916:
with the increase in global warming and climate change. Global warming is causing a rise in sea level, more intense and frequent storms, and an increase in ocean temperature and precipitation levels. Another reason
Hampton-on-Sea had such a horrific case of coastal erosion is due to an increase in the frequency and the intensity of storms it experienced. These natural events had destroyed the Hampton Pier, Hernecliffe Gardens, a set of villas, several roads, and many other structures that once lay on Hampton-On-Sea. After this destruction, in 1899 they started building a sea wall to protect the rest of the remaining land and buildings. However, the sea wall did not offer much help: buildings continued to be affected by the erosion. Then a storm came and broke the sea wall, it then flooded the land behind it. These events cause many land investors to back out. Eventually, Hampton-on-Sea had to be abandoned because the erosion overtook so much of the land. By 1916 Hampton-on-Sea had been completely abandoned. By the 1920s only a couple of structures still stood. It was at that point that Hampton-on-Sea was said to have been finally drowned. Today only three landmarks have survived the tragedy that Hampton-on-Sea had faced. These landmarks include The Hampton Inn, The Hampton Pier, and a few roads. Although The Hampton Pier is not the same size as the original it is still available for people to fish from.
155:
635:
assumed that these structures can be a final solution to erosion. Seawalls can also deprive public access to the beach and drastically alter the natural state of the beach. Groynes also drastically alter the natural state of the beach. Some claim that groynes could reduce the interval between beach nourishment projects though they are not seen as a solution to beach nourishment. Other criticisms of seawalls are that they can be expensive, difficult to maintain, and can sometimes cause further damage to the beach if built improperly. As we learn more about hard erosion controls it can be said for certain that these structural solutions cause more problems than they solve. They interfere with the natural water currents and prevent sand from shifting along coasts, along with the high costs to install and maintain them, their tendency to cause erosion in adjacent beaches and dunes, and the unintended diversion of stormwater and into other properties.
674:, are not intended to be long-term solutions or permanent solutions. Another method, beach scraping or beach bulldozing allows for the creation of an artificial dune in front of a building or as means of preserving a building foundation. However, there is a U.S. federal moratorium on beach bulldozing during turtle nesting season, 1 May – 15 November. One of the most common methods of soft erosion control is beach nourishment projects. These projects involve dredging sand and moving it to the beaches as a means of reestablishing the sand lost due to erosion. In some situations, beach nourishment is not a suitable measure to take for erosion control, such as in areas with sand sinks or frequent and large storms.
538:
655:
876:
686:
well as the high expenses it takes to complete these projects. Just because sand is added to a beach does not mean it will stay there. Some communities will bring in large volumes of sand repeatedly only for it to be washed away with the next big storm. Despite these factors, beach nourishment is still used often in many communities. Lately, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers emphasized the need to consider a whole new range of solutions to coastal erosion, not just structural solutions. Solutions that have potential include native vegetation, wetland protection and restoration, and relocation or removal of structures and debris.
522:
506:
455:
718:. Typically, there has been low public support for "retreating". However, if a community does decide to relocate their buildings along the coast it is common that they will then turn the land into public open space or transfer it into land trusts in order to protect it. These relocation practices are very cost-efficient, can buffer storm surges, safeguard coastal homes and businesses, lower carbon and other pollutants, create nursery habitats for important fish species, restore open space and wildlife, and bring back the culture of these coastal communities.
619:
135:
474:
2357:
490:
2364:
2826:
821:
748:
441:, or configuration of the seafloor, controls the wave energy arriving at the coast, and can have an important influence on the rate of cliff erosion. Shoals and bars offer protection from wave erosion by causing storm waves to break and dissipate their energy before reaching the shore. Given the dynamic nature of the seafloor, changes in the location of shoals and bars may cause the locus of beach or cliff erosion to change position along the shore.
38:
147:
353:
537:
433:
The stability of the foreshore, or its resistance to lowering. Once stable, the foreshore should widen and become more effective at dissipating the wave energy, so that fewer and less powerful waves reach beyond it. The provision of updrift material coming onto the foreshore beneath the cliff helps
694:
The solutions to coastal erosion that include vegetation are called "living shorelines". Living shorelines use plants and other natural elements. Living shorelines are found to be more resilient against storms, improve water quality, increase biodiversity, and provide fishery habitats. Marshes and
915:
is suffering from this problem as well. Hampton-on-Sea is located in Kent, England. It was at one time very popular for its oyster fishing and was very reliant on the sea. Hampton-on-Sea has undergone the effects of coastal erosion since before the 1800s. Hampton-on-Sea's coastal erosion worsened
685:
Over the years beach nourishment has become a very controversial shore protection measure: It has the potential to negatively impact several of the natural resources. Some large issues with these beach nourishment projects are that they must follow a wide range of complex laws and regulations, as
634:
serve as semi-permanent infrastructure. These structures are not immune from normal wear-and-tear and will have to be refurbished or rebuilt. It is estimated the average life span of a seawall is 50–100 years and the average for a groyne is 30–40 years. Because of their relative permanence, it is
713:
and erosion are considered in rebuilding. Depending on factors such as the severity of the erosion, as well as the natural landscape of the property, relocation could simply mean moving inland by a short distance or relocation can be to completely remove improvements from an area. A coproduction
871:
has been eroding at a rate of over 100 feet per year, earning the area the nickname "Washaway Beach". Much of the original town has collapsed into the ocean. The area is said to be the fastest-eroding shore of the United States' West Coast. Measures were finally taken to slow the erosion, with
444:
Coastal erosion has been greatly affected by the rising sea levels globally. There has been great measures of increased coastal erosion on the
Eastern seaboard of the United States. Locations such as Florida have noticed increased coastal erosion. In reaction to these increases Florida and its
358:
354:
355:
211:
On non-rocky coasts, coastal erosion results in rock formations in areas where the coastline contains rock layers or fracture zones with varying resistance to erosion. Softer areas become eroded much faster than harder ones, which typically result in landforms such as
738:
models can be applied to quantify erosion effects and the natural temporal and spatial evolution of tracked coastal coastal profiles. The results can be used to determine the required temporal and spatial distances between the measured profiles for ecomic tracking.
