in the 6650: 6629: 3935:

1977 Disk/Trend Report – Rigid Disk Drives, published June 1977

3736:"All Semiconductor Memory Selected for New Minicomputer Series" 2989:"Patent WO2012098399A2 – Low-power oscillator – Google Patents" 2803: 2764: 2715: 2253: 2091:

interface can receive or transmit up to 10 bits per second, or

2030: 1982: 1824: 1820: 1733: 1604: 1152: 199: 183: 167: 4345:

IEEE Standard Glossary of Mathematics of Computing Terminology

3706:

Control Data 6400/6500/6600 Computer Systems Reference Manual

3702: 3436: 2711: 2680: 2677: 2643:

The European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (

2604: 2402: 2120: 1857: 1502:

adopted by France in 1795 included two binary prefixes named

566:

prefixes, such as "kilo" ("k", 10 = 1000), "mega" ("M", 10 =

410: 389: 368: 347: 325: 303: 281: 259: 135: 119: 103: 87: 71: 5770:"CENELEC – Standards Development – List of Technical Bodies" 5752:"CENELEC – Standards Development – List of Technical Bodies" 4041:/s" on one line, and "93 to 168 MB/s" on the next line. 3664:"Computer structures: What have we learned from the PDP-11?" 1708:(1956), had 50 physical disk platters containing a total of 1178: 776:

Specific units of IEC 60027-2 A.2 and ISO/IEC 80000:13-2008

6655: 6439: 6427: 5401: 5082:"NOTICE OF CLASS ACTION AND PROPOSED SETTLEMENT ("NOTICE")" 5079: 4567:"Letters to the editor: proposed abbreviation for 1024: bK" 3183: 3027: 2584: 534: 151: 5931:

JEDEC Solid State Technology Association (December 2002).

5476:

JEDEC – Global Standards for the Microelectronics Industry

3324:

This lengthy report describes many of the early computers.

2387:

alleging that their descriptions of the capacity of their

2268: 2177:

bus, transferring 8 bytes per cycle with a clock speed of

6624: 4875:. Poorman-Douglas Corporation. 2005-03-10. Archived from 4866:"Vreogh Third Amended Complaint (Case No. GCG-04-428953)" 4038: 3709:(Pub No. 60100000 ed.). pp. 2–1. Archived from 2740:, and, as of 2010, still used those definitions in their 2603:

As of 2014, the microelectronics industry standards body

2348: 2102: 1974: 1616: 1562: 530: 5802:

The IBM style guide: conventions for writers and editors

5641: 3638: 3011: 1784:

bytes or "322 GB"). The first terabyte (SI prefix,

6467:—a 1996–1999 paper on bits, bytes, prefixes and symbols 5426:

The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty

4416:

IEEE Standard Glossary of Computer Hardware Terminology

2965:

The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty

2775: 2065:

bytes per second, and a "56 Kb/s" modem transmits

1718:

Moreover, since the 1960s, many disk drives used IBM's

6269:

hda: 120064896 sectors (61473 MB) w/2048KiB Cache

4507:"Standardized units for use in information technology" 6540:—White-paper on the controversy over drive capacities 4964: 3512:

The ACS style guide: a manual for authors and editors

6167:(Press release). Toshiba. 2009-11-04. Archived from 6048: 5508:

Free registration required to download the standard.

4821: 4819: 1557:(1952) used a binary methods and could address 2048 753:

