458:β-defensins genes are found across the vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, birds and fish. The fact that alpha and theta defensins are absent in older vertebrates, like birds and fishes, indicates that defensins must have evolved from the same ancestral gene coding for β-defensins. Indeed, these defensins of this superfamily are related to the 'big defensins' which are found in invertebrate animals, indicating even earlier origins.
29:
345:. The peptides have higher affinity to the binding site compared to Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions. The peptides will therefore exchange place with those ions, thus affecting the stability of the membrane. The peptides have a greater size compared with the ions which cause changes in the membrane structure. Due to changes in the
204:
categories. Every mammalian species explored thus far has beta-defensins. In cows, as many as 13 beta-defensins exist in neutrophils. However, in other species, beta-defensins are more often produced by epithelial cells lining various organs (e.g. the epidermis, bronchial tree and genitourinary
195:
Defensins are 2 to 6 kDa, cationic, microbicidal peptides active against many Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, fungi, and enveloped viruses, containing three pairs of intramolecular disulfide bonds. On the basis of their size and pattern of disulfide bonding, mammalian defensins are
256:
are lower in the coding regions compared to non-coding regions. The appearance of SNPs in the coding region will highly likely affecting the resistance against infections through changes in the protein sequences which will give rise to different biological functions.
692:
Hellgren O, Sheldon BC (July 2011). "Locus-specific protocol for nine different innate immune genes (antimicrobial peptides: β-defensins) across passerine bird species reveals within-species coding variation and a case of trans-species polymorphisms".
1367:
Liu L, Zhao C, Heng HH, Ganz T (August 1997). "The human beta-defensin-1 and alpha-defensins are encoded by adjacent genes: two peptide families with differing disulfide topology share a common ancestry".
1328:
Harder J, Siebert R, Zhang Y, Matthiesen P, Christophers E, Schlegelberger B, Schröder JM (December 1997). "Mapping of the gene encoding human beta-defensin-2 (DEFB2) to chromosome region 8p22-p23.1".
208:
Human, rabbit and guinea-pig beta-defensins, as well as human beta-defensin-2 (hBD2), induce the activation and degranulation of mast cells, resulting in the release of histamine and prostaglandin D2.
488:
The first beta-defensin discovered was
Tracheal Antimicrobial Peptide, found in the bovine airway in 1991. The first human beta-defensin, HBD1, was discovered in 1995, followed by the HBD2 in 1997.
1218:
Whittington, C. M.; Papenfuss, A. T.; Bansal, P.; Torres, A. M.; Wong, E. S.W.; Deakin, J. E.; Graves, T.; Alsop, A.; Schatzkamer, K.; Kremitzki, C.; Ponting, C. P. (2008-05-07).
412:β-defensins are classified in three classes and avian β-defensins constitute for one of the classes. This division is based on Zhang's classification and both the length, the
149:
476:
In addition to other antimicrobial defensins, there are related defensin-like proteins with have evolved other functions. These include toxins found in snakes (e.g.
105:
93:
899:
Abreu MT (February 2010). "Toll-like receptor signalling in the intestinal epithelium: how bacterial recognition shapes intestinal function".
431:
and non-heterophiles. Avian heterophiles can be divided into two sub-classes, depending on the number of present homologous residues in the
1279:"Tracheal antimicrobial peptide, a novel cysteine-rich peptide from mammalian tracheal mucosa: Peptide isolation and cloning of a cDNA"
516:
508:
548:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
942:
Vora P, Youdim A, Thomas LS, Fukata M, Tesfay SY, Lukasek K, Michelsen KS, Wada A, Hirayama T, Arditi M, Abreu MT (November 2004).
461:
In 2001, it was thought that β-defensins were similar to the ancestral defensin from a comparison of sequences of β-defensins,
1412:
73:
169:
473:
and big defensins share an evolutionary origin, but are separate to the defensins found in insects, fungi and plants.
1417:
245:
361:
in the terminal end of the strands connecting defensins monomers. Formation of pore complex will cause membrane
157:
602:
White SH, Wimley WC, Selsted ME (August 1995). "Structure, function, and membrane integration of defensins".
580:
413:
153:
992:
Sugiarto H, Yu PL (October 2004). "Avian antimicrobial peptides: the defense role of beta-defensins".