320:, occurs when waves break on cliff faces and slowly erode it. As the sea pounds cliff faces it also uses the scree from other wave actions to batter and break off pieces of rock from higher up the cliff face which can be used for this same wave action and attrition.
357:
901:
is being threatened by coastal erosion, as it was built on a fault in the headland which is prone to erosion. A small part of one of the bastion walls has already collapsed since the land under it has eroded, and there are cracks in other walls as well.
196:, wind-driven water, waterborne ice, or other impacts of storms. The landward retreat of the shoreline can be measured and described over a temporal scale of tides, seasons, and other short-term cyclic processes. Coastal erosion may be caused by
763:
in the
Central Coast region of New South Wales where houses built on top of the cliffs began to collapse into the sea. This is due to waves causing erosion of the primarily sedimentary material on which the buildings foundations sit.
290:) to collide with each other, grinding and chipping each other, progressively becoming smaller, smoother and rounder. Scree also collides with the base of the cliff face, chipping small pieces of rock from the cliff or have a
228:. Over time the coast generally evens out. The softer areas fill up with sediment eroded from hard areas, and rock formations are eroded away. Also erosion commonly happens in areas where there are strong winds, loose
454:
1551:
Kuenzer, C.; Ottinger, M.; Liu, G.; Sun, B.; Dech, S. (2014). "Earth
Observation-based Coastal Zone Monitoring of the Yellow River Delta: Dynamics in China's Second Largest Oil Producing Region over four Decades".
505:
1786:
Aragonés, L.; Tomás, R.; Cano, M.; Rosillo, E.; López, I. (2017). "Influence of
Maritime Construction within Protected Archaeological Sites along Coastal Areas: Los Baños De La Reina (Alicante), Spain".
1911:
695:
oyster reefs are examples of vegetation that can be used for living shorelines; they act as natural barriers to waves. Fifteen feet of marsh can absorb fifty percent of the energy of incoming waves.
356:
271:
face compress air in cracks on the cliff face. This exerts pressure on the surrounding rock, and can progressively splinter and remove pieces. Over time, the cracks can grow, sometimes forming a
154:
1214:
1280:
1496:
1313:
427:. This energy must reach a critical level to remove material from the debris lobe. Debris lobes can be very persistent and can take many years to completely disappear.
1431:. Puget Sound Shorelines and the Impacts of Armoring—Proceedings of a State of the Science Workshop, May 2009: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report.
445:
individual counties have increased budgets to replenish the eroded sands that attract visitors to
Florida and help support its multibillion-dollar tourism industries.
339:
cliff faces, which have a moderately high pH, are particularly affected in this way. Wave action also increases the rate of reaction by removing the reacted material.
909:, Spain, the erosion and failure of a Roman fish farm excavated from rock during the first century B.C. was exacerbated by the construction of a close sport harbour.
1710:
1093:
1908:
726:
Storms can cause erosion hundreds of times faster than normal weather. Before-and-after comparisons can be made using data gathered by manual surveying,
1154:
Valvo, Lisa M.; Murray, A. Brad; Ashton, Andrew (1 June 2006). "How does underlying geology affect coastline change? An initial modeling investigation".
521:
778:
trade, disappeared over the period of a few centuries due to redistribution of sediment by waves. Human interference can also increase coastal erosion:
489:
1942:
801:
The
California coast, which has soft cliffs of sedimentary rock and is heavily populated, regularly has incidents of house damage as cliffs erodes.
610:
There are three common forms of coastal erosion control methods. These three include: soft-erosion controls, hard-erosion controls, and relocation.
840:
that destroys housing, infrastructure and natural ecosystems. A number of communities in
Coastal Ghana are already experiencing the changing tides.
1245:
1923:
1761:
1529:
709:
Relocation of infrastructure any housing farther away from the coast is also an option. The natural processes of both absolute and relative
559:
coast is particularly prone to erosion, and has led to many instances of properties being relocated or destroyed over the course of history.
