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interest. These animals are then classically conditioned to perform certain types of tasks, such as pulling a lever in order to gain a reward. The speed of their learning, the retention of the learned behavior, and other factors are then compared to the results of healthy organisms to determine what kind of an effect – if any – the mutation has had on these higher processes. The results of this research can help identify genes that may be associated with conditions involving cognitive and learning deficiencies.
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410:, and/or muscle tissue. These tissue samples are then genetically sequenced, and the genomes are added to current database collections. The growth of these data bases will eventually allow researchers to better understand the genetic nuances of these conditions and bring therapy treatments closer to reality. Current areas of interest in this field have a wide range, spanning anywhere from the maintenance of
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357:
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327:, the amount of interaction between these genes and their relation to the observed phenotype can be determined through complex statistical analysis. In a neurogenetics laboratory, the phenotype of a model organisms is observed by assessing the morphology of their brain through thin slices. QTL mapping can also be carried out in humans, though brain morphologies are examined using
31:
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that gene's role in the organism's body, and it importance in survival and fitness. The hosts are then screened with the aid of a toxic drug that the selectable marker is resistant to. The use of recombinant DNA is an example of a reverse genetics, where researchers create a mutant genotype and analyze the resulting phenotype. In
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repair, or neuronal plasticity. Behavioral and cognitive areas of research continue to expand in an effort to pinpoint contributing genetic factors. As a result of the expanding neurogenetics field a better understanding of specific neurological disorders and phenotypes has arisen with direct correlation to
508:
While it is true that variation between species can appear to be pronounced, at their most basic they share many similar behavior traits which are necessary for survival. Such traits include mating, aggression, foraging, social behavior and sleep patterns. This conservation of behavior across species
182:
One of the most noticeable results of further research into neurogenetics is a greater knowledge of gene loci that show linkage to neurological diseases. The table below represents a sampling of specific gene locations identified to play a role in selected neurological diseases based on prevalence in
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for example is only linked to a specific, mutated gene about 15–20% of the time while the mildest forms of mental handicaps are only being accounted for genetically less than 5% of the time. Research in neurogenetics has yielded some promising results, though, in that mutations at specific gene loci
689:
Neurogenetics is a field that is rapidly expanding and growing. The current areas of research are very diverse in their focuses. One area deals with molecular processes and the function of certain proteins, often in conjunction with cell signaling and neurotransmitter release, cell development and
174:. Currently no viable treatments exist that actually reverse the progression of neurodegenerative diseases; however, neurogenetics is emerging as one field that might yield a causative connection. The discovery of linkages could then lead to therapeutic drugs, which could reverse brain degeneration.
100:
helped to elucidate the link between circadian rhythms and genes, which led to further investigations into other behavior traits. He also started conducting research in neurodegeneration in fruit flies in an attempt to discover ways to suppress neurological diseases in humans. Many of the techniques
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Model organisms are an important tool in many areas of research, including the field of neurogenetics. By studying creatures with simpler nervous systems and with smaller genomes, scientists can better understand their biological processes and apply them to more complex organisms, such as humans.