one may need binary multiples of the frequency unit

3841: 2835:Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. (2006). 6411:"When is a kilobyte a kibibyte? And an MB an MiB?" 6016: 5437:Barry N. Taylor & Ambler Thompson Ed. (2008). 4565:Wallace Givens, Applied National Lab (June 1968). 4816: 4464:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 4438:gigabyte (gig, GB). This term may mean either a) 3887:"It's the oldest working Seagate drive in the UK" 2533:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 2484:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 629:bytes, or a little more than that, but less than 6725: 5266:(6). Journals.iucr.org: 609–642. November 2000. 5001:"Notice of Class Action and Proposed Settlement" 4652: 2243: 2115:Decimal SI prefixes are also generally used for 1165:International Committee for Weights and Measures 26:"Gibi" redirects here. Not to be confused with 6487: 6271:the MB are megabytes and the KiB are kibibytes. 5500:Low Power Double Data Rate 4 (LPDDR4) JESD209-4 3805: 3776: 3410:On a 32K core size 704 computer, approximately 3316:Ballistic Research Laboratories Report No. 1115 5995: 4653:Schwartz, Jake; Grevelle, Rick (2003-10-20) . 3541: 2937:National Institute of Standards and Technology 2594:National Institute of Standards and Technology 2537:International Organization for Standardization 2453: 2252:proposed the extra prefix "di" and the symbol 1532:×). However, these were not retained when the 559:(Amendment 2). They were meant to replace the 6595: 5057: 4943:. Poorman-Douglas Corporation. Archived from 3509: 2444:Cho v. Seagate Technology (US) Holdings, Inc. 2437:Cho v. Seagate Technology (US) Holdings, Inc. 1803:Some programs and operating systems, such as 486:. The most commonly used binary prefixes are 447: 6470: 6318: 5924: 5060:"Western Digital settles drive size lawsuit" 4965:Gutride, Adam; Seth A. Safier (2006-03-29). 4030: 4028: 3170:"A further short history of the SI prefixes" 2969:National Institute of Science and Technology 2627:International Bureau of Weights and Measures 2367:Company, Kingston Technology Company, Inc., 2211: 2165: 1729:-byte block in each of its 808 × 19 tracks. 1149:International Bureau of Weights and Measures 6512: 6372:"How iOS and macOS report storage capacity" 6297: 5974: 5953: 5903: 5836: 5762: 5744: 4608:"Letters to the editor: On binary notation" 4208:Understanding Recordable and Rewritable DVD 3946:"How iOS and macOS report storage capacity" 3749:(2). Hewlett-Packard: 15–20. Archived from 3733: 3572: 3570: 1451: 1423: 1395: 1367: 6602: 6588: 6364: 6238: 6209: 6154: 5112:Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation 5005:Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation 4971:Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation 3908:"Hitachi Introduces 1-Terabyte Hard Drive" 3786:HP 3000 Computer System and Subsystem Data 3639:Control Data Corporation (November 1968). 3342: 2404:Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation 1954:When specifying the capacities of optical 1850:overhead, leading to more irregularities. 1311: 1283: 1255: 1227: 1199: 454: 440: 36:Prefixes for decimal and binary multiples 6339: 6119: 6090: 6080: 6025:"Memory Configurations Table of Contents" 5874: 5807: 5635: 5597: 5491: 5464: 5430: 5271: 5153: 5128: 4998: 4749: 4695: 4670: 4629: 4582: 4541: 4155: 4149: 4035:Seagate Seag2011 10K.5 SAS Product Manual 4025: 3727: 3535: 3476: 3470: 3430: 3395: 3327: 3221: 3203: 3161: 3043: 2541:International Electrotechnical Commission 1536:were internationally adopted by the 11th 1339: 1179:Comparison of binary and decimal prefixes 718:(JEDEC), attempted to redefine the terms 716:Joint Electron Device Engineering Council 550:International Electrotechnical Commission 6609: 6276: 6185: 5794: 5780: 5685: 5560: 5523:. Reaffirmed 27 March 2008. 2003-02-12. 5511: 5381: 5346: 5321: 5248: 5210: 5180: 5099: 5051: 5026: 4992: 4958: 4928: 4893: 4858: 4781: 4646: 4599: 4558: 4513: 4495: 4456: 4408: 4373: 4337: 4284: 4225: 4219: 4176: 4044: 3900: 3878: 3835: 3655: 3567: 3503: 3375: 3336: 3303: 3283:(in French). histoire.du.metre.free.fr. 3265: 2686: 2672: 2654: 2585:Other standards bodies and organizations 2494:, exactly or approximately, rather than 2101:bytes per second within each packet. A " 2008: 1736:, one of several types installed in the 6509:—Another description of binary prefixes 6436:"Get Ready for the mebi, gibi and tebi" 5950:(Requires free registration and login.) 5853: 5709: 5603: 5419: 5303: 5294: 5239: 5073: 5034:"Western Digital Settles Capacity Suit" 4716: 4656:HP16C Emulator Library for the HP48S/SX 4260: 4125: 3929: 3869: 3822: 3799: 3696: 3632: 3608: 3589:IBM Journal of Research and Development 3544:Information Technology: Agent of Change 3110: 3079: 3005: 2981: 2955: 2953: 2909: 2882: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2359:against Lexar Media, Dane–Elec Memory, 2055:"100 MB/s" disk interface can transfer 2020: 1969:On the other hand, capacities of other 6726: 6568:Storage Capacity Measurement Standards 5440:The International System of Units (SI) 5387: 5222:International Union of Crystallography 5193:International Union of Crystallography 5105: 4605: 4308: 4201: 3884: 3770: 3703:Control Data Corporation (1965–1967). 3691:memory size (8k bytes to 4 megabytes). 3576: 3479:Webster's New World Telecom Dictionary 3297:demi-hectogramme, et ainsi des autres. 3116: 2844:The International System of Units (SI) 2738:Terms, Definitions, and Letter Symbols 2350:Willem Vroegh v. Eastman Kodak Company 2218: 1993:" DVD has a nominal capacity of about 1184:to the corresponding binary prefixes. 6583: 6267:When the Linux kernel boots and says 5980: 5959: 3467:was a character addressable computer. 3227: 3167: 2310: 2288:followed by the exponent, similar to 1856:The 5.25-inch diskette sold with the 6457: 6419:– An introduction to binary prefixes 5080:Western Digital Corporation (2006). 4827:"Secure Digital Capacity Disclaimer" 4789:"SanDisk Ultra® CompactFlash® cards" 4501: 4112:. May 1972. pp. 154, 162, 164. 3734:Frankenberg, Robert (October 1974). 3661: 3582:"Architecture of the IBM System/360" 3381: 3309: 2950: 2921: 2821: 2610:On 19 March 2005, the IEEE standard 2577:bits (2 bits), which is 1 kibibit." 2477: 2127:clock and 64 bits wide can transfer 2087:samples per second. A "1 Gb/s" 1151:(BIPM) adopted the decimal prefixes 5850:but used to denote a power of 1024. 5657:(6). IEEE Computer Society: 37–47. 4606:Martin, Bruce Alan (October 1968). 