503:, however the timing cannot be correct as in 1834 Caldwell wrote a letter to his half-brother Francis complaining that his son Alexander had recently returned to his home "almost naked" and expressed concern about his "future conduct." The strife could very well have been caused by Alexander's overuse of alcohol. The same letter makes mention that Caldwell's "favorite daughter" Elizabeth was on the verge of death at six years old. He expressed his thanks that she had been baptized by
539:
398:. The treaty provided for a $ 10,000 payment each to Caldwell and Robinson, and a $ 400 lifetime annuity for Caldwell, with $ 300 annually for Robinson. Before the US Senate ratified the treaty in 1835, it reduced the lump-sum payments to the men to $ 5000 each, but left their annuities intact. Robinson and some other MĂ©tis remained in Illinois on their private tracts of land, but most of the United Nations Tribes removed to Missouri and then to Iowa.
287:, Caldwell at age 32 returned to Canada to enlist in the British service; he looked for his father's help to gain a commission. The senior Caldwell by then was a Lieutenant Colonel and had gained commissions for his sons by Suzanne. The regular army did not accept Billy Caldwell, but he was commissioned as a captain in the Indian Department. By then he had become influential among the
335:'s first election. Also in 1826, he was recommended to the Governor of Illinois to hold the Justice of the Peace position for Peoria County. That year, he became an appraiser for the estate of John Crafts, a local trader who died during the year of 1825. In 1827, Caldwell worked for the United States to secure information related to a possible
376:
for identifying their own leaders. Wolcott wanted to have chiefs who would favor the treaty, fearing that unless all the chiefs' positions filled, the United
Nations would not sign. The US granted both Robinson and Caldwell large plots of land under the treaty for their parts in influencing the other chiefs to sign the land cession.
446:
in July 1833 for $ 200; 720 acres to Arthur
Bronson in 1833 for $ 900; 160 acres to Captain Seth Johnson in November 1833 for $ 200; 80 and 160 acres, respectively, to Julius B. Kingsbury in November 1834 for $ 300. To date, the Northern 160 acres of Caldwell's Reserve were never legally conveyed for
375:
or The
Squinter), a mixed-race Potawatomi who was Caldwell's long-time friend. He later said that Dr. Wolcott, the US Indian Agent to the United Nations, arranged for both Robinson and Caldwell to be selected as chiefs to fill two vacancies. It was an example of US intervention into tribes' processes
132:; he negotiated with numerous tribes in the Lake Michigan area. He gained their respect and also acted as a translator and negotiator between the government and American Indians. In 1829, Caldwell represented the Chippewa, Ottawa and Potawatomi peoples of the United Nations Tribes in negotiating the
529:
Administration in 1880, Caldwell was not known to have any living heirs, meaning all his children predeceased him. A certain Pe-y-mo, also spelled Pewymo, claimed to be his heir in the latter half of the 19th century, but the same report declared him to not be the trueborn son and heir of
Caldwell.
441:
In all, six land sales took place from
Caldwell's Reserve. These land transactions included: 80 acres to George W. Dole and Richard Hamilton in June 1833 for $ 100; 160 acres to Richard Nicolas, Sarah Amantus, Eleanor Hamilton, and infant heirs of Richard Jo and Diana W. Hamilton in July 1833 for $
307:
alive, walking away after the battle mortally wounded in the chest. In addition, through this period
Caldwell had worked with the British in the hope they would deliver the long-promised boundary between European and First Nations settlement, but each war ended with their ceding more land to the
248:
In 1783, the senior
Caldwell married Suzanne Baby (daughter of Jacques Baby dit Dupéron), of French-Canadian descent. They eventually had eight children together. In 1789, when Billy was seven, his father took the boy to live with him and his Canadian wife, who wanted to rear him in the Catholic
839:
Gayford, Peter T. "Chief Billy
Caldwell, His Chicago River Reserve, and Only Known Surviving Heir (illigetimate Children surviveed in Southern Ontario- Walpole Is. FN, 1827) : A 21st Century Biography on One of North America’s Significant Historical Figures and His Bloodline: Part 1 (Early
420:, as well as due to the declining fur trade and disappearance of game, Caldwell began selling off his land by contracting with the land speculator Arthur Bronson from New York. According to his land patent, to be legally binding, each deed had to have a president's endorsed signature upon it.