86:
1130:"The structure of human beta-defensin-1: new insights into structural properties of beta-defensins"
294:
377:
318:
221:
189:
373:
217:
136:
8:
944:"Beta-defensin-2 expression is regulated by TLR signaling in intestinal epithelial cells"
334:
290:
282:
1169:
Shafee, Thomas M. A.; Lay, Fung T.; Hulett, Mark D.; Anderson, Marilyn A. (2016-06-13).
1407:
1254:
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851:
822:
797:
761:
718:
671:
346:
266:
1105:
1078:
98:
1385:
1345:
1310:
1305:
1278:
1259:
1241:
1200:
1192:
1151:
1110:
1059:
1051:
1009:
965:
916:
881:
827:
753:
710:
706:
663:
658:
641:
619:
615:
338:
270:
225:
144:
78:
928:
722:
675:
401:
54:
1377:
1337:
1300:
1290:
1249:
1231:
1182:
1141:
1100:
1090:
1043:
1001:
955:
908:
871:
863:
817:
809:
765:
745:
702:
653:
611:
469:. Subsequent structural analyses have suggested that the β-defensins, α-defensins,
310:
241:
132:
110:
813:
736:
Ganz T (September 2003). "Defensins: antimicrobial peptides of innate immunity".
544:
466:
443:
393:
298:
66:
960:
943:
1277:
Diamond, G.; Zasloff, M.; Eck, H.; Brasseur, M.; Maloy, W.; Bevins, C. (1991).
1031:
1005:
573:
565:
470:
462:
421:
362:
354:
201:
197:
192:
implicated in the resistance of epithelial surfaces to microbial colonization.
1047:
1401:
1245:
1196:
1055:
389:
350:
342:
302:
286:
274:
1220:"Defensins and the convergent evolution of platypus and reptile venom genes"
1187:
1171:"The Defensins Consist of Two Independent, Convergent Protein Superfamilies"
1170:
1095:
1381:
1341:
1295:
1263:
1204:
1155:
1146:
1129:
1114:
1079:"Duplication and selection in the evolution of primate beta-defensin genes"
1063:
1013:
969:
920:
885:
852:"Pathogen recognition and inflammatory signaling in innate immune defenses"
831:
757:
714:
233:
1389:
1349:
1314:
667:
640:
Bensch KW, Raida M, Mägert HJ, Schulz-Knappe P, Forssmann WG (July 1995).
623:
82:
867:
428:
358:
306:
229:
1236:
439:
397:
381:
366:
477:
385:
314:
912:
749:
560:
504:
500:
447:
417:
400:
to the infection site. Defensins will also improve the capacity of
330:
237:
185:
61:
216:β-defensins are coding for genes which impact the function of the
512:
438:
Avian heterophiles lack protective oxidative mechanisms, such as
349:, peptides will pass across the membrane and thus aggregate into
278:
1217:
432:
164:
639:
252:) are found in genes coding for β-defensins. The presences of
496:
329:β-defensins are cationic and can therefore interact with the
1327:
353:. Pore complex will be created as a result of breaking the
253:
249:
126:
49:
795:
1276:
491:
1168:
28:
1127:
941:
372:
Defensins not only have the ability to strengthen the
796:
van Dijk A, Veldhuizen EJ, Haagsman HP (July 2008).
1128:Hoover DM, Chertov O, Lubkowski J (October 2001).
601:
293:are expressed in intestinal epithelial cells or
220:. These genes are responsible for production of
1399:
1076:
642:"hBD-1: a novel beta-defensin from human plasma"
333:of invading microbes, which are negative due to
1366:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
845:
843:
841:
791:
789:
787:
785:
783:
781:
779:
777:
775:
691:
687:
685:
635:
633:
1121:
1070:
1025:
1023:
976:
892:
838:
772:
682:
597:
595:
450:and cationic peptides, even more important.
1321:
849:
729:
446:, making non-oxidative mechanisms, such as
1036:Developmental & Comparative Immunology
991:
630:
424:are factors affecting the classification.
1304:
1294:
1253:
1235:
1186:
1145:
1104:
1094:
1020:
959:
875:
821:
657:
592:
427:Avian β-defensins are separated in avian
935:
313:will take place and substances such as
1400:
1030:Zhu, Shunyi; Gao, Bin (January 2013).
1029:
735:
1077:Semple CA, Rolfe M, Dorin JR (2003).