3614: 3231:Accreditation and Quality Assurance 3019:IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 2650: 2409:On 7 July 2005, an action entitled 2105:" modem can encode or decode up to 1543: 700:, which defines the SI system, the 13: 6403: 5842:As used in this article, the term 5161:"Order Granting Motion to Dismiss" 4934: 4126:Brutman, Michael B. (2001-07-08). 3842:Seagate Corporation (April 1982). 2890:"Order Granting Motion to Dismiss" 1634:real-time computer (1974) denoted 537:, when expressing the capacity of 14: 6765: 6544: 6054: 6022: 6001: 4724:"WD Caviar SE16 SATA Hard Drives" 3777:Hewlett-Packard (November 1973). 2535:(IEEE) in collaboration with the 2391:cards were false and misleading. 2331: 1493: 6385: 5882:"Consumer Electronics – Sony US" 5680:from the original on 2022-10-09. 3117:Gibney, Elizabeth (2022-11-18). 2794:B notation (scientific notation) 2296:. Thus one would write 3B20 for 1949: 730:, and the corresponding symbols 6524:(Press release). Archived from 6424:"Prefixes for binary multiples" 6069:from the original on 2022-10-09 6037:from the original on 2022-10-09 5733:from the original on 2022-10-09 5408:from the original on 2022-05-28 5388:Barrow, Bruce (January 1997) . 5370:from the original on 2022-10-09 5329:"niso, New Specs and Standards" 5106:Baskin, Scott D. (2006-02-01). 4678:The Art of Computer Programming 4472:. IEEE Computer Society Press. 4186:. Videohelp.com. Archived from 4119: 4101: 4072: 4014:from the original on 2021-12-03 3996: 3985:from the original on 2021-11-18 3967: 3956:from the original on 2020-04-09 3938: 3287:from the original on 2022-11-26 3099:from the original on 2022-11-18 2863:from the original on 2006-08-13 2638:Society of Automotive Engineers 1834: 525:). They are most often used in 6488:Michael Quinion (1999-08-21). 6217:"Client: Client HDD – Toshiba" 3806:IBM Corporation (2003-01-23). 3662:Bell, Gordon (November 1975). 3345:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 3310:Weik, Martin H. (March 1961). 3168:Brown, Richard J. C. (2023) . 2339: 2282:Brookhaven National Laboratory 2117:processor-memory data transfer 1548: 768: 21:Integer literal § Affixes 1: 5788:"How many bytes are in a GB?" 5300:IEC 60027-2 (2000-11) Ed. 2.0 5224:. 1997-02-14 . Archived from 5189:"IUCr annual report for 1995" 3779:"HP 3000 Configuration Guide" 3618:System/370 Model 158 brochure 3542:F. J. M. Laver (1989-05-11). 2814: 2763:chips intended to be used as 2631:International System of Units 2421:Final Approval hearing date. 2357:Willem Vroegh filed a lawsuit 2244:Early binary prefix proposals 2162:, which is usually quoted as 1694: 6471:de Boyne Pollard, Jonathan. 6442:. 1999-03-02. Archived from 6254:. 2001-12-22. Archived from 6193:"WD Model and Order Numbers" 5570:. 2005-03-19. Archived from 5058:Jeremy Reimer (2006-06-30). 4937:"Frequently Asked Questions" 4910:. 2012-04-13. Archived from 4622:Associated Universities Inc. 4086:. 2012-03-07. Archived from 3914:. 2007-01-04. Archived from 3885:Mellor, Chris (2011-04-06). 2629:(BIPM), which maintains the 2137:64-bit words per second, or 7: 6393:"Ls(1) – Linux manual page" 6326:"UnitsPolicy – Ubuntu Wiki" 5116:Western Digital Corporation 5009:Western Digital Corporation 4999:Zimmerman, Bernard (2006). 4975:Western Digital Corporation 4732:Western Digital Corporation 4703:"Knuth: Recent News (1999)" 4478:10.1109/IEEESTD.2000.322230 4389:10.1109/IEEESTD.1992.106981 3851:. p. 3. Archived from 3808:"IBM 350 disk storage unit" 3382:Real, P. (September 1959). 2789:Binary engineering notation 2782: 2455:Dinan et al. v. SanDisk LLC 2294:decimal scientific notation 2208:, which would be quoted as 1489:Timeline of binary prefixes 1104: 1054: 1007: 963: 922: 884: 849: 820: 599:bytes, instead of 2 × 10 = 10: 6770: 6618:Platform-independent units 6513:James Wiebe (2003-10-09). 6347:"Snow Leopard's new maths" 5618:10.1109/MSPEC.2008.4476441 5529:10.1109/IEEESTD.2003.94236 5331:. Niso.org. Archived from 4424:10.1109/IEEESTD.1995.79522 4353:10.1109/IEEESTD.1986.79649 4080:"IBM100 – The Floppy Disk" 3548:Cambridge University Press 3251:10.1007/s00769-022-01499-7 3133:10.1038/d41586-022-03747-9 1607:/70 (1975) and of the DEC 1486: 1482: 25: 18: 6695: 6674: 6643: 6617: 6463:"What is a Megabyte ...?" 6251:Linux Programmer's Manual 6127:"Storage Solutions Guide" 5311:"HERE COME ZEBI AND YOBI" 5273:10.1107/S0108767300012873 4728:Western Digital: Products 4613:Communications of the ACM 4571:Communications of the ACM 4530:Communications of the ACM 4292:"Definitions of Megabyte" 3516:American Chemical Society 3439:Communications of the ACM 3365:10.1109/TMAG.1972.1067329 1962:, which is approximately 1195: 1192: 1189: 783: 780: 435: 426: 421: 242: 237: 234: 227: 54: 51: 44: 35: 6644:Platform-dependent units 6477:Frequently Given Answers 5960:JEDEC (September 2009). 5786:Hewlett-Packard (2009): 4967:"Class Action Complaint" 4296:Dictionary.reference.com 4268:"Definition of megabyte" 4156:Microsoft (2003-05-06). 4004:"ConsistentUnitPrefixes" 3427:words could be installed 3390:. ACM Press: 78–1–78–5. 3205:10.1088/1681-7575/ac6afd 3172:. Letter to the editor. 3045:10.1109/JOE.2021.3085947 2230:ANSI/IEEE 1212-1991 2226:ANSI/IEEE 1084-1986 1617:Control Data Corporation 576:) and "giga" ("G", 10 = 541:or the size of computer 6374:. Apple Inc. 2018-02-27 6057:"Terms and Definitions" 6004:"Memory Configurations" 5981:JEDEC (November 2009). 5844:customary binary prefix 5390:"A Lesson in Megabytes" 4941:Flash Memory Settlement 4705:. Cs-staff.stanford.edu 3743:Hewlett-Packard Journal 1619:(CDC) abbreviated "2 = 5815:"IBM Knowledge Center" 4240:Ecma-international.org 4213:2 January 2011 at the 4184:"Data capacity of CDs" 3510:Janet S. Dodd (1997). 2692: 2684: 2670: 1776:(which would be about 757:(Hz), for example the 527:information technology 5983:"DDR2 SDRAM Standard" 5962:"DDR3 SDRAM Standard" 5394:IEEE Standards Bearer 4631:10.1145/364096.364107 4584:10.1145/363347.363351 4543:10.1145/362929.362962 4316:"AskOxford: megabyte" 3830:CDC Product Line Card 3765:196K-word memory size 3679:10.1145/800110.803541 3483:John Wiley & Sons 3451:10.1145/367415.367419 3397:10.1145/612201.612294 2690: 2676: 2658: 2573:be used to represent 2355:On 20 February 2004, 2234:IEEE 610.10-1994 2017:used when recording. 2009:Tape drives and media 1301:0.9095 (−9.1%) 1273:0.9313 (−6.9%) 1245:0.9537 (−4.6%) 1217:0.9766 (−2.3%) 6749:Units of information 6611:Units of information 5693:"BIPM – SI prefixes" 4520:Donald R. Morrison, 3845:ST506/412 OEM Manual 3624:. IBM. G520-261871. 3351:(3). IEEE: 390–392. 