660:
In the removal muster roll of 1837, Billy
Caldwell is labelled as being the head of a family of five. Two children were under 10, there was a man and a woman marked as under 25, the woman may have been his last wife and eventual widow: Saqua (Masaqua) LeGrande, his own age marked as over
291:, Ottawa and Potawatomi, Algonquian-speaking tribes inhabiting the area around Lake Michigan. Severely wounded in his first combat action, Caldwell Jr. recovered and participated in several more battles along the northern frontier. He was disgusted that the British abandoned their
323:
area (now
Chicago); he had long been recruited by Americans because of his influence with the local tribes. He worked hard to gain the Americans' trust. At the same time he continued to work with a local fur trade firm and became active with the tribes in the area.
316:'s Commandant, Reginald James, suspended Caldwell Sr. because of problems in supplying the Indians; he appointed Billy Caldwell as Superintendent. The Indian Department quickly found that he could not manage the work and "eased him out" the following year, in 1816.
621:
He was awarded a 1600-acre reserve on the Chicago River, including the confluence of the three tributaries of the North Branch of the Chicago River, which he started selling off in 1833. The reserve is clearly visible in the 1861 Plat of Chicago held at the
598:. The Jesuit priest was appalled at the violence and desperation that overtook the Potawatomi in their new home, in large part due to the whiskey trade. After De Smet returned to St. Louis, the Catholic mission was abandoned by 1841.
117:, and a variously Mohawk or Shawnee woman. She is sometimes called the daughter of a Mohawk chief named 'Rising Sun', or, herself named 'Rising Sun'. Due to his British father, French-Canadian step-mother, (Suzanne the daughter of
311:
In 1814, the Canadians appointed the senior Caldwell as Superintendent of Indians for the Western District, a position for which the younger Caldwell had competed as well. He was appointed second to his father. In 1815
394:. By this, the Potawatomi ceded the "last of their Illinois and Wisconsin lands and their last reservations in Michigan." Caldwell and his band migrated west in 1835, first settling in Missouri west of the
424:
The tracts of land herein stipulated to be granted, shall never be leased or conveyed by the grantees, or their heirs, to any persons whatever, without the permission of the President of the United States.
190:. While living at Trader's Point, Caldwell led a band of approximately 2000 Potawatomi. Their settlement became known as Camp Caldwell. In 1841 Caldwell died; scholars believe it may have been because of
249:
faith. Billy was given a basic Anglo-Canadian education and became Catholic. Living with his father's family, Billy learned to speak both English and French, after having grown up learning the
740:
The History of Peoria County, Illinois: Containing a History of the Northwest--history of Illinois--history of the County, Its Early Settlement, Growth, Development, Resources, Etc., Etc. ...
549:
area, 1839. The area labeled 'Caldwell's Camp' was a Potawatomi village led by Sauganash. The later town of Kanesville, the precursor of Council Bluffs, grew up in that place.
79:. He had worked to gain the boundary long promised by the British between white settlers and Indians, but never achieved it and instead acquiesced to American purchase and
438:. The land patent was not completed until 1839, and the deeds did not gain a president's signature until 1841, after Caldwell and his band had left the area for the West.
367:"Through his involvement in the process, he became recognized as a chief of the United Nations," and was so introduced by their spokesmen. Also negotiating as a chief was
933:
903:
842:
638:. The western 800 acres were seemingly sold off as four parcels of 160 and the two northernmost parcels being 80 acres. The northernmost 80 acres on either side of
214:
immigrant who came to North America in 1773 and served as a Loyalist soldier in the war. Living first in Virginia, in 1774 his father had fought as an officer with
1221:
364:, the process that would be authorized by Congress in 1830. At the same time, their agents were also negotiating with the Winnebago for cessions and removal.
1092:
1131:
Official Opinions of the Attorneys General of the United States: Advising the President and Heads of Departments, in Relation to Their Official Duties
507:
whose own records indicate she was born in 1826. Her own father would surely have been a more reliable source, meaning she was likely born in 1828.