898:
492:Human proteins containing this domain
309:. When the receptors are activated a
1032:"Evolutionary origin of β-defensins"
407:
13:
1359:
14:
1429:
480:), bearded lizards and platypus.
862:(2): 240–73, Table of Contents.
707:10.1111/j.1755-0998.2011.02995.x
240:, β-defensins are also found in
27:
1270:
1211:
1175:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1162:
246:Single-nucleotide polymorphisms
1:
994:Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun
586:
581:Lingual antimicrobial peptide
260:
121:Available protein structures:
1413:Peripheral membrane proteins
814:10.1016/j.vetimm.2007.12.006
659:10.1016/0014-5793(95)00687-5
616:10.1016/0959-440X(95)80038-7
453:
7:
961:10.4049/jimmunol.173.9.5398
695:Molecular Ecology Resources
554:
324:
184:are a family of vertebrate
10:
1434:
1283:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
1006:10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.08.162
850:Mogensen TH (April 2009).
802:Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol
483:
1048:10.1016/j.dci.2012.02.011
376:but can also enhance the
188:. The beta defensins are
163:
143:
125:
120:
116:
104:
92:
72:
60:
48:
40:
35:
26:
21:
604:Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol
295:antigen presenting cells
273:(NLR) will activate the
211:
1096:10.1186/gb-2003-4-5-r31
402:macrophage phagocytosis
1418:Antimicrobial peptides
1382:10.1006/geno.1997.4801
1342:10.1006/geno.1997.5074
1296:10.1073/pnas.88.9.3952
1147:10.1074/jbc.M103830200
378:adaptive immune system
319:antimicrobial peptides
222:antimicrobial peptides
190:antimicrobial peptides
1188:10.1093/molbev/msw106
868:10.1128/CMR.00046-08
856:Clin. Microbiol. Rev
374:innate immune system
218:innate immune system
341:(LTA) found in the
335:lipopolysaccharides
291:Toll-like receptors
283:lipopolysaccharides
267:toll-like receptors
1237:10.1101/gr.7149808
347:electric potential
321:will be released.
271:nod-like receptors
265:Receptors such as
16:Family of proteins
901:Nat. Rev. Immunol
798:"Avian defensins"
738:Nat. Rev. Immunol
408:Avian β-defensins
339:lipoteichoic acid
226:white blood cells
179:
178:
175:
174:
170:structure summary
1425:
1393:
1354:
1353:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1308:
1298:
1289:(9): 3952–3956.
1274:
1268:
1267:
1257:
1239:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1190:
1181:(9): 2345–2356.
1166:
1160:
1159:
1149:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1108:
1098:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1027:
1018:
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989:
974:
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963:
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933:
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896:
890:
889:
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847:
836:
835:
825:
793:
770:
769:
733:
727:
726:
689:
680:
679:
661:
637:
628:
627:
599:
467:insect defensins
311:cascade reaction
242:epithelial cells
196:classified into
118:
117:
31:
19:
18:
1433:
1432:
1428:
1427:
1426:
1424:
1423:
1422:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1362:
1360:Further reading
1357:
1326:
1322:
1275:
1271:
1224:Genome Research
1216:
1212:
1167:
1163:
1140:(42): 39021–6.
1126:
1122:
1075:
1071:
1028:
1021:
990:
977:
954:(9): 5398–405.
940:
936:
913:10.1038/nri2707
897:
893:
848:
839:
794:
773:
750:10.1038/nri1180
734:
730:
690:
683:
638:
631:
600:
593:
589:
557:
494:
486:
456:
444:myeloperoxidase
410:
394:dendritic cells
327:
299:dendritic cells
297:(APCs) such as
263:
214:
182:Beta defensins
94:OPM superfamily
17:
12:
11:
5:
1431:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1395:
1394:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1355:
1320:
1269:
1230:(6): 986–994.
1210:
1161:
1120:
1069:
1042:(1–2): 79–84.
1019:
975:
934:
891:
837:
771:
728:
701:(4): 686–692.
681:
629:
590:
588:
585:
584:
583:
578:
577:
576:
571:
568:
556:
553:
493:
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485:
482:
455:
452:
422:gene structure
409:
406:
363:depolarization
355:hydrogen bonds
326:
323:
277:by binding of
262:
259:
213:
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33:
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24:
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15:
9:
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4:
3:
2:
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1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1376:(3): 316–20.