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is an important method of research in many fields, including neurogenetics. It is used to make alterations to an organism's genome, usually causing it to over- or under-express a certain gene of interest, or express a mutated form of it. The results of these experiments can provide information on
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have made it possible to map out an individual's entire genome. Whether genetic or environmental factors are primarily responsible for an individual's personality has long been a topic of debate. Thanks to the advances being made in the field of neurogenetics, researchers have begun to tackle this
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in the brain (an indicator of gene expression) is exceptionally high, and drops to a significantly lower level not long after birth. The only other point of the life cycle during which expression is this high is during the mid- to late-life period, during 50–70 years of age. While the increased
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gene indicates that an individual will express one style of behavior over another; rather, having a specific gene could make one more predisposed to displaying this type of behavior. It is starting to become clear that most genetically influenced behaviors are due to the effects of many variants
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is a statistical technique used to estimate the probability of gene linkage between traits. LOD is often used in conjunction with pedigrees, maps of a family's genetic make-up, in order to yield more accurate estimations. A key benefit of this technique is its ability to give reliable results in
140:
to test for linkage between DNA and gene defects. This process is referred to sometimes as linkage analysis. By the 1990s ever advancing technology had made genetic analysis more feasible and available. This decade saw a marked increase in identifying the specific role genes played in relation to
620:, promote differentiation of ectoderm cells into prospective neural tissue on the dorsal side. If any of these genes are improperly regulated, then proper formation and differentiation will not occur. BMP also plays a very important role in the patterning that occurs after the formation of the
69:
in this genetic sequence can have a wide range of effects on the quality of life of the individual. Neurological diseases, behavior and personality are all studied in the context of neurogenetics. The field of neurogenetics emerged in the mid to late 20th century with advances closely following
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Throughout the animal kingdom, varying styles, types and levels of aggression can be observed leading scientists to believe that there might be a genetic contribution that has conserved this particular behavioral trait. For some species varying levels of aggression have indeed exhibited direct
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Many research facilities seek out volunteers with certain conditions or illnesses to participate in studies. Model organisms, while important, cannot completely model the complexity of the human body, making volunteers a key part to the progression of research. Along with gathering some basic
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between species. If these organisms shared a common evolutionary ancestor, then this might imply that aspects of behavior can be inherited from previous generations, lending support to the genetic causes – as opposed to the environmental causes – of behavior. Variations in personalities and
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In addition to examining how genetic mutations affect the actual structure of the brain, researchers in neurogenetics also examine how these mutations affect cognition and behavior. One method of examining this involves purposely engineering model organisms with mutations of certain genes of
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genes, in addition to other neurological regulating factors like neurotransmitter levels. Due to fact that many behavioral characteristics have been conserved across species for generations, researchers are able to use animal subjects such as mice and rats, but also fruit flies, worms, and
166:(GWAS) have brought vast new resources within grasp. With this new information genetic variability within the human population and possibly linked diseases can be more readily discerned. Neurodegenerative diseases are a more common subset of neurological disorders, with examples being
78:
The field of neurogenetics emerged from advances made in molecular biology, genetics and a desire to understand the link between genes, behavior, the brain, and neurological disorders and diseases. The field started to expand in the 1960s through the research of
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rather than brain slices. Human beings pose a greater challenge for QTL analysis because the genetic population cannot be as carefully controlled as that of an inbred recombinant population, which can result in sources of statistical error.
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length negatively impacting neuronal connections. Horizontal gaze palsy with progressive scoliosis (HGPPS) accompanies a mutation here. These are just a few examples of what current research in the field of neurogenetics has achieved.
624:. Due to the graded response the cells of the neural tube have to BMP and Shh signaling, these pathways are in competition to determine the fate of preneural cells. BMP promotes dorsal differentiation of pre-neural cells into
509:
has led biologists to hypothesize that these traits could possibly have similar, if not the same, genetic causes and pathways. Studies conducted on the genomes of a plethora of organisms have revealed that many organisms have
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There are many genes and proteins that contribute to the formation and development of the central nervous system, many of which can be found in the aforementioned links. Of particular importance are those that code for
1712:
Eising, Else; Mirza-Schreiber, Nazanin; de Zeeuw, Eveline L.; Wang, Carol A.; Truong, Dongnhu T.; Allegrini, Andrea G.; Shapland, Chin Yang; Zhu, Gu; Wigg, Karen G.; Gerritse, Margot L.; et al. (30 August 2022).
161:
While the genetic basis of simple diseases and disorders has been accurately pinpointed, the genetics behind more complex, neurological disorders is still a source of ongoing research. New developments such as the
322:
mapping is another statistical method used to determine the chromosomal positions of a set of genes responsible for a given trait. By identifying specific genetic markers for the genes of interest in a
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Some recent research has shown that the level of gene expression changes drastically in the brain at different periods throughout the life cycle. For example, during prenatal development the amount of
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expression during the prenatal period can be explained by the rapid growth and formation of the brain tissue, the reason behind the surge of late-life expression remains a topic of ongoing research.
53:(i.e. manifestations, measurable or not, of the genetic make-up of an individual), and is mainly based on the observation that the nervous systems of individuals, even of those belonging to the same
568:
A great deal of research has been done on the effects of genes and the formation of the brain and the central nervous system. The following wiki links may prove helpful:
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or causative condition has been identified 60% of the time; however, the milder the intellectual handicap the lower chance a specific genetic cause has been pinpointed.