3281:L'Histoire Du Mètre 2381:Verbatim Corporation 2319:, especially in the 2021:Data and clock rates 1987:magneto-optical (MO) 1844:a variety of formats 1740:, had a capacity of 1263:1.074 (+7.4%) 1235:1.049 (+4.9%) 1207:1.024 (+2.4%) 490:(symbol Ki, meaning 6221:Toshiba-tdmt.com.tw 5663:10.1109/MC.2007.192 4838:SanDisk Corporation 4796:SanDisk Corporation 4757:"Jack Flash F.A.Q." 4659:. 1.20 (1 ed.) 3673:. ACM Press: 1–14. 3357:1972ITM.....8..390L 3275:[The Law of 18 3196:2023Metro..60a3001B 3036:2022IJOE...47..179A 2731:computer processors 2415:Corporation, et al. 2377:SanDisk Corporation 2361:Fuji Photo Film USA 2219:Ambiguous standards 2181:has a bandwidth of 1973:storage media like 1681:bytes, rather than 777: 680:, depending on the 480:unit of measurement 6739:Naming conventions 6573:2015-01-02 at the 6556:2021-03-06 at the 6284:"ESR post on LKML" 5062:. Ars Technica LLC 4683:2016-03-05 at the 4522:Sandia Corporation 4162:Article ID: 121839 4059:Seagate Technology 3601:10.1147/rd.82.0087 3595:(2). IBM: 87–101. 3477:Ray Horak (2008). 3188:IOP Publishing Ltd 2837:"§3.1 SI prefixes" 2759:, except for some 2753:solid state drives 2693: 2685: 2671: 2592:The United States 2448:Seagate Technology 2317:consumer confusion 2311:Consumer confusion 2238:IEEE 100-2000 1829:Seagate Technology 1649:as "196K" and 2 = 1595:(1964) and of the 775: 529:as multipliers of 6721: 6720: 6696:Metric byte units 6551:A plea for sanity 6438:(Press release). 6328:. Wiki.ubuntu.com 5861:"Hewlett-Packard" 5538:978-0-7381-3385-0 4487:978-0-7381-2601-2 2853:978-92-822-2213-3 2702:of computers, of 2478:IEC 1999 Standard 2385:Viking Interworks 2321:personal computer 2278:Bruce Alan Martin 2112:bits per second. 2001:, which is about 1805:Microsoft Windows 1480: 1479: 1196:Decimal ÷ Binary 1193:Binary ÷ Decimal 1145: 1144: 761:(KiHz), equal to 751:signal processing 474:that indicates a 464: 463: 431: 430: 221: 220: 6761: 6675:Metric bit units 6604: 6597: 6590: 6581: 6580: 6539: 6537: 6536: 6530: 6519: 6508: 6506: 6505: 6496:. Archived from 6494:World Wide Words 6484: 6479:. Archived from 6466: 6454: 6452: 6451: 6431: 6418: 6397: 6396: 6389: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6379: 6368: 6362: 6361: 6359: 6358: 6343: 6337: 6336: 6334: 6333: 6322: 6316: 6315: 6313: 6312: 6301: 6295: 6294: 6292: 6291: 6280: 6274: 6273: 6270: 6264: 6263: 6242: 6236: 6235: 6233: 6232: 6223:. Archived from 6213: 6207: 6206: 6204: 6198:. Archived from 6197: 6189: 6183: 6182: 6180: 6179: 6173: 6166: 6158: 6152: 6151: 6149: 6148: 6142: 6136:. Archived from 6131: 6123: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6113: 6104:. Archived from 6094: 6088: 6084: 6078: 6077: 6075: 6074: 6068: 6061: 6052: 6046: 6045: 6043: 6042: 6036: 6029: 6020: 6014: 6013: 6011: 6010: 5999: 5993: 5992: 5990: 5989: 5978: 5972: 5971: 5969: 5968: 5957: 5951: 5949: 5944: 5943: 5937: 5928: 5922: 5921: 5919: 5918: 5913:. 4AllMemory.com 5911:"4AllMemory.com" 5907: 5901: 5900: 5898: 5897: 5888:. Archived from 5878: 5872: 5871: 5869: 5868: 5863:. Welcome.hp.com 5857: 5851: 5840: 5834: 5833: 5831: 5830: 5821:. Archived from 5811: 5805: 5798: 5792: 5784: 5778: 5777: 5772:. Archived from 5766: 5760: 5759: 5754:. Archived from 5748: 5742: 5741: 5739: 5738: 5732: 5721: 5713: 5707: 5706: 5704: 5703: 5689: 5683: 5681: 5679: 5648: 5639: 5633: 5629: 5601: 5595: 5594: 5580: 5579: 5564: 5558: 5557: 5551: 5550: 5541:. Archived from 5515: 5509: 5507: 5495: 5489: 5488: 5483: 5482: 5468: 5462: 5461: 5459: 5458: 5452: 5445: 5434: 5428: 5423: 5417: 5416: 5414: 5413: 5385: 5379: 5378: 5376: 5375: 5369: 5363:(3rd ed.). 5358: 5350: 5344: 5343: 5341: 5340: 5325: 5319: 5318: 5307: 5301: 5298: 5292: 5291: 5289: 5288: 5275: 5252: 5246: 5243: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5233: 5214: 5208: 5207: 5205: 5204: 5195:. Archived from 5184: 5178: 5177: 5175: 5174: 5165: 5157: 5151: 5150: 5148: 5147: 5138:. Archived from 5132: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5122: 5103: 5097: 5096: 5094: 5093: 5084:. Archived from 5077: 5071: 5070: 5068: 5067: 5055: 5049: 5048: 5046: 5045: 5030: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5020: 5011:. Archived from 4996: 4990: 4989: 4987: 4986: 4977:. Archived from 4962: 4956: 4955: 4953: 4952: 4935:Safier, Seth A. 4932: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4922: 4916: 4905: 4897: 4891: 4890: 4888: 4887: 4881: 4870: 4862: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4852: 4846: 4840:. Archived from 4831: 4823: 4814: 4813: 4811: 4810: 4804: 4798:. Archived from 4793: 4785: 4779: 4778: 4772: 4771: 4762:. Archived from 4753: 4747: 4746: 4744: 4743: 4734:. Archived from 4720: 4714: 4713: 4711: 4710: 4699: 4693: 4674: 4668: 4667: 4665: 4664: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4633: 4603: 4597: 4596: 4586: 4562: 4556: 4555: 4545: 4517: 4511: 4510: 4499: 4493: 4491: 4460: 4454: 4453: 4450: 4449: 4446: 4443: 4412: 4406: 4405: 4377: 4371: 4370: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4331: 4322:. Archived from 4312: 4306: 4305: 4303: 4302: 4288: 4282: 4281: 4279: 4278: 4264: 4258: 4257: 4255: 4254: 4248: 4242:. Archived from 4237: 4229: 4223: 4217: 4205: 4199: 4198: 4196: 4195: 4180: 4174: 4172: 4170: 4169: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4144: 4143: 4134:. Archived from 4123: 4117: 4116: 4108:"Disc Storage". 4105: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4095: 4076: 4070: 4069: 4067: 4061:. Archived from 4056: 4048: 4042: 4032: 4023: 4022: 4020: 4019: 4000: 3994: 3993: 3991: 3990: 3971: 3965: 3964: 3962: 3961: 3942: 3936: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3924: 3923: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3895: 3894: 3882: 3876: 3873: 3867: 3866: 3864: 3863: 3857: 3850: 3839: 3833: 3826: 3820: 3819: 3814:. Archived from 3803: 3797: 3796: 3794: 3793: 3783: 3774: 3768: 3767: 3762: 3761: 3755: 3740: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3719: 3718: 3700: 3694: 3693: 3668: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3647: 3636: 3630: 3629: 3623: 3612: 3606: 3604: 3586: 3574: 3565: 3564: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3507: 3501: 3500: 3474: 3468: 3462: 3434: 3428: 3426: 3425: 3419: 3416: 3415: 3399: 3379: 3373: 3372: 3340: 3334: 3331: 3325: 3323: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3293: 3292: 3269: 3263: 3262: 3239: 3225: 3219: 3217: 3207: 3165: 3159: 3158: 3156: 3155: 3114: 3108: 3107: 3105: 3104: 3098: 3091: 3083: 3077: 3073: 3047: 3009: 3003: 3002: 3000: 2999: 2985: 2979: 2978: 2976: 2975: 