1273:
2012:
473:
1426:""Design with Nature" Strategies for Shore Protection: The Construction of a Cobble Berm and Artificial Dune in an Oregon State Park"
994:
1489:
1444:"Managed retreat and coastal climate change adaptation: The environmental justice implications and value of a coproduction approach"
1937:
1932:
1306:
1892:
1733:
102:
1842:
236:
effect. This effect helps to erode, smooth and polish rocks. The definition of erosion is grinding and wearing away of rock
74:
1954:
1868:
1376:
1985:
856:
and other artificial measures to keep it under control has only accelerated the process further down the coast, because
2708:
1138:
963:
512:
496:
81:
1706:
1351:
1224:
121:
1948:
1872:
55:
305:
is the process in which acids contained in sea water will dissolve some types of rock such as chalk or limestone.
2713:
2005:
1049:
734:
data such as
Landsat scenes can be used for large scale and multi year assessments of coastal erosion. Moreover,
88:
1734:"Destruction from sea level rise in California could exceed worst wildfires and earthquakes, new research shows"
1190:
2806:
2698:
2356:
666:
Soft erosion strategies refer to temporary options of slowing the effects of erosion. These options, including
59:
2855:
2568:
2495:
2400:
2363:
802:
17:
70:
2860:
1834:
845:
1443:
430:
Beaches dissipate wave energy on the foreshore and provide a measure of protection to the adjoining land.
2425:
1073:
979:
951:
251:
will increase coastal erosion worldwide, significantly changing the coasts and low-lying coastal areas.
2865:
2829:
1998:
1903:
480:
1660:
1241:
786:, England, was a coastal village washed away over the course of a year, 1917, directly due to earlier
852:, is one of the fastest eroding coastlines in Europe due to its soft clay cliffs and powerful waves.
810:
806:
760:
654:
622:
This image represents a typical seawall that is used for preventing and controlling coastal erosion.
2850:
2513:
974:
1887:
1521:
626:
Hard-erosion control methods provide a more permanent solution than soft-erosion control methods.
2194:
1920:
1425:
1044:
1039:
875:
682:, may be a soft-erosion control alternative in high energy environments such as open coastlines.
638:
Natural forms of hard-erosion control include planting or maintaining native vegetation, such as
302:
48:
1831:
Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects
2870:
2655:
2410:
868:
283:
2801:
1581:"Pacific shoreline erosion and accretion patterns controlled by El Niño/Southern Oscillation"
1274:"Oceanfront Sandbag Use in North Carolina: Management Review and Suggestions for Improvement"
1034:
861:
715:
95:
2630:
2583:
2538:
2523:
1592:
1163:
936:
460:
714:
approach combined with managed retreat has been proposed as a solution that keeps in mind
8:
2734:
2528:
2092:
1081:. Information Bulletin. Vol. 198. Cornell Cooperative Extension, Cornell University.
989:
1974:
Shoreline retreat and beach nourishment are projected to increase in Southern California
1596:
1579:
Vos, Kilian; Harley, Mitchell D.; Turner, Ian L.; Splinter, Kristen D. (February 2023).
1167:
2703:
2690:
2543:
2503:
2214:
2117:
1804:
1688:
1616:
1463:
1012:
968:
814:
313:
201:
1403:"Coastal Hazards & Storm Information: Protecting Oceanfront Property from Erosion"
2759:
2665:
2578:
2284:
2122:
2112:
2072:
2037:
2021:
1973:
1838:
1829:(2014). Field, C. B.; Barros, V. R.; Dokken, D. J.; Mach, K. J.; et al. (eds.).
1808:
1738:
1692:
1680:
1676:
1620:
1608:
1580:
1467:
1459:
1347:
1220:
1134:
1022:
984:
941:
675:
671:
275:. The splinters fall to the sea bed where they are subjected to further wave action.
1634:
134:
2754:
2588:
2563:
2558:
2533:
2483:
2309:
2169:
2087:
2052:
1800:
1796:
1672:
1600:
1561:
1455:
1402:
1171:
1108:
926:
264:
1112:
2791:
2573:
2385:
2294:
2289:
2174:
2057:
1927:
1915:
1565:
1029:
931:
857:
727:
704:
659:
618:
237:
158:
Tunnel-like structures formed by erosion in Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark,
2184:
2179:
2142:
2082:
2062:
1661:"Statistical analysis of beach profiles – A spatiotemporal functional approach"
1604:
956:
912:
849:
833:
829:
731:
710:
393:
248:
244:
1897:
1837:
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.
2844:
2796:
2779:
2729:
2670:
2645:
2508:
2435:
2107:
1684:
1612:
894:
879:
756:
735:
189:
1189:
Wang, P. P.; Losada, I. J.; Gattuso, J.-P.; Hinkel, J.; et al. (2014).
824:
A man looking out over the beach from a building destroyed by high tides in
2660:
2548:
2420:
2415:
2314:
2304:
2249:
1017:
946:
233:
2811:
2625:
2598:
2593:
2473:
2455:
2445:
2440:
2395:
2390:
2380:
2329:
2319:
2042:
1864:
1175:
906:
679:
552:
389:
370:
232:, and soft rocks. The blowing of millions of sharp sand grains creates a
515:, California, resulted in the necessary relocation of a scenic overlook.