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behavioral traits seen amongst individuals of the same species could be explained by differing levels of expression of these genes and their corresponding proteins.
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question by beginning to map out genes and correlate them to different personality traits. There is little to no evidence to suggest that the presence of a
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414:, the progression of neurodegenerative disorders, the persistence of periodic disorders, and the effects of mitochondrial decay on metabolism.
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1149:
2355:
1715:"Genome-wide analyses of individual differences in quantitatively assessed reading- and language-related skills in up to 34,000 people"
1989:
Oliveira RF, Silva JF, Simões JM (June 2011). "Fighting zebrafish: characterization of aggressive behavior and winner-loser effects".
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advancements made in available technology. Currently, neurogenetics is the center of much research utilizing cutting edge techniques.
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17:
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information about medical history and the extent of their symptoms, samples are taken from the participants, including blood,
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604:. When expressed during early development, BMP's are responsible for the differentiation of epidermal cells from the ventral
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847:
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zebrafish, to try to determine specific genes that correlate to behavior and attempt to match these with human genes.
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128:(ALS) are still at the center of much research to this day. By the late 1980s new advances in genetics such as
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Neuroscience Meets
Quantitative Genetics: Using Morphometric Data to Map Genes that Modulate CNS Architecture
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and genetics, focusing in particular how the genetic code an organism carries affects its expressed
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Zwarts L, Magwire MM, Carbone MA, Versteven M, Herteleer L, Anholt RR, et al. (October 2011).
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319:
348:, an organism with a particular phenotype is identified first, and its genotype is then analyzed.
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651:
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121:
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Akçimen, F.; Lopez, E. R.; Landers, J. E.; Nath, A.; Chiò, A.; Chia, R.; Traynor, B. J. (2023).
1153:
632:. There are many other genes that help to determine neural fate and proper development include,
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There is also research being conducted on how an individual's genes can cause varying levels of
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have also become more common, especially in the social and behavioral scopes of neurogenetics.
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2066:"Allelic diversity in human developmental neurogenetics: insights into biology and disease"
1943:
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8:
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2451:
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2174:
2169:
912:
Tanzi RE (October 1991). "Genetic linkage studies of human neurodegenerative disorders".
760:
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113:
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and other observational methods such as affected sib-pairs, which looks at phenotype and
1947:
1887:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
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Pfeiffer BD, Jenett A, Hammonds AS, Ngo TT, Misra S, Murphy C, et al. (July 2008).
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both large and small sample sizes, which is a marked advantage in laboratory research.
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57:, may not be identical. As the name implies, it draws aspects from both the studies of
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116:(identity by descent) configuration. Many of the disorders studied early on including
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2006:
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have been linked to harmful phenotypes and their resulting disorders. For instance a
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1998:
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426:(GWAS). Examples of phenotypes investigated by notable neurogenetics GWAS include:
345:
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133:
62:
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3096:
2990:
2930:
2867:
2782:
2742:
2727:
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2623:
2316:
2081:
1594:"The prairie vole: an emerging model organism for understanding the social brain"
755:
625:
340:
312:
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129:
105:
2113:
851:
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3046:
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2787:
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2563:
2446:
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1936:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1609:
1438:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1279:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1241:
1226:"Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Translating genetic discoveries into therapies"
599:
109:
80:
46:
1378:
1365:
1089:
560:
104:
Early analysis relied on statistical interpretation through processes such as
90:
Seymour Benzer in his office at
Caltech in 1974 with a big model of Drosophila
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1956:
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2722:
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2537:
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2099:
2010:
1975:
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1818:
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1641:
Neurogenetics and
Behavior Center. Johns Hopkins U, 2011. Web. 29 Oct. 2011
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58:
2002:
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982:
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898:
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661:
621:
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582:
454:, language-related capabilities, in particular factors of differences in
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2817:
2381:
2250:
2230:
2205:
996:
Tandon PN (September 2000). "The decade of the brain: a brief review".
533:
375:
242:
96:
141:
neurological disorders. Advancements were made in but not limited to:
3061:
2752:
1366:"Genetic variability of human brain size and cortical gyral patterns"
386:
50:
1835:
Kimura M, Higuchi S (April 2011). "Genetics of alcohol dependence".