651:
676:
1353:
626:. The eastern half of the reserve was sold as a chunk of 720 acres, and was subdivided and developed, today representing the neighborhood of
572:. The Potawatomi band of an estimated 2000 individuals settled in a main village called "Caldwell's Camp", located where the later city of
992:"Chicago's Last Unclaimed Indian Territory: A Possible Native American Claim Upon Billy Caldwell's Land, 50 J. Marshall L. Rev. 91 (2016)"
642:, thus 160 total, never received the official presidential approval needed for the sale to be formalized. This land was purchased by the
487:, referring to Mad Sturgeon, likely a bastardization of the original name. The contemporary words for mad and sturgeon in Potawatomi are
319:
The younger Caldwell inherited a plot of land in early 1818 after his father's death, but decided to return to the US. He settled in the
159:
men as chiefs in 1829 to fill vacant positions, to encourage the United Nations Tribes to sign the cessions. The treaty led to the final
722:
390:
In 1833, together with Robinson, Caldwell was one of the chiefs representing the United Nations of the three tribes in negotiating the
1235:
510:
Caldwell married again, but his second wife also died within a year after the birth of their first child, of which nothing is known.
1129:
657:
He is thought to have had many children but none survived him according to a letter written to his half-brother Francis Caldwell.
448:
1261:"Column: Do you know the name Billy Caldwell? New documentary is about a Native American intertwined with Chicago's history"
930:
900:
838:
801:
1328:
1144:
Whittaker (2008): "Pierre-Jean De Smet's Remarkable Map of the Missouri River Valley, 1839: What Did He See in Iowa?",
664:
There is a Sauganash Golf Club in Three Rivers, MI., as well as another on his former reserve, both named in his honor.
1260:
206:, Billy Caldwell, was born in 1782 (as documented through two autobiographical letters) in a Mohawk refugee camp near
356:
303:
made an early retreat before the US forces. By account of natives at the battle, Caldwell was one of the last to see
136:
with the United States. For his work, the US granted him a 1600-acre tract, known as the Caldwell Reserve, along the
133:
88:
1338:
475:, and a son Alexander. Nannette was either the niece or daughter of the powerful Potawatomi chief, Mad Sturgeon,
1363:
1343:
1333:
384:
261:
In 1797 at the age of 17, Billy Caldwell entered United States territory for the first time, to learn the
1348:
643:
627:
1358:
1147:
368:
203:
148:
114:
229:
After the war, Caldwell abandoned Billy and his mother, moving to the Detroit area. He resettled as a
867:
564:, Caldwell and his band were removed from this reservation to Trader's Point on the east bank of the
253:
Mohawk. Although Billy worked on his father's farm as he was growing up, he wanted a different life.
99:
513:
Before leaving the Chicago area, Caldwell married a third time, on November 19, 1834. His bride was
499:. It is claimed that Alexander, the male offspring of this union, died in 1832 in his twenties from
121:) and his later Potawatomi wife, he became multilingual, learning English, French, and Potawatomi.
435:
530:
Whether this leaves Pe-y-mo as an illegitimate son, a step-son, or a failed conman is unclear.
40:
802:"Fundraiser: The Negotiator: Billy Caldwell Documentary | Mitchell Museum of the American Indian"
554:
434:
All unsold parcels were legally to be considered owned by Caldwell's heirs, in trust with the US
332:
292:
284:
168:
476:
152:
601:
Caldwell died on September 28, 1841; scholars believe it may have been from cholera. His wife
265:
business (he traded for much of his life). He kept his British Canadian loyalties and learned
1287:
973:
957:
953:
1064:
1039:
697:
1323:
1318:
631:
573:
546:
328:
313:
296:
270:
129:
76:
56:
52:
20:
327:
He became more politically active and in 1825, Caldwell sought an appointment to become a
273:
language, for dealing with the several tribes of that language family near Lake Michigan.