2739:
2675:
2635:
2553:
2478:
2269:
2127:
1007:
820:
747:
438:
139:
1762:"New Hope To Stop Relentless Erosion of Washington's "Washaway Beach""
464:
2680:
2640:
2468:
2405:
2324:
2254:
1949:
British Geological Survey coastal erosion and landslides case studies
779:
556:
528:
420:
401:
336:
328:
317:
291:
205:
197:
185:
181:
1990:
1129:
Stephenson, W. (2013). "Coastal Erosion". In Bobrowsky, P.T. (ed.).
37:
2608:
2603:
2430:
2345:
2204:
2029:
1395:
787:
667:
639:
397:
385:
177:
163:
146:
2744:
2618:
2463:
2339:
2334:
2244:
2239:
2229:
2149:
1635:"DEA Coastlines | Digital Earth Australia | Geoscience Australia"
1002:
883:
853:
825:
771:
767:
631:
627:
544:
374:
176:
is the loss or displacement of land, or the long-term removal of
2769:
2764:
2299:
2279:
2234:
2219:
2077:
1659:
Otto, Philipp; Piter, Andreas; Gijsman, Rik (1 December 2021).
548:
463:
coast after major storms in 1997 (resulting from the strongest
416:
240:
through the mechanical action of other rock or sand particles.
225:
221:
217:
213:
159:
1865:"Coastal Erosion Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute"
1423:
890:
already showing signs of damage where the land is being eroded
2650:
2613:
2372:
2274:
2224:
2209:
2199:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2102:
2097:
2047:
898:
887:
791:
783:
678:, which uses loose cobble to mimic the function of a natural
643:
424:
378:
363:
287:
268:
167:
860:
starves the beaches of sand, leaving them more exposed. The
585:
Resistance of cliff foot sediment to attrition and transport
2784:
2774:
2749:
2259:
2189:
2137:
2132:
1826:
775:
409:
405:
272:
229:
208:
by wind and water, and other forces, natural or unnatural.
193:
1858:
848:
coastline on the east coast of England, just north of the
2264:
2067:
1495:. Nicholas School of the Environment of Duke University.
1312:. Nicholas School of the Environment of Duke University.
1279:. Nicholas School of the Environment of Duke University.
1242:"Coastal Erosion on Cape Cod: Some Questions and Answers"
795:
1785:
335:(anything below pH 7.0) corrodes rocks on a cliff face.
1578:
1094:"Rates of coastal erosion and accretion in New Zealand"
342:
332:
1307:"Impacts of Terminal Groins on North Carolina's Coast"
1071:
751:
Small-scale erosion destroys abandoned railroad tracks
331:
or solution/chemical weathering occurs when the sea's
1943:
US Economic Costs of Coastal Erosion & Inundation
1550:
1101:
New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research
286:
occurs when waves cause loose pieces of rock debris (
62:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1213:Cambers, Gary; Sibley, Steve (10 September 2015).
1065:
971:, to prevent coastal erosion and creation of beach
872:substantial slowing of the process noted in 2018.
1921:Erosion & Flooding in the Parish of Easington
1216:Cambridge IGCSE® Geography Coursebook with CD-ROM
1153:
2842:
1859:Sustainable coastal erosion management in Europe
1658:
1490:"Adaptation to Sea-Level Rise in North Carolina"
1191:"Chapter 5: Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas"
1188:
1124:
1122:
1405:. North Carolina Division of Coastal Management
1360:
423:depends on the power of the waves crossing the
1899:Time-lapse movie of beach erosion in Australia
1825:
1198:
1156:Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
2006:
1212:
1119:
404:, and beds of non-cohesive materials such as
1707:"The Impact of Coastal Erosion in Australia"
467:on record) destroyed the houses shown above.
294:(abrasion) effect, similar to sandpapering.
1888:Environment Agency guide to coastal erosion
392:) of sea-facing rocks is controlled by the
2013:
1999:
1833:. Contribution of Working Group II to the
1128:
1481:
1424:Paul D. Komar; Jonathan C. Allan (2010).
1072:Ueberman, A.S.; O'Neill Jr, C.R. (1988).
995:Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation
122:Learn how and when to remove this message
1085:
874:
819:
746:
653:
649:
617:
613:
570:Weathering and transport slope processes
351:
153:
150:Sea erosion at Valiyathura Kerala, India
145:
133:
27:Displacement of land along the coastline
1441:
14:
2843:
1522:"Tracking Coastal Erosion From Storms"
1267:
1265:
1263:
897:, a historic 17th century fortress in
2020:
1994:
1487:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1233:
1869:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
1298:
1091:
1075:Vegetation use in coastal ecosystems
689:
564:
343:Factors that influence erosion rates
254:
138:Heavy marine erosion: cliff fall at
60:adding citations to reliable sources
31:
1933:Some interesting teaching resources
1731:
1260:
730:, or a GPS unit mounted on an ATV.