1375:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1351:
1347:
1343:
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1335:
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1324:
1316:
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1134:J. Biol. Chem
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910:
907:(2): 131–44.
906:
902:
895:
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873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
846:
844:
842:
833:
829:
824:
819:
815:
811:
808:(1–2): 1–18.
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803:
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790:
788:
786:
784:
782:
780:
778:
776:
767:
763:
759:
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747:
744:(9): 710–20.
743:
739:
732:
724:
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712:
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688:
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399:
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391:
390:T-lymphocytes
387:
383:
379:
375:
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368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
343:cell membrane
340:
336:
332:
322:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
303:B-lymphocytes
300:
296:
292:
288:
287:peptidoglycan
284:
280:
276:
275:immune system
272:
268:
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68:
65:
63:
59:
56:
53:
51:
47:
44:Defensin_beta
43:
39:
34:
30:
25:
22:Beta defensin
20:
1373:
1369:
1336:(3): 472–5.
1333:
1329:
1323:
1286:
1282:
1272:
1227:
1223:
1213:
1178:
1174:
1164:
1137:
1133:
1123:
1086:
1082:
1072:
1039:
1035:
1000:(3): 721–7.
997:
993:
951:
947:
937:
904:
900:
894:
859:
855:
805:
801:
741:
737:
731:
698:
694:
652:(2): 331–5.
649:
645:
610:(4): 521–7.
607:
603:
495:
487:
475:
460:
457:
437:
429:heterophiles
426:
411:
371:
357:between the
328:
264:
234:granulocytes
215:
207:
194:
181:
180:
1083:Genome Biol
471:θ-defensins
463:α-defensins
359:amino acids
307:macrophages
230:macrophages
200:, beta and
106:OPM protein
36:Identifiers
1402:Categories
1089:(5): R31.
948:J. Immunol
587:References
574:θ-defensin
570:β-defensin
566:α-defensin
440:superoxide
398:mast cells
382:chemotaxis
367:cell lysis
337:(LPS) and
269:(TLR) and
261:Initiation
133:structures
1408:Defensins
1246:1088-9051
1197:0737-4038
1056:0145-305X
646:FEBS Lett
478:crotamine
454:Evolution
448:lysosomes
386:monocytes
315:cytokines
224:found in
186:defensins
67:IPR001855
1370:Genomics
1330:Genomics
1264:18463304
1205:27297472
1156:11486002
1115:12734011
1064:22369779
1014:15381059
970:15494486
929:21789611
921:20098461
886:19366914
832:18313763
758:12949495
723:12499158
715:21676198
676:84766207
561:Defensin
555:See also
517:DEFB108B
509:DEFB105B
505:DEFB105A
501:DEFB103A
420:and the
418:peptides
414:homology
331:membrane
325:Function
281:such as
238:NK-cells
228:such as
205:tract).
150:RCSB PDB
62:InterPro
1390:9268634
1350:9441752
1315:2023943
1255:2413166
877:2668232
823:7112556
766:3360031
668:7628632
624:8528769
549:SPAG11A
541:DEFB136
537:DEFB130
533:DEFB114
529:DEFB111
525:DEFB110
521:DEFB109
513:DEFB106
484:History
416:of the
279:ligands
55:PF00711
1388:
1348:
1313:
1303:
1262:
1252:
1244:
1203:
1195:
1154:
1113:
1106:156587
1103:
1062:
1054:
1012:
968:
927:
919:
884:
874:
830:
820:
764:
756:
721:
713:
674:
666:
622:
547:;
499:;
433:genome
351:dimers
165:PDBsum
139:
129:
87:SUPFAM
41:Symbol
1306:51571
925:S2CID
762:S2CID
719:S2CID
672:S2CID
545:DEFB4
497:DEFB1
212:Genes
202:theta
198:alpha
83:SCOPe
74:SCOP2
1386:PMID
1346:PMID
1311:PMID
1260:PMID
1242:ISSN
1201:PMID
1193:ISSN
1152:PMID
1111:PMID
1060:PMID
1052:ISSN
1010:PMID
966:PMID
917:PMID
882:PMID
828:PMID
754:PMID
711:PMID
664:PMID
620:PMID
543:;
539:;
535:;
527:;
523:;
465:and
442:and
396:and
365:and
317:and
305:and
285:and
254:SNPs
250:SNPs
236:and
158:PDBj
154:PDBe
137:ECOD
127:Pfam
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