8:
777:"Biography – CALDWELL, BILLY – Volume VII (1836-1850) – Dictionary of Canadian Biography"
623:
595:
591:
553:
In 1835, Caldwell and his band of Potawatomi left the State of Illinois and relocated in
542:
526:
223:
211:
125:
103:
1236:"[SOLD OUT] Film & Discussion: "The Negotiator: Billy Caldwell Documentary""
991:
776:
576:
developed. (This was on the eastern bank of the river, opposite the present-day city of
71:
with the United States, as a leader of a Potawatomi and led his band to Trader's Point,
456:
43:
fur trader who was commissioned captain in the Indian Department of Canada during the
1003:
647:
635:
452:
417:
395:
391:
164:
931:
Gayford, Peter T., "Billy Caldwell: Updated History, Part 3 (The Reserve and Death)"
124:
After moving to the United States in 1818, Caldwell became a fur trader and learned
634:
The 80 acres above were sold off separately and developed into the neighborhood of
412:
937:
907:
846:
738:
615:
577:
561:
443:
175:
1196:
569:
565:
361:
237:. In addition to clearing land for his own farm, he helped develop the town of
187:
179:
160:
80:
72:
59:. In 1829 and 1833, he negotiated treaties on behalf of the United Nations of
1312:
1160:
Mullen, Frank (1925), "Father De Smet and the Pottawattamie Indian Mission",
1007:
901:
Gayford, Peter T., "Billy Caldwell: Updated History, Part 2 (Indian Affairs)"
639:
583:
From 1838 to 1839, Caldwell and his people were ministered to by the notable
504:
472:
380:
320:
234:
167:. In 1835, Caldwell migrated with his people from the Chicago region west to
137:
60:
525:
woman of mixed native and French descent. According to a report made by the
447:
sale with a president's signature of approval. They are included within the
1028:. University of Notre Dame Archives: Notre Dame University. pp. 10–18.
406:
The US had awarded Caldwell's Reserve, 1600 acres on the Chicago River, to
343:
219:
215:
207:
118:
95:
64:
538:
238:
141:
84:
44:
870:, United Empire Loyalists Association of Canada, accessed 11 August 2011
500:
266:
156:
68:
495:, respectfully. Given his name, Mad Sturgeon was likely from the Fish
262:
250:
106:
758:
416:
treaty. In 1833, likely in preparation for their removal beyond the
276:
Billy Caldwell Jr. was considered the left hand of the Great Leader
584:
347:
336:
304:
277:
230:
110:
48:
1117:
Cook County, Illinois, U.S., Marriage and Death Indexes, 1833-1889
522:
387:. It was located at what is now Lake Street west of State Street.
383:. In 1833, he helped found the first Catholic church in Chicago,
300:
280:, one of North America's greatest European resistance movements.
242:
191:
671:
which was limitedly released in theatres in December 2023 , and
55:
and likely all the subsequent battles until their defeat at the
587:
496:
354:, and Potawatomi in negotiations with the United States in the
351:
288:
618:, completed in Chicago in 1831 was named in honor of Caldwell.
19:"Sauganash" redirects here. For the Chicago neighborhood, see
178:
in 1836, Caldwell and his band were removed from Missouri to
1222:"Documentary shows history of Chicago through Catholic lens"
155:
for the United Nations Tribes. The US had appointed the two
29:(March 17, 1782 – September 28, 1841), known also as
483:
refers to the wife of Caldwell as the daughter of Chief
226:
against Patriot colonists in New York and Pennsylvania.
1093:"Billy Caldwell papers [manuscript], 1816-1933"
410:
in 1829 as a result of his services in negotiating the
210:
to a Mohawk woman. His father was William Caldwell, a
91:
and his inclusion on the Removal Muster Rolls of 1837.
163:
of American Indians from that region, to west of the
675:, which sold out its June 20, 2024 screening at the
467:Caldwell married Nannette about 1804, who gave him
233:in Upper Canada, where he was granted land by the
39:meaning British in the Potawatomi language, was a
1310:
331:. In August 1826, Caldwell served as a judge in
1201:Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
471:four children, three daughters all baptized by
222:in New York, where he fought with the partisan
218:and was wounded. After recovering, he went to
83:, leading his followers personally across the
1128:Justice, United States Department of (1881).