2957: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2944: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2906: 2904: 2903: 2894: 2886: 2880: 2879: 2869: 2868: 2862: 2841: 2832: 2757:USB flash drives 2742:memory standards 2668: 2667: 2664: 2651:Current practice 2576: 2527: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2514: 2510: 2509: 2506: 2503: 2497: 2493: 2491: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2465: 2430: 2429: 2373:PNY Technologies 2371:Products, Inc.; 2299: 2214: 2213: 2207: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2193: 2191: 2190: 2187: 2180: 2175:double data rate 2168: 2167: 2161: 2159: 2156: 2150: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2136: 2135: 2132: 2126: 2111: 2110: 2100: 2099: 2096: 2086: 2085: 2079: 2071: 2070: 2064: 2063: 2060: 2047: 2045: 2042: 2036: 2004: 2000: 1998: 1992: 1965: 1961: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1934: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1919: 1911: 1910: 1904: 1900: 1899: 1886: 1884: 1878: 1873: 1872: 1869: 1863: 1814: 1799: 1798: 1795: 1792: 1789: 1783: 1781: 1775: 1771: 1770: 1767: 1764: 1758: 1756: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1728: 1727: 1714: 1713: 1690: 1689: 1686: 1680: 1679: 1676: 1670: 1658: 1657: 1654: 1648: 1647: 1641: 1637: 1629: 1628: 1622: 1586: 1585: 1565:each, while the 1544:Storage capacity 1531: 1529: 1528: 1525: 1522: 1187: 1186: 1141: 1139: 1131: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1088: 1086: 1078: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1038: 1036: 1028: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1018: 1015: 1012: 991: 989: 981: 980: 977: 974: 971: 968: 947: 945: 937: 936: 933: 930: 927: 906: 904: 896: 895: 892: 889: 868: 866: 858: 857: 854: 833: 831: 823: 784:Representations 778: 774: 764: 744:magnetic storage 686:operating system 679: 678: 675: 672: 666: 662: 661: 658: 655: 649: 645: 644: 641: 638: 632: 628: 627: 624: 621: 615: 608: 607: 604: 598: 597: 594: 588: 587: 584: 581: 575: 574: 571: 524: 523: 520: 517: 507: 506: 503: 493: 456: 449: 442: 225: 224: 42: 41: 33: 32: 6769: 6768: 6764: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6759: 6758: 6754:Numeral systems 6744:Binary prefixes 6724: 6723: 6722: 6717: 6691: 6670: 6639: 6613: 6608: 6575:Wayback Machine 6558:Wayback Machine 6547: 6534: 6532: 6528: 6517: 6503: 6501: 6449: 6447: 6434: 6422: 6409: 6406: 6404:Further reading 6401: 6400: 6391: 6390: 6386: 6377: 6375: 6370: 6369: 6365: 6356: 6354: 6345: 6344: 6340: 6331: 6329: 6324: 6323: 6319: 6310: 6308: 6303: 6302: 6298: 6289: 6287: 6282: 6281: 6277: 6268: 6261: 6259: 6244: 6243: 6239: 6230: 6228: 6215: 6214: 6210: 6202: 6195: 6191: 6190: 6186: 6177: 6175: 6171: 6164: 6160: 6159: 6155: 6146: 6144: 6140: 6129: 6125: 6124: 6120: 6111: 6109: 6096: 6095: 6091: 6085: 6081: 6072: 6070: 6066: 6059: 6053: 6049: 6040: 6038: 6034: 6027: 6021: 6017: 6008: 6006: 6000: 5996: 5987: 5985: 5979: 5975: 5966: 5964: 5958: 5954: 5941: 5939: 5935: 5929: 5925: 5916: 5914: 5909: 5908: 5904: 5895: 5893: 5880: 5879: 5875: 5866: 5864: 5859: 5858: 5854: 5841: 5837: 5828: 5826: 5819:Pic.dhe.ibm.com 5813: 5812: 5808: 5799: 5795: 5785: 5781: 5768: 5767: 5763: 5750: 5749: 5745: 5736: 5734: 5730: 5719: 5715: 5714: 5710: 5701: 5699: 5691: 5690: 5686: 5677: 5646: 5640: 5636: 5602: 5598: 5577: 5575: 5566: 5565: 5561: 5548: 5546: 5539: 5517: 5516: 5512: 5497: 5496: 5492: 5480: 5478: 5470: 5469: 5465: 5456: 5454: 5450: 5443: 5435: 5431: 5424: 5420: 5411: 5409: 5386: 5382: 5373: 5371: 5367: 5356: 5352: 5351: 5347: 5338: 5336: 5327: 5326: 5322: 5309: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5295: 5286: 5284: 5254: 5253: 5249: 5244: 5240: 5231: 5229: 5216: 5215: 5211: 5202: 5200: 5185: 5181: 5172: 5170: 5163: 5159: 5158: 5154: 5145: 5143: 5134: 5133: 5129: 5120: 5118: 5104: 5100: 5091: 5089: 5078: 5074: 5065: 5063: 5056: 5052: 5043: 5041: 5032: 5031: 5027: 5018: 5016: 4997: 4993: 4984: 4982: 4963: 4959: 4950: 4948: 4933: 4929: 4920: 4918: 4914: 4903: 4899: 4898: 4894: 4885: 4883: 4879: 4868: 4864: 4863: 4859: 4850: 4848: 4844: 4829: 4825: 4824: 4817: 4808: 4806: 4802: 4791: 4787: 4786: 4782: 4769: 4767: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4741: 4739: 4722: 4721: 4717: 4708: 4706: 4701: 4700: 4696: 4692:, pp. 24 and 94 4685:Wayback Machine 4675: 4671: 4662: 4660: 4651: 4647: 4604: 4600: 4563: 4559: 4518: 4514: 4500: 4496: 4488: 4461: 4457: 4447: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4434: 4414: 4413: 4409: 4399: 4379: 4378: 4374: 4363: 4343: 4342: 4338: 4329: 4327: 4314: 4313: 4309: 4300: 4298: 4290: 4289: 4285: 4276: 4274: 4266: 4265: 4261: 4252: 4250: 4246: 4235: 4231: 4230: 4226: 4220: 4215:Wayback Machine 4206: 4202: 4193: 4191: 4182: 4181: 4177: 4167: 4165: 4154: 4150: 4141: 4139: 4124: 4120: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4093: 4091: 4078: 4077: 4073: 4065: 4054: 4050: 4049: 4045: 4033: 4026: 4017: 4015: 4002: 4001: 3997: 3988: 3986: 3973: 3972: 3968: 3959: 3957: 3944: 3943: 3939: 3934: 3930: 3921: 3919: 3906: 3905: 3901: 3892: 3890: 3883: 3879: 3874: 3870: 3861: 3859: 3855: 3848: 3840: 3836: 3827: 3823: 3804: 3800: 3791: 3789: 3781: 3775: 3771: 3759: 3757: 3753: 3738: 3732: 3728: 3716: 3714: 3701: 3697: 3666: 3660: 3656: 3645: 3637: 3633: 3621: 3613: 3609: 3584: 3578:Amdahl, Gene M. 3575: 3568: 3558: 3540: 3536: 3526: 3518:. p. 124. 3508: 3504: 3493: 3485:. p. 271. 3475: 3471: 3435: 3431: 3423: 3421: 3413: 3411: 3380: 3376: 3341: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3308: 3304: 3290: 3288: 3271: 3270: 3266: 3233: 3226: 3222: 3166: 3162: 3153: 3151: 3115: 3111: 3102: 3100: 3096: 3089: 3085: 3084: 3080: 3010: 3006: 2997: 2995: 2987: 2986: 2982: 2973: 2971: 2959: 2958: 2951: 2942: 2940: 2927: 2926: 2922: 2914: 2910: 2901: 2899: 2892: 2888: 2887: 2883: 2866: 2864: 2860: 2854: 2839: 2833: 2822: 2817: 2785: 2665: 2662: 2660: 2653: 2587: 2574: 2554:The harmonized 2524: 2521: 2518: 2516: 2512: 2507: 2504: 2501: 2499: 2495: 2489: 2487: 2480: 2469: 2466: 2463: 2461: 2458: 2440: 2427: 2425: 2413:Western Digital 2411:Orin Safier v. 2407: 2353: 2342: 2334: 2326:Apple Macintosh 2313: 2297: 2263: 2246: 2221: 2209: 2203: 2200: 2197: 2195: 2188: 2185: 2183: 2182: 2178: 2163: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2138: 2133: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2108: 2106: 2097: 2094: 2092: 2083: 2081: 2077: 2068: 2066: 2061: 2058: 2056: 2043: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2023: 2011: 2002: 1996: 1994: 1990: 1963: 1959: 1952: 1941: 1938: 1936: 1932: 