592:
259:
24:
2709:Integrated coastal zone management
1909:Examine an example of wave erosion
1713:from the original on 15 March 2016
1417:
1346:. National Academies Press. 1989.
1331:
1319:from the original on 12 March 2014
1239:
964:Integrated coastal zone management
605:
513:Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve
497:Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve
362:Sea-dune Erosion at Talace beach,
347:
25:
2882:
1875:from the original on 23 June 2011
1852:
1759:
1532:from the original on 4 March 2016
1502:from the original on 4 March 2016
1304:
1286:from the original on 4 March 2016
1182:
2825:
2824:
2362:
2355:
1677:10.1016/j.coastaleng.2021.103999
1460:10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105960
1271:
658:Sandbagged beach at the site of
582:Cliff foot sediment accumulation
536:
520:
504:
488:
472:
453:
36:
1959:U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit
1779:
1753:
1725:
1699:
1652:
1627:
1572:
1544:
1514:
1435:
1381:U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit
1248:from the original on 6 May 2009
1131:Encyclopedia of Natural Hazards
495:Large-scale coastal erosion at
47:needs additional citations for
2807:Region of freshwater influence
1961:. New England Federal Partners
1938:Examples of coastal landforms
1819:
1801:10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-16-00016.1
1732:Xia, Rosanna (13 March 2019).
1383:. New England Federal Partners
1219:. Cambridge University Press.
1206:
1147:
381:face depends on many factors.
13:
1:
2569:Large-scale coastal behaviour
2401:Beaches in estuaries and bays
1113:10.1080/00288330.1978.9515770
1058:
975:Coastal and oceanic landforms
698:
415:The rate at which cliff fall
396:strength and the presence of
267:occurs when waves striking a
1566:10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.08.015
1133:. Springer. pp. 94–96.
323:
278:
7:
1789:Journal of Coastal Research
980:Coastal development hazards
952:Modern recession of beaches
927:Beach erosion and accretion
919:
755:A place where erosion of a
742:
721:
308:
297:
10:
2887:
1986:Images of Coastal features
1605:10.1038/s41561-022-01117-8
1244:. U.S. Geological Survey.
809:, the coast just north of
702:
481:Cabrillo National Monument
434:to ensure a stable beach.
2820:
2722:
2689:
2494:
2454:
2371:
2353:
2028:
1979:
864:have also been affected.
543:Erosion of cliffs on the
527:Coastal erosion during a
2514:Coastal biogeomorphology
1344:Managing Coastal Erosion
817:are regularly affected.
1835:Fifth Assessment Report
1442:Tubridy, Fiadh (2022).
1045:Sand dune stabilization
1040:Coastal sediment supply
243:According to the IPCC,
2411:Coastal morphodynamics
1766:NW Public Broadcasting
891:
869:North Cove, Washington
841:
752:
663:
623:
551:. The coastline along
531:, Dania Beach, Florida
366:
170:
151:
143:
142:in the east of England
2802:Physical oceanography
1926:29 April 2016 at the
1035:Deposition (sediment)
878:
862:white cliffs of Dover
828:, a suburb of Accra.
823:
770:, the capital of the
750:
716:environmental justice
703:Further information:
657:
650:Soft-erosion controls
621:
614:Hard-erosion controls
361:
184:due to the action of
157:
149:
137:
2856:Coastal construction
2631:Submergent coastline
2584:Marine transgression
2539:Discordant coastline
2524:Concordant coastline
1176:10.1029/2005JF000340
937:Beach morphodynamics
461:Pacifica, California
419:is removed from the
180:and rocks along the
56:improve this article
2861:Coastal engineering
2735:Coastal engineering
1665:Coastal Engineering
1597:2023NatGe..16..140V
1202:. pp. 361–409.
1199:IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014
1168:2006JGRF..111.2025V
1092:Gibb, J.G. (1978).
990:Coastal engineering
759:has occurred is at
598:Resource extraction
511:Coastal erosion at
388:(or inversely, the
2704:Coastal management
2544:Emergent coastline
2215:Intertidal wetland
2118:Continental margin
1914:6 May 2020 at the
1240:Oldale, Robert N.
969:Coastal management
892:
842:
830:Sunny day flooding
753:
664:
624:
601:Coastal management
579:Cliff foot erosion
367:
171:
152:
144:
2866:Coastal geography
2838:
2837:
2666:Wave-cut platform
2579:Marine regression
2123:Continental shelf
2113:Coastal waterfall
2022:Coastal geography
1955:"Coastal Erosion"
1844:978-1-107-05807-1
1739:Los Angeles Times
1639:www.dea.ga.gov.au
1585:Nature Geoscience
1554:Applied Geography
1377:"Coastal Erosion"
1023:Wave-cut platform
985:Coastal geography
942:Beach nourishment
867:The coastline of
690:Living Shorelines
676:Dynamic revetment
672:beach nourishment
565:Secondary factors
479:Beach erosion at
359:
255:Coastal processes
132:
131:
124:
106:
71:"Coastal erosion"
16:(Redirected from
2878:
2828:
2827:
2589:Raised shoreline
2564:Ingression coast
2559:Graded shoreline
2534:Cuspate foreland
2366:
2359:
2310:Submarine canyon
2170:Freshwater marsh
2015:
2008:
2001:
1992:
1991:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1900:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1848:
1813:
1812:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1501:
1494:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1430:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1373:
1358:
1357:
1340:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1318:
1311:
1305:Knapp, Whitney.