1175:Appletons' Cyclopaedia of American Biography
1065:"Potawatomi Language Dictionary - View Word"
1040:"Potawatomi Language Dictionary - View Word"
1026:Father Badin's Baptismal Register, 1830-1841
667:He is the subject of two documentary films:
926:
924:
922:
920:
896:
759:"Potawatomi Removal Muster Rolls 1833-1840"
698:"Potawatomi Language Dictionary - Zhagnash"
197:
894:
892:
890:
888:
886:
884:
882:
880:
878:
876:
834:
832:
830:
828:
826:
824:
822:
820:
818:
1138:
87:, as evidenced by his signing of the 2nd
944:, (August 2011), accessed 11 August 2011
917:
650:, and the western section being part of
537:
342:In 1829, Caldwell became one of several
1127:
873:
863:
861:
859:
815:
429:Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien, 1829
346:to represent the United Nations of the
1311:
462:
140:. Eighty acres is included within the
16:Potawatomi leader; War of 1812 veteran
1087:
1085:
1019:
1017:
379:Caldwell was given 1600 acres on the
1354:19th-century Native American leaders
1162:Iowa Journal of History and Politics
989:
914:, July 2011, accessed 11 August 2011
856:
853:(July 2011), accessed 11 August 2011
752:
750:
608:
756:
401:
94:Born in a Mohawk refugee camp near
13:
1134:. U.S. Government Printing Office.
1082:
1014:
14:
1375:
1285:
1023:
747:
727:. The Society. 1890. p. 724.
533:
357:Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien
182:, to the area of Trader's Point (
134:Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien
1279:
1253:
1228:
1214:
1189:
1180:
1167:
1154:
1121:
1110:
1057:
1032:
983:
974:R. David Edmunds, "Potowatomis"
967:
947:
646:, the eastern section becoming
151:, Caldwell also negotiated the
1197:"Map of Cook County, Illinois"
990:Priz, Scott (1 January 2016).
794:
769:
731:
715:
690:
673:The Negotiator: Billy Caldwell
1:
683:
605:died in the winter of 1843.
1069:www.potawatomidictionary.com
1044:www.potawatomidictionary.com
702:www.potawatomidictionary.com
560:In 1836, as a result of the
385:Saint Mary of the Assumption
7:
1286:Movie, The Billy Caldwell.
851:The Chicago History Journal
743:Johnson. 1880. p. 316.
644:Cook County Forest Preserve
449:Cook County Forest Preserve
113:British officer during the
10:
1380:
1288:"The Billy Caldwell Movie"
1148:Iowa Archeological Society
845:September 1, 2011, at the
204:American Revolutionary War
186:) on the east bank of the
115:American Revolutionary War
89:Treaty of Prairie du Chien
18:
1329:British Indian Department
1240:Illinois Holocaust Museum
677:Illinois Holocaust Museum
256:
1292:The Billy Caldwell Movie
1173:Wilson and Fiske (1888)
936:August 14, 2011, at the
906:August 30, 2011, at the
455:being purchased from an
451:and the neighborhood of
436:Bureau of Indian Affairs
360:. The US was working on
198:Early life and education
35:, a variant spelling of
980:, accessed 26 July 2012
978:Encyclopedia of Chicago
962:Encyclopedia of Chicago
942:Chicago History Journal
912:Chicago History Journal
555:Platte County, Missouri
333:Peoria County, Illinois
285:Battle of Fort Dearborn
169:Platte County, Missouri
109:to North America and a
98:, Billy was the son of
47:, and fought alongside
1339:American Mohawk people
964:, 2005, 11 August 2011
724:Historical Collections
550:
477:Juliette Magill Kinzie
432:
153:1833 Treaty of Chicago
954:Helen Hornbeck Tanner
541:
505:Father Stephen Badin,
422:
1364:Baby family (Canada)
1344:Council Bluffs, Iowa
1334:American fur traders
574:Council Bluffs, Iowa
547:Council Bluffs, Iowa
521:) LeGrand, likely a
473:Father Stephen Badin
329:justice of the peace
314:Amherstburg, Ontario
297:Battle of the Thames
57:Battle of the Thames
53:Battle of Frenchtown
21:Forest Glen, Chicago
624:Library of Congress
596:St. Louis, Missouri
592:Pierre-Jean De Smet
543:Pierre-Jean De Smet
463:Marriage and family
283:In 1812, after the
174:As a result of the
130:Algonquian language
1349:History of Chicago
868:"William Caldwell"
551:
442:200; 160 acres to
369:Alexander Robinson
149:Alexander Robinson
1359:Potawatomi people
609:Legacy and honors
457:adverse possessor
418:Mississippi River
396:Mississippi River
392:Treaty of Chicago
241:, in present-day
184:Pointe aux Poules
165:Mississippi River
144:Forest Preserve.