874:
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2421:
2391:
2235:
2225:
2153:
695:
691:
655:
605:
256:
150:
66:
42:
1685:"Massive genome study informs the biology of reading and language"
1711:
615:
262:
222:
101:
he used and conclusions he drew would drive the field forward.
86:
54:
1932:"Complex genetic architecture of Drosophila aggressive behavior"
1662:
2506:
2245:
2220:
1545:"The neurogenetic frontier--lessons from misbehaving zebrafish"
707:
633:
208:
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Due to their low-maintenance and highly mapped genomes, mice,
1929:
1275:"Logarithm of odds (lods) for linkage in complex inheritance"
732:
455:
364:
356:
288:
276:
2122:
1025:"Genome-wide association studies in neurological disorders"
875:"The outlook for linkage research in psychiatric disorders"
737:
703:
668:
639:
228:
2693:
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location causes a neuronal migration defect also known as
539:
2215:
2210:
1431:
30:
1434:"Tools for neuroanatomy and neurogenetics in Drosophila"
83:, considered by some to be the father of neurogenetics.
1496:"Neurogenetics of vesicular transporters in C. elegans"
1223:
1074:"Role of LRRK2 kinase dysfunction in Parkinson disease"
543:
Outward displays of aggression are seen in most animals
1363:
1022:
826:"Olympians of Science: A Display of Medals and Awards"
2028:(5th ed.). Garland Science. pp. 1139–1480.
1364:
Bartley AJ, Jones DW, Weinberger DR (February 1997).
778:
850:. California Institute of Technology. Archived from
1988:
1400:
503:
417:
1549:Briefings in Functional Genomics & Proteomics
3166:
1880:
1661:. U of California, San Francisco. Archived from
1719:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1493:
1336:. North Dakota State University. Archived from
27:Study of role of genetics in the nervous system
1542:
1494:Rand JB, Duerr JS, Frisby DL (December 2000).
1023:Simón-Sánchez J, Singleton A (November 2008).
954:
628:and Shh promotes ventral differentiation into
513:, meaning that some genetic material has been
2522:
2138:
1834:
1659:Fu and Ptacek's Laboratories of Neurogenetics
1016:
872:
3057:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
1883:"Conservation of gene function in behaviour"
1782:
1585:
1071:
458:-levels of five tested traits. It also used
1591:
1427:
1425:
848:"Neurogenetics Pioneer Seymour Benzer Dies"
470:
2529:
2515:
2145:
2131:
2063:
2051:"Brain gene activity changes through life"
1778:
1776:
2089:
1965:
1955:
1906:
1876:
1874:
1830:
1828:
1808:
1756:
1738:
1617:
1568:
1511:
1467:
1457:
1377:
1308:
1298:
1249:
1150:"Alzheimer's Disease Genetics Fact Sheet"
1097:
1048:
972:
948:
660:, and various cadherin coding genes like
447:of GWAS reported genetic factors of, the
156:
49:. It considers neural characteristics as
1982:
1785:"A neurogenetic approach to impulsivity"
1652:
1422:
1334:"Logarithm of Odds in Advanced Genetics"
957:"Neurogenetics. Triumphs and challenges"
955:Greenstein P, Bird TD (September 1994).
818:
559:
538:
430:
363:
355:
329:nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
85:
29:
2478:List of genetics research organizations
2048:
2023:
2017:
1773:
1543:Burgess HA, Granato M (November 2008).
1536:
1489:
1487:
1401:Kuure-Kinsey M, McCooey B (Fall 2000).
564:Shh and BMP gradient in the neural tube
307:
45:in the development and function of the
14:
3167:
1881:Reaume CJ, Sokolowski MB (July 2011).
1871:
1825:
1272:
995:
866:
840:
302:
2510:
2126:
2057:
1837:Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
1592:McGraw LA, Young LJ (February 2010).
1331:
1201:
1199:
1173:
1171:
1144:
1142:
989:
911:
3147:
1783:Congdon E, Canli T (December 2008).
1484:
1119:
1117:
1078:Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine
905:
828:. California Institute of Technology
436:Traits, IQ& language skills
2064:Walsh CA, Engle EC (October 2010).