1302:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1285:
1278:
1269:
1258:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1195:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1126:
1117:
1116:
1098:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1080:
1069:
798:in front of it.
593:Tertiary factors
588:Human Activities
540:
524:
508:
492:
476:
457:
360:
316:, also known as
265:Hydraulic action
260:Hydraulic action
127:
120:
116:
113:
107:
105:
64:
40:
32:
21:
2886:
2885:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2851:Coastal erosion
2841:
2840:
2839:
2834:
2816:
2792:Intertidal zone
2718:
2685:
2574:Longshore drift
2519:Coastal erosion
2490:
2450:
2386:Beach evolution
2367:
2361:
2360:
2351:
2038:Anchialine pool
2024:
2019:
1982:
1964:
1962:
1953:
1928:Wayback Machine
1916:Wayback Machine
1898:
1878:
1876:
1863:
1855:
1845:
1822:
1817:
1816:
1784:
1780:
1770:
1768:
1758:
1754:
1744:
1742:
1730:
1726:
1716:
1714:
1705:
1704:
1700:
1657:
1653:
1643:
1641:
1633:
1632:
1628:
1577:
1573:
1549:
1545:
1535:
1533:
1520:
1519:
1515:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1492:
1486:
1482:
1472:
1470:
1448:Land Use Policy
1440:
1436:
1428:
1422:
1418:
1408:
1406:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1386:
1384:
1375:
1374:
1361:
1354:
1342:
1341:
1332:
1322:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1303:
1299:
1289:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1270:
1261:
1251:
1249:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1211:
1207:
1193:
1187:
1183:
1152:
1148:
1141:
1127:
1120:
1096:
1090:
1086:
1078:
1070:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1030:Longshore drift
932:Beach evolution
922:
858:longshore drift
838:coastal erosion
745:
728:laser altimeter
724:
707:
705:Managed retreat
701:
692:
660:Hurricane Sandy
652:
616:
608:
606:Control methods
595:
573:Slope hydrology
567:
560:
541:
532:
525:
516:
509:
500:
493:
484:
477:
468:
458:
449:Coastal erosion
369:The ability of
352:
350:
348:Primary factors
345:
326:
311:
300:
281:
262:
257:
174:Coastal erosion
128:
117:
111:
108:
65:
63:
53:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2884:
2874:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2832:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2815:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2737:
2732:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2695:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2500:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2471:
2466:
2460:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2377:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2354:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2083:Brackish marsh
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2063:Barrier island
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2034:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2018:
2017:
2010:
2003:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1951:
1946:
1945:NOAA Economics
1940:
1935:
1930:
1918:
1906:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1861:
1854:
1853:External links
1851:
1850:
1849:
1843:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1795:(3): 642–652.
1778:
1752:
1724:
1698:
1651:
1626:
1591:(2): 140–146.
1571:
1543:
1513:
1488:McPherson, M.
1480:
1434:
1416:
1394:
1359:
1352:
1330:
1297:
1259:
1232:
1225:
1205:
1181:
1162:(F2): F02025.
1146:
1140:978-9048186990
1139:
1118:
1107:(4): 429–456.
1084:
1063:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1000:
999:
998:
992:
987:
982:
977:
972:
961:
960:
959:
957:Paleoshoreline
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
923:
921:
918:
913:Hampton-on-Sea
850:Humber Estuary
834:sea level rise
744:
741:
736:geostatistical
732:Remote sensing
723:
720:
711:sea level rise
700:
697:
691:
688:
651:
648:
615:
612:
607:
604:
603:
602:
599:
594:
591:
590:
589:
586:
583:
580:
577:
574:
571:
566:
563:
562:
561:
542:
535:
533:
526:
519:
517:
510:
503:
501:
494:
487:
485:
478:
471:
469:
459:
452:
450:
349:
346:
344:
341:
325:
322:
310:
307:
299:
296:
280:
277:
261:
258:
256:
253:
249:climate change
245:sea level rise
130:
129:
44:
42:
35:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2883:
2872:
2871:Geomorphology
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2831:
2823:
2822:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2797:Littoral zone
2795:
2793:
2790:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2742:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2730:Bulkhead line
2728:
2727:
2725:
2721:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2688:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2671:Wave shoaling
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2646:Surge channel
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2509:Cliffed coast
2507:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2436:Shingle beach
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2370:
2365:
2358:
2348:
2347:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2108:Coastal plain
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2016:
2011:
2009:
2004:
2002:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1987:
1984:
1983:
1975:
1972:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1856:
1846:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1823:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1782:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1741:
1740:
1735:
1728:
1712:
1708:
1702:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1655:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1575:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1517:
1498:
1491:
1484:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1427:
1420:
1404:
1398:
1382:
1378:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1355:
1353:9780309041430
1349:
1345:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1315:
1308:
1301:
1282:
1275:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1228:
1226:9781107458949
1222:
1218:
1217:
1209:
1201:
1200:
1192:
1185:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1142:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1123:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1095:
1088:
1077:
1076:
1068:
1064:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1004:
1001:
996:
993:
991:
988:
986:
983:
981:
978:
976:
973:
970:
967:
966:
965:
962:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
929:
928:
925:
924:
917:
914:
910:
908:
903:
900:
896:
895:Fort Ricasoli
889:
885:
881:
880:Fort Ricasoli
877:
873:
870:
865:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
839:
835:
831:
827:
822:
818:
816:
812:
808:
807:Santa Barbara
804:
803:Devil's Slide
799:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
762:
758:
757:cliffed coast
749:
740:
737:
733:
729:
719:
717:
712:
706:
696:
687:
683:
681:
677:
673:
669:
661:
656:
647:
645:
641:
636:
633:
629:
620:
611:
600:
597:
596:
587:
584:
581:
578:
575:
572:
569:
568:
558:
554:
550:
546:
539:
534:
530:
523:
518:
514:
507:
502:
499:, California.