1371:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1283:
1277:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1218:
1212:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1193:
1187:
1184:
1178:
1171:
1165:
1158:
1152:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1125:
1119:
1114:
1108:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1097:www.chsmedia.org
1089:
1080:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1061:
1055:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1024:Badin, Stephen.
1021:
1012:
1011:
987:
981:
971:
965:
951:
945:
928:
915:
898:
871:
865:
854:
836:
813:
812:
810:
808:
798:
792:
791:
789:
787:
781:www.biographi.ca
773:
767:
766:
754:
745:
744:
735:
729:
728:
719:
713:
712:
710:
708:
694:
430:
413:Prairie du Chien
402:Caldwell Reserve
224:Butler's Rangers
100:William Caldwell
1379:
1378:
1374:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1309:
1308:
1307:
1306:
1296:
1294:
1284:
1280:
1270:
1268:
1265:Chicago Tribune
1259:
1258:
1254:
1244:
1242:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1205:
1203:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1172:
1168:
1159:
1155:
1146:Journal of the
1143:
1139:
1126:
1122:
1115:
1111:
1101:
1099:
1091:
1090:
1083:
1073:
1071:
1063:
1062:
1058:
1048:
1046:
1038:
1037:
1033:
1022:
1015:
988:
984:
972:
968:
952:
948:
938:Wayback Machine
929:
918:
908:Wayback Machine
899:
874:
866:
857:
847:Wayback Machine
837:
816:
806:
804:
800:
799:
795:
785:
783:
775:
774:
770:
755:
748:
737:
736:
732:
721:
720:
716:
706:
704:
696:
695:
691:
686:
616:Sauganash Hotel
611:
578:Omaha, Nebraska
562:Platte Purchase
536:
465:
444:Philo Carpenter
431:
428:
404:
371:(also known as
299:, when General
259:
202:Soon after the
200:
176:Platte Purchase
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1377:
1367:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1305:
1304:
1278:
1267:. 18 June 2024
1252:
1227:
1213:
1188:
1179:
1166:
1153:
1137:
1120:
1109:
1081:
1056:
1031:
1013:
996:UIC Law Review
982:
966:
946:
916:
872:
855:
814:
793:
768:
746:
730:
714:
688:
687:
685:
682:
681:
680:
665:
662:
658:
655:
652:Caldwell Woods
619:
610:
607:
570:Iowa Territory
566:Missouri River
545:'s map of the
535:
534:Indian removal
532:
464:
461:
426:
403:
400:
362:Indian Removal
295:allies at the
258:
255:
199:
196:
188:Missouri River
180:Iowa Territory
147:Together with
81:Indian removal
77:Council Bluffs
73:Iowa Territory
27:Billy Caldwell
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1376:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1293:
1289:
1282:
1266:
1262:
1256:
1241:
1237:
1231:
1223:
1217:
1202:
1198:
1192:
1186:Fulton (1882)
1183:
1176:
1170:
1163:
1157:
1150:
1149:
1141:
1133:
1132:
1124:
1118:
1113:
1098:
1094:
1088:
1086:
1070:
1066:
1060:
1045:
1041:
1035:
1027:
1020:
1018:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
986:
979:
975:
970:
963:
959:
955:
950:
943:
939:
935:
932:
927:
925:
923:
921:
913:
909:
905:
902:
897:
895:
893:
891:
889:
887:
885:
883:
881:
879:
877:
869:
864:
862:
860:
852:
848:
844:
841:
835:
833:
831:
829:
827:
825:
823:
821:
819:
803:
797:
782:
778:
772:
764:
760:
753:
751:
742:
741:
734:
726:
725:
718:
703:
699:
693:
689:
678:
674:
670:
666:
663:
659:
656:
653:
649:
645:
641:
640:U.S. Route 14
637:
633:
629:
625:
620:
617:
613:
612:
606:
604:
599:
597:
593:
589:
586:
581:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
558:
556:
548:
544:
540:
531:
528:
524:
520:
517:(also called
516:
511:
508:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
460:
458:
454:
450:
445:
439:
437:
425:
421:
419:
415:
414:
409:
399:
397:
393:
388:
386:
382:
381:Chicago River
377:
374:
373:Chechepinquay
370:
365:
363:
359:
358:
353:
349:
345:
340:
338:
334:
330:
325:
322:
321:Fort Dearborn
317:
315:
309:
306:
302:
298:
294:
293:First Nations
290:
286:
281:
279:
274:
272:
268:
264:
254:
252:
246:
244:
240:
236:
235:British Crown
232:
227:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
195:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
145:
143:
139:
138:Chicago River
135:
131:
127:
122:
120:
116:
112:
108:
105:
101:
97:
92:
90:
86:
82:
78:
75:, modern day
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
33:
28:
22:
1295:. Retrieved
1291:
1281:
1269:. Retrieved
1264:
1255:
1243:. Retrieved
1239:
1230:
1216:
1204:. Retrieved
1200:
1191:
1182:
1174:
1169:
1161:
1156:
1145:
1140:
1130:
1123:
1116:
1112:
1100:. Retrieved
1096:
1072:. Retrieved
1068:
1059:
1047:. Retrieved
1043:
1034:
1025:
999:
995:
985:
977:
969:
961:
949:
941:
911:
850:
805:. Retrieved
796:
784:. Retrieved
780:
771:
762:
739:
733:
723:
717:
705:. Retrieved
701:
692:
672:
668:
632:Forest Glen.