1653:Fu YH, Ptacek L (29 October 2011).
684:
24:
1196:
1168:
1139:
351:
335:
177:
25:
3201:
3037:Development of the nervous system
1114:
1072:Kumar A, Cookson MR (June 2011).
548:correlation to a higher level of
400:
3146:
3135:
3134:
2692:
2536:
2491:
2490:
1849:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2011.02190.x
1801:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00528.x
694:. With severe disorders such as
485:techniques and the species-wide
2106:
2042:
1923:
1705:
1677:
1646:
1634:
1409:
1403:"The Basics of Recombinant DNA"
1394:
1357:
1344:
1325:
1266:
1217:
961:The Western Journal of Medicine
914:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
879:Journal of Psychiatric Research
504:Cross-species gene conservation
424:genome-wide association studies
418:Genome-wide association studies
164:genome wide association studies
136:allowed for the broader use of
1065:
873:Gershon ES, Goldin LR (1987).
608:. Inhibitors of BMPs, such as
555:
108:(logarithm of odds) scores of
13:
1:
2878:Social cognitive neuroscience
2026:Molecular Biology of the Cell
2024:Alberts; et al. (2008).
1041:10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70241-2
811:
736:gene where a mutation alters
521:
320:Quantitative trait loci (QTL)
235:amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
126:amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
2853:Molecular cellular cognition
2437:Missing heritability problem
2152:
2112:"This Week In the Journal."
2082:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.09.042
926:10.1016/0959-4388(91)90069-J
891:10.1016/0022-3956(87)90103-8
652:Notch and Delta coding genes
274:
254:
240:
220:
200:
192:
7:
3072:Neurodevelopmental disorder
3047:Neural network (biological)
3042:Neural network (artificial)
2114:The Journal of Neuroscience
1372:. 120 ( Pt 2) (2): 257–69.
744:
422:Such databases are used in
10:
3206:
2599:Computational neuroscience
1610:10.1016/j.tins.2009.11.006
1242:10.1038/s41576-023-00592-y
698:, brain malformations, or
525:
474:
73:
3130:
3067:Neurodegenerative disease
3024:
2911:Evolutionary neuroscience
2886:
2826:
2701:
2690:
2562:
2544:
2486:
2465:
2364:
2315:
2259:
2198:
2160:
1090:10.1017/S146239941100192X
791:Genes, Brain and Behavior
730:. Another example is the
325:recombinant inbred strain
94:His pioneering work with
3032:Brain–computer interface
2981:Neuromorphic engineering
2906:Educational neuroscience
2813:Nutritional neuroscience
2718:Clinical neurophysiology
2614:Integrative neuroscience
1415:Ambrose, Victor (2011).
1273:Morton NE (April 1996).
1230:Nature Reviews. Genetics
798:Journal of Neurogenetics
536:and aggression control .
471:Behavioral neurogenetics
18:Behavioral neurogenetics
2843:Behavioral neuroscience
1957:10.1073/pnas.1113877108
1740:10.1073/pnas.2202764119
1598:Trends in Neurosciences
1459:10.1073/pnas.0803697105
1379:10.1093/brain/120.2.257
1211:Genetics Home Reference
441:Language-related skills
313:Logarithm of odds (LOD)
2838:Affective neuroscience
2619:Molecular neuroscience
2574:Behavioral epigenetics
1899:10.1098/rstb.2011.0028
1789:Journal of Personality
1350:R. W. Williams (1998)
1300:10.1073/pnas.93.8.3471
565:
544:
528:Genetics of aggression
438:
369:
361:
157:Neurological disorders
91:
35:
2901:Cultural neuroscience
2896:Consumer neuroscience
2738:Neurogastroenterology
2594:Cellular neuroscience
2473:List of genetic codes
2003:10.1089/zeb.2011.0690
1692:via medicalxpress.com
1513:10.1096/fj.00-0313rev
1213:. NIH. 15 April 2020.