1926: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1908: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1895: 1882: 1880: 1876: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1837: 1812: 1796: 1793: 1790: 1787: 1785: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1760: 1754: 1752: 1746: 1743: 1741: 1725: 1723: 1711: 1709: 1697: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1655: 1652: 1650: 1645: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1626: 1624: 1620: 1599:(1972), of the 1587:units (usually 1583: 1581: 1551: 1546: 1538:CGPM conference 1526: 1523: 1520: 1519: 1517: 1496: 1491: 1485: 1476: 1475: 1469:0.7889 (−21.1%) 1466: 1465: 1448: 1447: 1441:0.8078 (−19.2%) 1438: 1437: 1420: 1419: 1413:0.8272 (−17.3%) 1410: 1409: 1392: 1391: 1385:0.8470 (−15.3%) 1382: 1381: 1364: 1363: 1357:0.8674 (−13.3%) 1354: 1353: 1336: 1335: 1329:0.8882 (−11.2%) 1326: 1325: 1308: 1307: 1298: 1297: 1280: 1279: 1270: 1269: 1252: 1251: 1242: 1241: 1224: 1223: 1214: 1213: 1181: 1171:(Ri, 1024) and 1137: 1135: 1128: 1125: 1122: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1105: 1084: 1082: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1063: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1034: 1032: 1025: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1010: 1008: 987: 985: 978: 975: 972: 969: 966: 964: 943: 941: 934: 931: 928: 925: 923: 902: 900: 893: 890: 887: 885: 864: 862: 855: 852: 850: 829: 827: 821: 771: 762: 676: 673: 670: 668: 664: 659: 656: 653: 651: 647: 642: 639: 636: 634: 630: 625: 622: 619: 617: 613: 605: 602: 600: 595: 592: 590: 585: 582: 579: 577: 572: 569: 567: 539:storage devices 521: 518: 515: 513: 504: 501: 499: 491: 460: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6767: 6757: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6719: 6718: 6716: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6699: 6697: 6693: 6692: 6690: 6689: 6684: 6678: 6676: 6672: 6671: 6669: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6647: 6645: 6641: 6640: 6638: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6621: 6619: 6615: 6614: 6607: 6606: 6599: 6592: 6584: 6578: 6577: 6565: 6560: 6546: 6545:External links 6543: 6542: 6541: 6510: 6485: 6483:on 2016-10-07. 6468: 6461:(1996-12-29). 6455: 6432: 6420: 6417:on 2009-04-03. 6405: 6402: 6399: 6398: 6384: 6363: 6338: 6317: 6296: 6275: 6237: 6208: 6205:on 2005-08-24. 6184: 6153: 6118: 6089: 6079: 6047: 6015: 5994: 5973: 5952: 5923: 5902: 5873: 5852: 5835: 5806: 5793: 5779: 5776:on 2012-07-22. 5761: 5758:on 2013-02-13. 5743: 5708: 5684: 5634: 5596: 5590:Recommendation 5559: 5537: 5510: 5490: 5463: 5429: 5418: 5380: 5345: 5320: 5317:on 2007-06-11. 5302: 5293: 5247: 5238: 5209: 5179: 5152: 5127: 5098: 5072: 5050: 5025: 4991: 4957: 4927: 4892: 4857: 4815: 4780: 4748: 4715: 4694: 4669: 4645: 4598: 4557: 4524:(March 1968). 4512: 4505:(1996-12-29). 4494: 4486: 4455: 4432: 4418:. 1994-06-24. 4407: 4397: 4383:. 1992-07-22. 4372: 4361: 4347:. 1986-10-30. 4336: 4307: 4283: 4259: 4224: 4218: 4200: 4175: 4148: 4118: 4100: 4084:www-03.ibm.com 4071: 4068:on 2010-07-15. 4043: 4024: 3995: 3966: 3952:. 2018-02-27. 3937: 3928: 3899: 3889:. The Register 3877: 3868: 3834: 3821: 3818:on 2005-04-09. 3798: 3769: 3726: 3695: 3654: 3631: 3607: 3566: 3557:978-0521350358 3556: 3550:. p. 35. 3534: 3524: 3502: 3491: 3469: 3429: 3374: 3335: 3326: 3302: 3264: 3245:(3): 143–144. 3220: 3160: 3109: 3092:. 2022-11-18. 3078: 3004: 2980: 2949: 2920: 2908: 2881: 2852: 2819: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2812: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2796: 2791: 2784: 2781: 2723:memory modules 2652: 2649: 2612:IEEE 1541-2002 2586: 2583: 2479: 2476: 2457: 2452: 2439: 2434: 2406: 2401: 2352: 2347: 2341: 2338: 2333: 2332:Legal disputes 2330: 2312: 2309: 2273:Wallace Givens 2261: 2245: 2242: 2220: 2217: 2022: 2019: 2010: 2007: 1951: 1948: 1890:The 5.25-inch 1877:1.2288 MB 1836: 1833: 1809:Classic Mac OS 1696: 1693: 1597:IBM System/370 1550: 1547: 1545: 1542: 1495: 1494:Early prefixes 1492: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1473: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1463: 1462: 1460: 1459:1.268 (+26.8%) 1457: 1454: 1450: 1449: 1445: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1435: 1434: 1432: 1431:1.238 (+23.8%) 1429: 1426: 1422: 1421: 1417: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1407: 1406: 1404: 1403:1.209 (+20.9%) 1401: 1398: 1394: 1393: 1389: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1379: 1378: 1376: 1375:1.181 (+18.1%) 1373: 1370: 1366: 1365: 1361: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1351: 1350: 1348: 1347:1.153 (+15.3%) 1345: 1342: 1338: 1337: 1333: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1323: 1322: 1320: 1319:1.126 (+12.6%) 1317: 1314: 1310: 1309: 1305: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1295: 1294: 1292: 1291:1.100 (+10.0%) 1289: 1286: 1282: 1281: 1277: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1267: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1254: 1253: 1249: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1239: 1238: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1226: 1225: 1221: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1211: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1202: 1198: 1197: 1194: 1191: 1180: 1177: 1143: 1142: 1132: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1094: 1090: 1089: 1079: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1039: 1029: 1006: 1003: 1000: 997: 993: 992: 982: 962: 959: 956: 953: 949: 948: 938: 921: 918: 915: 912: 908: 907: 897: 883: 880: 877: 874: 870: 869: 859: 848: 845: 842: 839: 835: 834: 824: 819: 816: 813: 810: 806: 805: 802: 799: 796: 793: 790: 786: 785: 782: 770: 767: 709:European Union 552:(IEC), in the 482:by an integer 462: 461: 459: 458: 451: 444: 436: 433: 432: 429: 428: 424: 423: 419: 418: 416: 413: 408: 405: 402: 398: 397: 395: 392: 387: 384: 381: 377: 376: 374: 371: 366: 363: 360: 356: 355: 353: 350: 345: 342: 339: 335: 334: 331: 328: 323: 320: 317: 313: 312: 309: 306: 301: 298: 295: 291: 290: 287: 284: 279: 276: 273: 269: 268: 265: 262: 257: 254: 251: 247: 246: 241: 236: 232: 231: 222: 219: 218: 213: 210: 207: 203: 202: 197: 194: 191: 187: 186: 181: 178: 175: 171: 170: 165: 162: 159: 155: 154: 149: 146: 143: 139: 138: 133: 130: 127: 123: 122: 117: 114: 111: 107: 106: 101: 98: 95: 91: 90: 85: 82: 79: 75: 74: 69: 66: 63: 59: 58: 53: 49: 48: 38: 37: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6766: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6700: 