602:
600:
582:
559:
552:
518:
514:
512:
509:
492:
488:
485:Neescotnemeg
484:
480:
479:in her book
468:
466:
440:
433:
423:
411:
407:
405:
389:
378:
372:
366:
355:
341:
326:
318:
310:
282:
275:
260:
247:
228:
220:Fort Niagara
216:Lord Dunmore
208:Fort Niagara
201:
183:
173:
146:
123:
119:Jacques Baby
96:Fort Niagara
93:
36:
31:
30:
26:
25:
1324:1841 deaths
1319:1782 births
1164:23:192-216.
1102:5 September
763:Independent
669:Holy Ground
594:, based in
590:missionary
308:Americans.
239:Amherstburg
212:Scots-Irish
142:Cook County
104:Scots-Irish
85:Mississippi
45:War of 1812
1313:Categories
958:"Treaties"
684:References
501:alcoholism
339:uprising.
271:Algonquian
267:Potowatomi
157:mixed-race
126:Potawatomi
69:Potawatomi
1177:, p. 403.
1008:2836-7006
757:Wyckoff.
628:Sauganash
408:Sauganash
337:Winnebago
263:fur trade
251:Iroquoian
107:immigrant
32:Sauganash
1151:55:1-13.
934:Archived
904:Archived
843:Archived
648:Wildwood
636:Wildwood
489:nshkadze
469:at least
453:Wildwood
427:—
348:Chippewa
305:Tecumseh
278:Tecumseh
231:Loyalist
111:Loyalist
61:Chippewa
49:Tecumseh
37:Zhagnash
1297:19 June
1271:19 June
1245:19 June
1206:23 June
1074:23 June
1049:23 June
807:18 June
786:18 June
707:18 June
630:within
603:Masaqua
585:Belgian
568:in the
519:Masaqua
481:Wau-bun
301:Proctor
243:Ontario
192:cholera
161:removal
51:at the
1006:
840:Life)"
588:Jesuit
497:Doodem
352:Ottawa
344:chiefs
289:Ojibwa
257:Career
65:Ottawa
1002:(1).
527:Hayes
523:MĂ©tis
515:Saqua
269:, an
128:, an
41:MĂ©tis
1299:2024
1273:2024
1247:2024
1208:2024
1104:2024
1076:2024
1051:2024
1004:ISSN
809:2024
788:2024
709:2024
614:The
493:namé
491:and
102:, a
67:and
661:50.
580:.)
1315::
1290:.
1263:.
1238:.
1199:.
1095:.
1084:^
1067:.
1042:.
1016:^
1000:50
998:.
994:.
976:,
960:,
956:,
940:,
919:^
910:,
875:^
858:^
849:,
817:^
779:.
761:.
749:^
700:.
557:.
459:.
350:,
245:.
194:.
171:.
63:,
1301:.
1275:.
1249:.
1224:.
1210:.
1106:.
1078:.
1053:.
1010:.
811:.
790:.
765:.
711:.
679:.
654:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.