1181:. NIH. Archived from
1152:. NIH. Archived from
1029:The Lancet. Neurology
598:, BMP inhibitors and
563:
542:
434:
367:
359:
196:Neurological disease
89:
33:
3190:Behavioural genetics
2873:Sensory neuroscience
2713:Behavioral neurology
2684:Systems neuroscience
2372:Behavioural genetics
1207:"Huntington Disease"
1179:"Multiple Sclerosis"
766:Psychiatric genetics
477:Behavioural genetics
308:Statistical analysis
249:Huntington's disease
41:studies the role of
3016:Social neuroscience
2916:Global neurosurgery
2793:Neurorehabilitation
2763:Neuro-ophthalmology
2748:Neurointensive care
2579:Behavioral genetics
2452:Population genomics
2442:Molecular evolution
2402:Genetic engineering
1948:2011PNAS..10817070Z
1731:2022PNAS..11902764E
1725:(35): e2202764119.
1665:on 20 February 2020
1655:"Research Projects"
1561:10.1093/bfgp/eln039
1450:2008PNAS..105.9715P
1340:on 26 January 2006.
1291:1996PNAS...93.3471M
1156:on 28 November 2011
1125:"Parkinson disease"
761:Behavioral genetics
713:frameshift mutation
408:cerebrospinal fluid
303:Methods of research
295:Parkinson's disease
215:Alzheimer's disease
172:Parkinson's disease
168:Alzheimer's disease
3092:Neuroimmune system
2986:Neurophenomenology
2926:Neural engineering
2649:Neuroendocrinology
2629:Neural engineering
2412:Genetic monitoring
2049:Sanders L (2011).
1690:Max Planck Society
854:on 20 January 2012
771:Cognitive genomics
700:mental retardation
573:Neural development
566:
545:
439:
385:are very common.
370:
362:
269:Multiple sclerosis
143:Fragile X syndrome
92:
36:
3162:
3161:
3011:Paleoneurobiology
2946:Neuroepistemology
2921:Neuroanthropology
2887:Interdisciplinary
2773:Neuropharmacology
2733:Neuroepidemiology
2504:
2503:
2427:He Jiankui affair
2417:Genetic genealogy
2407:Genetic diversity
2336:the British Isles
2241:Genetic variation
2035:978-0-8153-4105-5
1893:(1574): 2100–10.
717:missense mutation
692:genetic mutations
550:Darwinian fitness
483:molecular biology
412:circadian rhythms
300:
299:
138:DNA polymorphisms
16:(Redirected from
3197:
3180:Neuroinformatics
3150:
3149:
3138:
3137:
3052:Detection theory
2936:Neurocriminology
2863:Neurolinguistics
2778:Neuroprosthetics
2696:
2659:Neuroinformatics
2609:Imaging genetics
2531:
2524:
2517:
2508:
2507:
2494:
2493:
2457:Reverse genetics
2432:Medical genetics
2147:
2140:
2133:
2124:
2123:
2117:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2093:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2021:
2015:
2014:
1986:
1980:
1979:
1969:
1959:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1910:
1878:
1869:
1868:
1832:
1823:
1822:
1812:
1780:
1771:
1770:
1760:
1742:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1650:
1644:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1621:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1572:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1515:
1491:
1482:
1481:
1471:
1461:
1429:
1420:
1417:Reverse Genetics
1413:
1407:
1406:
1398:
1392:
1391:
1381:
1361:
1355:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1332:Helms T (2000).
1329:
1323:
1322:
1312:
1302:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1253:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1203:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1175:
1166:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1146:
1137:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1121:
1112:
1111:
1101:
1069:
1063:
1062:
1052:
1020:
1014:
1013:
993:
987:
986:
976:
952:
946:
945:
909:
903:
902:
870:
864:
863:
861:
859:
844:
838:
837:
835:
833:
822:
685:Current research
511:homologous genes
346:forward genetics
190:
189:
134:reverse genetics
21:
3205:
3204:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3185:Neuropsychology
3165:
3164:
3163:
3158:
3126:
3112:Neurotechnology
3107:Neuroplasticity
3102:Neuromodulation
3097:Neuromanagement
3020:
2991:Neurophilosophy
2888:
2882:
2868:Neuropsychology
2829:
2822:
2783:Neuropsychiatry
2743:Neuroimmunology
2728:Neurocardiology
2704:
2697:
2688:
2679:Neurophysiology
2669:Neuromorphology
2624:Neural decoding
2565:
2558:
2540:
2535:
2505:
2500:
2482:
2461:
2360:
2351:the Middle East
2317:Archaeogenetics
2311:
2255:
2194:
2156:
2151:
2121:
2120:
2111:
2107:
2062:
2058:
2047:
2043:
2036:
2022:
2018:
1987:
1983:
1942:(41): 17070–5.