6698: 6694: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6679: 6677: 6673: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6648: 6646: 6642: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6605: 6600: 6598: 6593: 6591: 6586: 6585: 6582: 6576: 6572: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6555: 6552: 6549: 6548: 6531:on 2013-12-04 6527: 6523: 6516: 6511: 6500:on 2004-06-12 6499: 6495: 6491: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6446:on 2016-08-20 6445: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6407: 6394: 6388: 6373: 6367: 6352: 6348: 6342: 6327: 6321: 6306: 6300: 6285: 6279: 6272: 6258:on 2007-09-02 6257: 6253: 6252: 6247: 6241: 6227:on 2021-04-26 6226: 6222: 6218: 6212: 6201: 6194: 6188: 6174:on 2009-11-22 6170: 6163: 6157: 6143:on 2010-03-31 6139: 6135: 6128: 6122: 6108:on 2011-06-16 6107: 6103: 6099: 6093: 6087: 6083: 6065: 6058: 6051: 6033: 6026: 6019: 6005: 5998: 5984: 5977: 5963: 5956: 5948: 5934: 5927: 5912: 5906: 5892:on 2011-06-16 5891: 5887: 5886:Sonystyle.com 5883: 5877: 5862: 5856: 5849: 5845: 5839: 5825:on 2014-03-17 5824: 5820: 5816: 5810: 5803: 5797: 5789: 5783: 5775: 5771: 5765: 5757: 5753: 5747: 5729: 5725: 5718: 5712: 5698: 5694: 5688: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5645: 5638: 5632: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5606:IEEE Spectrum 5600: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5585: 5574:on 2007-09-22 5573: 5569: 5563: 5556: 5545:on 2012-10-14 5544: 5540: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5521: 5514: 5506: 5502: 5501: 5494: 5487: 5477: 5473: 5467: 5453:on 2018-12-25 5449: 5442: 5441: 5433: 5427: 5422: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5384: 5366: 5362: 5355: 5349: 5335:on 2008-12-08 5334: 5330: 5324: 5316: 5312: 5306: 5297: 5283: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5251: 5242: 5228:on 2013-06-13 5227: 5223: 5219: 5213: 5199:on 2009-08-27 5198: 5194: 5190: 5183: 5169: 5162: 5156: 5142:on 2019-01-18 5141: 5137: 5131: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5102: 5088:on 2010-05-07 5087: 5083: 5076: 5061: 5054: 5039: 5035: 5029: 5015:on 2007-09-22 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4995: 4981:on 2007-10-16 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4961: 4947:on 2007-09-28 4946: 4942: 4938: 4931: 4917:on 2012-04-13 4913: 4909: 4902: 4896: 4882:on 2008-03-09 4878: 4874: 4867: 4861: 4847:on 2013-02-27 4843: 4839: 4835: 4828: 4822: 4820: 4805:on 2013-08-10 4801: 4797: 4790: 4784: 4777: 4776:respectively. 4766:on 2016-03-05 4765: 4761: 4758: 4752: 4738:on 2007-09-02 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4719: 4704: 4698: 4691: 4687: 4686: 4682: 4679: 4673: 4658: 4657: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4614: 4609: 4602: 4594: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4561: 4553: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4516: 4508: 4504: 4498: 4489: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4470: 4465: 4459: 4452: 4435: 4433:1-55937-492-6 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4411: 4404: 4400: 4398:0-7381-4336-7 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4376: 4369: 4364: 4362:0-7381-4541-6 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4340: 4326:on 2005-05-25 4325: 4321: 4320:Askoxford.com 4317: 4311: 4297: 4293: 4287: 4273: 4269: 4263: 4249:on 2013-09-17 4245: 4241: 4234: 4228: 4222: 4216: 4212: 4209: 4204: 4190:on 2006-07-15 4189: 4185: 4179: 4163: 4159: 4152: 4138:on 2024-02-19 4137: 4133: 4129: 4122: 4115: 4111: 4104: 4090:on 2012-04-03 4089: 4085: 4081: 4075: 4064: 4060: 4053: 4047: 4040: 4036: 4031: 4029: 4013: 4009: 4005: 3999: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3975:"UnitsPolicy" 3970: 3955: 3951: 3950:Apple Support 3947: 3941: 3932: 3918:on 2007-01-12 3917: 3913: 3909: 3903: 3888: 3881: 3872: 3858:on 2016-10-08 3854: 3847: 3846: 3838: 3831: 3825: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3787: 3780: 3773: 3766: 3756:on 2007-11-29 3752: 3748: 3744: 3737: 3730: 3723: 3713:on 2014-01-02 3712: 3708: 3707: 3699: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3665: 3658: 3651: 3644: 3643: 3635: 3628: 3620: 3619: 3611: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3583: 3579: 3573: 3571: 3563: 3559: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3531: 3527: 3525:9780841234611 3521: 3517: 3513: 3506: 3499: 3494: 3492:9780471774570 3488: 3484: 3480: 3473: 3466: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3433: 3418: 3407: 3403: 3398: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3378: 3371: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3339: 3330: 3322: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3298: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3268: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3237: 3232: 3224: 3215: 3211: 3206: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3176: 3171: 3164: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3125: 3120: 3113: 3095: 3088: 3082: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3020: 3015: 3008: 2994: 2990: 2984: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2956: 2954: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2929:"SI prefixes" 2924: 2918: 2912: 2898: 2891: 2885: 2878: 2876: 2859: 2855: 2849: 2845: 2838: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2820: 2810: 2807: 2805: 2802: 2800: 2799:ISO/IEC 80000 2797: 2795: 2792: 2790: 2787: 2786: 2780: 2777: 2774: 2768: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2725:, and of the 2724: 2720: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2696: 2689: 2682: 2679: 2675: 2657: 2648: 2646: 2641: 2639: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2623: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2606: 2601: 2599: 2595: 2590: 2582: 2578: 2570: 2568: 2564: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2549: 2544: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2529: 2492:10 bytes 2485: 2482:In 1995, the 2475: 2456: 2451: 2449: 2445: 2438: 2433: 2422: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2405: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2365:Eastman Kodak 2362: 2358: 2351: 2346: 2337: 2329: 2327: 2322: 2318: 2308: 2306: 2301: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2274: 2270: 2265: 2264:B" or "K2B". 