498:
491:
486:
483:, California.
482:
475:
470:
466:
462:
456:
451:
448:
447:
446:
442:
440:
437:The adjacent
435:
431:
428:
426:
422:
418:
413:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
382:
380:
376:
372:
365:
340:
338:
334:
330:
321:
319:
315:
306:
304:
295:
293:
289:
285:
276:
274:
270:
266:
252:
250:
246:
241:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
209:
207:
204:, impact and
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
169:
165:
161:
156:
148:
141:
136:
126:
123:
115:
104:
101:
97:
94:
90:
87:
83:
80:
76:
73: –
72:
68:
67:Find sources:
61:
57:
51:
50:
45:This article
43:
39:
34:
33:
30:
19:
18:Beach erosion
2661:Volcanic arc
2549:Feeder bluff
2518:
2456:River mouths
2421:Raised beach
2416:Pocket beach
2344:
2315:Tidal island
2305:Strand plain
2250:Natural arch
1963:. Retrieved
1958:
1893:Wave Erosion
1877:. Retrieved
1830:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1769:. Retrieved
1765:
1760:Banse, Tom.
1755:
1743:. Retrieved
1737:
1727:
1715:. Retrieved
1701:
1668:
1664:
1654:
1642:. Retrieved
1638:
1629:
1588:
1584:
1574:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1534:. Retrieved
1525:
1516:
1504:. Retrieved
1483:
1471:. Retrieved
1451:
1447:
1437:
1419:
1409:17 September
1407:. Retrieved
1397:
1385:. Retrieved
1380:
1343:
1321:. Retrieved
1300:
1288:. Retrieved
1252:11 September
1250:. Retrieved
1235:
1215:
1208:
1197:
1184:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1130:
1104:
1100:
1087:
1074:
1067:
1018:Natural arch
947:Raised beach
911:
904:
893:
866:
843:
837:
836:, increases
800:
766:
754:
725:
708:
693:
684:
665:
642:forests and
637:
625:
609:
443:
436:
432:
429:
414:
383:
368:
327:
312:
301:
282:
263:
242:
234:sandblasting
210:
173:
172:
118:
112:January 2013
109:
99:
92:
85:
78:
66:
54:Please help
49:verification
46:
29:
2812:River plume
2626:Steep coast
2599:Rocky shore
2594:Rip current
2474:River delta
2446:Wash margin
2441:Storm beach
2431:Shell beach
2396:Beach wrack
2391:Beach ridge
2381:Beach cusps
2330:Tied island
2320:Tidal marsh
2043:Archipelago
1965:29 November
1879:13 December
1820:Works cited
1387:29 November
907:El Campello
680:storm beach
553:East Anglia
547:coast near
390:erodibility
2845:Categories
2740:Grain size
2714:Submersion
2691:Management
2676:Wind fetch
2636:Surf break
2554:Flat coast
2484:regressive
2270:Salt marsh
2128:Coral reef
1771:16 October
1671:: 103999.
1560:: 72–107.
1506:25 October
1473:23 October
1454:: 105960.
1323:15 October
1290:11 October
1059:References
1050:Submersion
1008:Bioerosion
846:Holderness
832:caused by
699:Relocation
576:Vegetation
439:bathymetry
247:caused by
166:Province,
140:Hunstanton
82:newspapers
2699:Accretion
2681:Wind wave
2641:Surf zone
2496:Processes
2469:Mouth bar
2426:Recession
2406:Beachrock
2325:Tide pool
2255:Peninsula
2143:cliff-top
2030:Landforms
1809:132662199
1693:239140106
1685:0378-3839
1644:11 August
1621:256702265
1613:1752-0908
1468:245800633
1272:Dean, J.