1928:
1924:
1879:
1872:
1833:
1826:
1781:
1774:
1710:
1706:
1696:
1694:
1683:
1682:
1678:
1668:
1666:
1651:
1647:
1639:
1635:
1590:
1586:
1541:
1537:
1506:(15): 2414–22.
1492:
1485:
1444:(28): 9715–20.
1430:
1423:
1414:
1410:
1399:
1395:
1362:
1358:
1349:
1345:
1330:
1326:
1271:
1267:
1222:
1218:
1205:
1204:
1197:
1188:
1186:
1177:
1176:
1169:
1159:
1157:
1148:
1147:
1140:
1130:
1128:
1123:
1122:
1115:
1070:
1066:
1035:(11): 1067–72.
1021:
1017:
998:Neurology India
994:
990:
953:
949:
910:
906:
871:
867:
857:
855:
846:
845:
841:
831:
829:
824:
823:
819:
814:
756:Neuropsychology
747:
687:
626:sensory neurons
558:
530:
524:
506:
479:
473:
420:
403:
354:
352:Animal research
341:Recombinant DNA
338:
336:Recombinant DNA
310:
305:
180:
178:Gene sequencing
159:
145:, Alzheimer's,
132:technology and
130:recombinant DNA
76:
34:Human karyogram
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3203:
3193:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3156:
3144:
3131:
3128:
3127:
3125:
3124:
3122:Self-awareness
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3077:Neurodiversity
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3028:
3026:
3022:
3021:
3019:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2976:Neuromarketing
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2951:Neuroesthetics
2948:
2943:
2941:Neuroeconomics
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2892:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2834:
2832:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2788:Neuroradiology
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2768:Neuropathology
2765:
2760:
2758:Neuro-oncology
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2709:
2707:
2699:
2698:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2644:Neurochemistry
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2570:
2568:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2556:
2551:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2534:
2533:
2526:
2519:
2511:
2502:
2501:
2499:
2498:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2447:Plant genetics
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2387:Genome editing
2384:
2379:
2374:
2368:
2366:
2365:Related topics
2362:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2322:
2320:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2287:Immunogenetics
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2263:
2261:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2202:
2200:
2199:Key components
2196:
2195:
2193:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2150:
2149:
2142:
2135:
2127:
2119:
2118:
2105:
2056:
2041:
2034:
2016:
1981:
1922:
1870:
1824:
1795:(6): 1447–84.
1772:
1704:
1676:
1645:
1633:
1584:
1535:
1483:
1421:
1408:
1393:
1356:
1343:
1324:
1265:
1236:(9): 642–658.
1216:
1195:
1167:
1138:
1113:
1064:
1015:
1004:(3): 199–207.
988:
947:
904:
865:
839:
816:
815:
813:
810:
809:
808:
801:
794:
786:
785:
781:
780:
774:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
746:
743:
686:
683:
591:
590:
585:
580:
575:
557:
554:
523:
520:
505:
502:
487:genome project
475:Main article:
472:
469:
468:
467:
452:uniquely human
419:
416:
402:
401:Human research
399:
353:
350:
337:
334:
309:
306:
304:
301:
298:
297:
292:
272:
271:
266:
252:
251:
246:
238:
237:
232:
218:
217:
212:
198:
197:
194:
179:
176:
158:
155:
81:Seymour Benzer
75:
72:
47:nervous system
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3202:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3155:
3154:
3145:
3143:
3142:
3133:
3132:
3129:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3006:Neurotheology
3004:
3002:
3001:Neurorobotics
2999:
2997:
2996:Neuropolitics
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2961:Neuroethology
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2893:
2891:
2885:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2858:Motor control
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2848:Chronobiology
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2825:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2808:Neurovirology
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2700:
2695:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2654:Neurogenetics
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2589:Brain-reading
2587:
2585:
2584:Brain mapping
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2561:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2527:
2525:
2520:
2518:
2513:
2512:
2509:
2497:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2363:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2314:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2143:
2141:
2136:
2134:
2129:
2128:
2125:
2115:
2109:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2076:(2): 245–53.