2259: 2255: 2251: 2241: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2216: 2176: 2172: 2122: 2118: 2113: 2104: 2090: 2078:44.1 kHz 2075: 2074:compact disks 2054: 2049: 2035:4.77 MHz 2032: 2028: 2018: 2016: 2006: 2003:4.38 GiB 1999:10 bytes 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1967: 1957: 1956:compact discs 1950:Optical disks 1947: 1913: 1893: 1892:Apple Disk II 1888: 1879:(decimal) or 1859: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1832: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1810: 1806: 1801: 1772:, bytes, not 1739: 1735: 1730: 1721: 1716: 1707: 1702: 1692: 1665: 1660: 1633: 1618: 1612: 1610: 1606: 1603:, of the DEC 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1578: 1576: 1575:address lines 1570: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1541: 1539: 1535: 1515: 1513: 1508: 1506: 1501: 1500:metric system 1498:The original 1490: 1471: 1468: 1461: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1443: 1440: 1433: 1430: 1427: 1424: 1415: 1412: 1405: 1402: 1399: 1396: 1387: 1384: 1377: 1374: 1371: 1368: 1359: 1356: 1349: 1346: 1343: 1340: 1331: 1328: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1303: 1300: 1293: 1290: 1287: 1284: 1275: 1272: 1265: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1247: 1244: 1237: 1234: 1231: 1228: 1219: 1216: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1188: 1185: 1176: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1161: 1157:for 1000 and 1156: 1155: 1150: 1147:In 2022, the 1133: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1091: 1080: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1042: 1041: 1030: 1004: 1001: 998: 995: 994: 983: 960: 957: 954: 951: 950: 939: 919: 916: 913: 910: 909: 898: 881: 878: 875: 872: 871: 860: 846: 843: 840: 837: 836: 825: 817: 814: 811: 808: 807: 803: 800: 797: 794: 791: 788: 787: 779: 773: 766: 760: 756: 752: 747: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 712: 710: 706: 703: 699: 695: 694:ISO/IEC 80000 691: 687: 683: 610: 565: 564:decimal power 562: 558: 555: 551: 546: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 511: 497: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 468:binary prefix 457: 452: 450: 445: 443: 438: 437: 434: 425: 420: 417: 414: 412: 409: 406: 403: 400: 399: 396: 393: 391: 388: 385: 382: 379: 378: 375: 372: 370: 367: 364: 361: 358: 357: 354: 351: 349: 346: 343: 340: 337: 336: 332: 329: 327: 324: 321: 318: 315: 314: 310: 307: 305: 302: 299: 296: 293: 292: 288: 285: 283: 280: 277: 274: 271: 270: 266: 263: 261: 258: 255: 252: 249: 248: 245: 240: 233: 230: 226: 223: 217: 214: 211: 208: 205: 204: 201: 198: 195: 192: 189: 188: 185: 182: 179: 176: 173: 172: 169: 166: 163: 160: 157: 156: 153: 150: 147: 144: 141: 140: 137: 134: 131: 128: 125: 124: 121: 118: 115: 112: 109: 108: 105: 102: 99: 96: 93: 92: 89: 86: 83: 80: 77: 76: 73: 70: 67: 64: 61: 60: 57: 50: 47: 43: 40: 39: 34: 29: 22: 6533:. Retrieved 6526:the original 6521: 6502:. Retrieved 6498:the original 6493: 6481:the original 6476: 6459:Kuhn, Markus 6448:. Retrieved 6444:the original 6415:the original 6387: 6376:. Retrieved 6366: 6355:. Retrieved 6353:. 2009-08-28 6350: 6341: 6330:. Retrieved 6320: 6309:. Retrieved 6307:. Neowin.net 6299: 6288:. Retrieved 6278: 6266: 6260:. Retrieved 6256:the original 6249: 6240: 6229:. Retrieved 6225:the original 6220: 6211: 6200:the original 6187: 6176:. Retrieved 6169:the original 6156: 6145:. Retrieved 6138:the original 6133: 6121: 6110:. Retrieved 6106:the original 6101: 6092: 6082: 6071:. Retrieved 6050: 6039:. Retrieved 6018: 6007:. Retrieved 5997: 5986:. Retrieved 5976: 5965:. Retrieved 5955: 5946: 5940:. Retrieved 5926: 5915:. Retrieved 5905: 5894:. Retrieved 5890:the original 5885: 5876: 5865:. Retrieved 5855: 5843: 5838: 5827:. Retrieved 5823:the original 5818: 5809: 5801: 5796: 5782: 5774:the original 5764: 5756:the original 5746: 5735:. Retrieved 5723: 5711: 5700:. 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Retrieved 4877:the original 4872: 4860: 4849:. Retrieved 4842:the original 4833: 4807:. Retrieved 4800:the original 4783: 4774: 4768:. Retrieved 4764:the original 4751: 4740:. Retrieved 4736:the original 4727: 4718: 4707:. Retrieved 4697: 4690:Donald Knuth 4676: 4672: 4661:. Retrieved 4655: 4648: 4617: 4611: 4601: 4574: 4570: 4560: 4533: 4529: 4515: 4503:Kuhn, Markus 4497: 4468: 4458: 4437: 4415: 4410: 4402: 4380: 4375: 4366: 4344: 4339: 4328:. Retrieved 4324:the original 4319: 4310: 4299:. Retrieved 4295: 4286: 4275:. Retrieved 4271: 4262: 4251:. Retrieved 4244:the original 4239: 4227: 4221: 4203: 4192:. Retrieved 4188:the original 4178: 4166:. Retrieved 4161: 4151: 4140:. Retrieved 4136:the original 4131: 4121: 4113: 4109: 4103: 4092:. Retrieved 4088:the original 4083: 4074: 4063:the original 4046: 4016:. Retrieved 4007: 3998: 3987:. Retrieved 3978: 3969: 3958:. Retrieved 3949: 3940: 3931: 3920:. Retrieved 3916:the original 3911: 3902: 3891:. Retrieved 3880: 3871: 3860:. Retrieved 3853:the original 3844: 3837: 3824: 3816:the original 3812:IBM Archives 3811: 3801: 3790:. Retrieved 3785: 3772: 3764: 3758:. Retrieved 3751:the original 3746: 3742: 3729: 3721: 3715:. Retrieved 3711:the original 3705: 3698: 3690: 3670: 3657: 3649: 3641: 3634: 3625: 3617: 3615:IBM (1972). 3610: 3592: 3588: 3561: 3543: 3537: 3529: 3511: 3505: 3496: 3478: 3472: 3442: 3438: 3432: 3409: 3387: 3377: 3368: 3348: 3344: 3338: 3329: 3319: 3315: 3305: 3295: 3289:. Retrieved 3280: 3267: 3242: 3229: 3223: 3179: 3173: 3163: 3152:. Retrieved 3122: 3112: 3101:. Retrieved 3081: 3023: 3017: 3007: 2996:. Retrieved 2992: 2983: 2972:. Retrieved 2964: 2941:. Retrieved 2939:. 2010-01-13 2932: 2923: 2911: 2900:. Retrieved 2884: 2874: 2871: 2865:. Retrieved 2843: 2769: 2761:flash memory 2746: 2737: 2735: 2697: 2694: 2642: 2635: 2624: 2619: 2615: 2609: 2602: 2597: 2591: 2588: 2579: 2571: 2563:IEC 80000-13 2553: 2545: 2530: 2481: 2459: 2454: 2443: 2441: 2436: 2423: 2419: 2410: 2408: 2403: 2397: 2393: 2389:flash memory 2354: 2349: 2343: 2335: 2314: 2305:Donald Knuth 2302: 2266: 2247: 2222: 2179:200 MHz 2173:memory on a 2114: 2080:, is indeed 2076:, quoted as 2053:Parallel ATA 2050: 2024: 2012: 1979:Blu-ray Disc 1971:optical disc 1968: 1960:700 MiB 1953: 1914: 1889: 1855: 1852: 1840:Floppy disks 1838: 1835:Floppy disks 1802: 1731: 1717: 1698: 1661: 1613: 1579: 1571: 1552: 1510: 1503: 1497: 1182: 1172: 1168: 1159: 1153: 1146: 772: 763:1024 Hz 748: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 713: 611: 547: 509: 495: 487: 484:power of two 467: 465: 228: 6734:Measurement 6102:Samsung.com 5938:. p. 8 5848:SI prefixes 4908:Sandisk.com 4834:sandisk.com 4164:. 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