780:Hallsands
774:medieval
557:North Sea
529:king tide
421:foreshore
408:and fine
402:fractures
373:to cause
337:Limestone
329:Corrosion
324:Corrosion
318:corrasion
292:corrasion
284:Attrition
279:Attrition
206:corrosion
198:hydraulic
182:coastline
2830:Category
2656:Undertow
2609:Sea foam
2604:Sea cave
2504:Blowhole
2346:Windwatt
2205:Headland
2053:Avulsion
1924:Archived
1912:Archived
1873:Archived
1745:15 March
1717:15 March
1711:Archived
1530:Archived
1497:Archived
1314:Archived
1281:Archived
1246:Archived
1013:Blowhole
920:See also
811:Ensenada
788:dredging
761:Wamberal
743:Examples
722:Tracking
640:mangrove
628:Seawalls
398:fissures
386:hardness
314:Abrasion
309:Abrasion
303:Solution
298:Solution
238:surfaces
202:abrasion
200:action,
190:currents
178:sediment
164:Liaoning
2780:shingle
2760:granule
2745:boulder
2723:Related
2619:peresyp
2529:Current
2464:Debouch
2373:Beaches
2340:Waituna
2335:Tombolo
2245:Mudflat
2240:Machair
2230:Isthmus
2150:Estuary
2093:Channel
1904:YouTube
1593:Bibcode
1528:. NPR.
1526:NPR.org
1164:Bibcode
1003:Erosion
884:Kalkara
854:Groynes
826:Chorkor
794:in the
792:shingle
772:English
768:Dunwich
668:Sandbag
646:reefs.
632:groynes
545:Norfolk
465:El Niño
377:of the
375:erosion
226:pillars
222:columns
218:bridges
214:tunnels
96:scholar
2770:pebble
2765:gravel
2755:cobble
2300:Strait
2280:Skerry
2235:Lagoon
2220:Island
2175:Fundus
2078:Bodden
1980:Images
1841:
1807:
1691:
1683:
1619:
1611:
1466:
1350:
1223:
1137:
997:(CERF)
815:Malibu
813:, and
549:Cromer
417:debris
224:, and
160:Dalian
98:
91:
84:
77:
69:
2651:Swash
2614:Shoal
2295:Stack
2285:Sound
2275:Shoal
2225:Islet
2210:Inlet
2200:Hapua
2165:Fjord
2160:Fjard
2155:Firth
2103:Coast
2098:Cliff
2073:Bight
2048:Atoll
1805:S2CID
1689:S2CID
1617:S2CID
1536:3 May
1500:(PDF)
1493:(PDF)
1464:S2CID
1429:(PDF)
1317:(PDF)
1310:(PDF)
1284:(PDF)
1277:(PDF)
1194:(PDF)
1097:(PDF)
1079:(PDF)
899:Malta
888:Malta
784:Devon
644:coral
425:beach
379:cliff
371:waves
364:Wales
288:scree
269:cliff
194:tides
186:waves
168:China
103:JSTOR
89:books
2785:silt
2775:sand
2750:clay
2479:mega
2290:Spit
2260:Reef
2190:Gulf
2138:Dune
2133:Cove
2088:Cape
2058:Ayre
1967:2021
1881:2019
1839:ISBN
1827:IPCC
1773:2019
1747:2019
1719:2016
1681:ISSN
1646:2023
1609:ISSN
1538:2018
1508:2013
1475:2022
1411:2013
1389:2021
1348:ISBN
1325:2013
1292:2013
1254:2009
1221:ISBN
1135:ISBN
844:The
776:wool
670:and
630:and
410:sand
406:silt
394:rock
384:The
273:cave
230:sand
75:news
2265:Ria
2195:Gut
2185:Geo
2180:Gat
2068:Bay
1902:on
1797:doi
1673:doi
1669:170
1601:doi
1562:doi
1456:doi
1452:114
1172:doi
1160:111
1109:doi
905:In
882:in
796:bay
790:of
782:in
555:'s
58:by
2847::
1957:.
1871:.
1867:.
1803:.
1793:33
1791:.
1764:.
1736:.
1709:.
1687:.
1679:.
1667:.
1663:.
1637:.
1615:.
1607:.
1599:.
1589:16
1587:.
1583:.
1558:55
1556:.
1524:.
1462:.
1450:.
1446:.
1379:.
1362:^
1333:^
1262:^
1196:.
1170:.
1158:.
1121:^
1105:12
1103:.
1099:.
886:,
805:,
412:.
400:,
333:pH
220:,
216:,
192:,
188:,
162:,
2014:e
2007:t
2000:v
1969:.
1883:.
1847:.
1811:.
1799::
1775:.
1749:.
1721:.
1695:.
1675::
1648:.
1623:.
1603::
1595::
1568:.
1564::
1540:.
1510:.
1477:.
1458::
1413:.
1391:.
1356:.
1327:.
1294:.
1256:.
1229:.
1178:.
1174::
1166::
1143:.
1115:.
1111::
662:.
125:)
119:(
114:)
110:(
100:·
93:·
86:·
79:·
52:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