2075:
2071:
2067:
2060:
2052:
2045:
2037:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1985:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1918:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1877:
1875:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1843:(3): 213–25.
1842:
1838:
1831:
1829:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1779:
1777:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1708:
1693:
1691:
1686:
1680:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1649:
1642:
1637:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1588:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1555:(6): 474–82.
1554:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1500:FASEB Journal
1497:
1490:
1488:
1479:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1428:
1426:
1418:
1412:
1404:
1397:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1353:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1328:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1285:(8): 3471–6.
1284:
1280:
1276:
1269:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1220:
1212:
1208:
1202:
1200:
1185:on 2020-08-09
1184:
1180:
1174:
1172:
1155:
1151:
1145:
1143:
1126:
1120:
1118:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1068:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
992:
984:
980:
975:
970:
966:
962:
958:
951:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
923:
920:(3): 455–61.
919:
915:
908:
900:
896:
892:
888:
885:(4): 541–50.
884:
880:
876:
869:
853:
849:
843:
827:
821:
817:
807:
806:
805:Neurogenetics
802:
800:
799:
795:
793:
792:
788:
787:
783:
782:
779:
776:
775:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
757:
754:
752:
751:Neurogenomics
749:
748:
742:
739:
735:
734:
729:
728:lissencephaly
725:
723:
718:
714:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
682:
679:
673:
671:
670:
665:
664:
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3082:Neurogenesis
2966:Neurohistory
2931:Neurobiotics
2830:neuroscience
2798:Neurosurgery
2723:Epileptology
2705:neuroscience
2674:Neurophysics
2664:Neurometrics
2653:
2639:Neurobiology
2634:Neuroanatomy
2604:Connectomics
2538:Neuroscience
2397:Genetic code
2331:the Americas
2307:Quantitative
2277:Cytogenetics
2272:Conservation
2165:Introduction
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2803:Neurotology
2377:Epigenetics
1084:(20): e20.
622:neural tube
588:Neural tube
556:Development
147:Parkinson's
118:Alzheimer's
3169:Categories
3117:Neurotoxin
2818:Psychiatry
2382:Geneticist
2356:South Asia
2302:Population
2282:Ecological
2251:Amino acid
2231:Nucleotide
2206:Chromosome
1669:2 November
1405:. RPI.edu.
1189:2011-12-06
1160:6 December
1131:6 December
858:5 December
832:5 December
812:References
534:aggression
526:See also:
522:Aggression
382:C. elegans
376:Drosophila
360:Drosophila
97:Drosophila
51:phenotypes
3062:Neurochip
2828:Cognitive
2753:Neurology
2297:Molecular
2292:Microbial
2267:Classical
1993:(Print).
1991:Zebrafish
1839:(Print).
1791:(Print).
1749:0027-8424
702:a single
583:The Brain
515:conserved
387:Zebrafish
368:Zebrafish
193:Gene loci
153:and ALS.
110:pedigrees
67:Mutations
3175:Genetics
3141:Category
3025:Concepts
2971:Neurolaw
2703:Clinical
2496:Category
2422:Heredity
2392:Genomics
2236:Mutation
2226:Heredity
2190:Glossary
2180:Timeline
2154:Genetics
2100:20955932
2011:21612540
1976:21949384
1917:21690128
1857:21507127
1819:19012655
1767:35998220
1628:20005580
1579:18836206
1530:17074233
1522:11099459
1478:18621688
1260:37024676
1251:10611979
1108:21676337
1059:18940696
1010:11025621
942:19732183
784:Journals
745:See also
696:epilepsy
606:ectoderm
151:epilepsy
43:genetics
3153:Commons
2566:science
2554:History
2549:Outline
2175:History
2170:Outline
2091:3010396
1967:3193212
1944:Bibcode
1908:3130371
1865:2006620
1810:2913861
1758:9436320
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495:within
223:C9orf72
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209:PICALM
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2466:Lists
2346:Italy
2185:Index
1861:S2CID
1526:S2CID
1370:Brain
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938:S2CID
733:ROBO3
715:or a
466:data.
456:skill
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277:LRRK2
2096:PMID
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