Baptism in early Christianity

1145:

baptismal fonts on how it could not have been conferred. He used literary sources plentifully but merely for illustration. For the first three centuries (i.e. before the time of Constantine) direct archaeological evidence is limited to pictures of baptism in the catacombs of Rome. Rogers concluded that "the direct evidence from archaeology alone may not be conclusive to show that in pre-Constantinian times baptism by affusion only was practiced generally or indeed in any one single case; but it does show that there was nothing repugnant in it to the general mind, that no stress was laid on total immersion, that the most important moments were held to be those when water was poured over the catchumen, and when the minister laid his hand on his head. This, taken in connexion with the known customs of later ages, make it more than probable that the usual method of administration was by affusion only." Taking into account the positive archaeological evidence of post-Constantinian times, Roger concludes: "All the evidence of archaeology goes to prove that the essential part of baptism was considered in the early Church to be the pouring of water over the candidate's head by the bishop, or the guiding his head under a descending stream, followed by the laying on of hands"; he adds: "There remains the question, whether this was preceded by a self-immersion". To answer this question, he examines the negative evidence of ancient baptismal fonts, especially those found in archaeological sites, providing on pp. 347–49 a Synoptic Table of Fonts, with date, shape, diameter and depth, showing that some of them could not have been intended for full immersion.

1141:

baptismal words, gently bowed him forward, till he was completely immersed in the water". He included in his book a woodcut of a fresco in the Catacomb of San Callisto (a photographic reproduction appears in this article), and reported that one archaeologist interpreted it as a youth being baptized by affusion, while for another the youth standing in the water was "immersed in a cloud of water". Cote described this painting as of great antiquity, probably of the 4th or 5th century, while remarking that it is impossible to ascertain the precise age of the pictures in the catacombs of Rome. The other paintings that Cote described are of much later periods, while the mosaic in the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Fonte, in Ravenna (erected in the 4th century), which shows John baptizing Jesus by pouring water on his head from a cup, Cote explained as the product of later restoring. The font in this baptistery Cote described as ten feet in diameter and three and a half feet deep. Cote listed 67 still existing Italian baptisteries dating from the 4th to the 14th centuries, all of which he understood to have been used for total immersion. He made no mention of any pre-Constantine evidence.

4568:, pp. 857–58: 'The Christian literary sources, backed by secular word usage and Jewish religious immersions, give an overwhelming support for full immersion as the normal action. Exceptions in cases of lack of water and especially of sickbed baptism were made. Submersion was undoubtedly the case for the fourth and fifth centuries in the Greek East, and only slightly less certain for the Latin West. The express statements in the literary sources, supported by other hints, the depictions in art, and the very presence of specially built baptismal fonts, along with their size and shape, indicate that the normal procedure was for the administrator with his head on the baptizand's head to bend the upper part of the body forward and dip the head under the water.' 4245:, pp. 62–63: 'We constantly see representations of the celebration of baptism on monuments the Gospel scene of the baptism of our Lord, or even ordinary baptisms. But do we ever see total immersion, the neophyte plunged into the water so as to disappear completely? Such a thing is never seen. This immersion, which is the Greek form, is never to be met with, either in the mosaics of ancient churches, or in the paintings of the Catacombs, nor in ordinary pictures or domestic objects, glasses, spoons, &c, nor sculptured, nor engraved on marble. In all such ancient monuments the neophyte appears standing, his feet in the water, but the greater part of his body out of the water, while water is poured on his head with the hand or with a vase' 2164:, pp. 7, 98: 'We propose to defend the historicity of this piece of Johannine material. We shall argue that the Johannine evidence of Jesus' baptizing activity may be a snippet of historical tradition, as there is no discernible theological agenda behind that piece of information. Moreover, the synoptists' silence may be explained, among others, by the supposition that the Evangelists were embarrassed by the event and that reference to the rite was unnecessary in a baptizing church The absence of Jesus' baptizing ministry in the synoptic Gospels does not mean that the Johannine detail is not authentic, neither does it suggest that the synoptists invented the story that John was out of action when Jesus arrived on the scene.( 4300:: 'Among the ruins of early Christian structures, and also in ancient churches still in use, the history of Christian baptism can be traced. Paintings in catacombs and churches, mosaics on floors, walls, and ceilings, sculptured reliefs, and drawings in ancient New Testament manuscripts add details to this history, as well as raising interesting questions that need further investigation. The record left by these various witnesses overwhelmingly testifies to immersion as the normal mode of baptism in the Christian church during the first ten to fourteen centuries. This is in addition to the evidence found throughout the writings of the church fathers that immersion was the early church's common mode of baptism.' 4592:, pp. 836–8: 'The progressive reduction in size from an exterior diameter of nearly 3 meters and interior diameter of over 2.40 meters to an interior dimension of 1.80 meters may reflect increased use of affusion or the decline of adult baptism At Noli in Liguria beneath the Romanesque church of San Paragorio there is a fifth-century font, octagonal on the exterior and a circle on the interior with a diameter of 1.26 meters and a depth of about 1.60 meters. It shows successive reduction in size A late baptistery may be noted for its indication of changes prompted by the general practice of infant baptism' 656:, and then includes a detailed version of the preaching of John the Baptist, followed by the baptism of Jesus. John protests to Jesus that he needs to be baptized by Jesus, but Jesus tells him to let it be so now, saying that it is fitting for the two of them ("for us") to thus "fulfill all righteousness." When Jesus is baptized, he goes up immediately out of the water, the heavens open and John sees the Spirit of God descend upon him like a dove, alighting on him, and he hears a voice from heaven say, "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased." 393: 975:("baptize", in the English translation), while at the same time considering the action done by pouring to be a baptism, giving no hint that this form made the baptism any less valid, and showing that immersion was not the only baptismal practice then acceptable. Barclay observes the Didache shows that baptism in the early church was by total immersion, if possible, Barton describes the immersion of the Didache as "ideally by total immersion", and Welch says it was by "complete immersion". 4362:, p. f3: 'The font of the Basilica of Saint John Lateran is an excellent example. The original font is below floor level, twenty-five feet in diameter and three feet deep. Lined and paved with marble, it was once used for adult immersion. Falling into disuse, it was filled in and a bath for infant baptism was erected in its place. This, in turn, was no longer used, and a smaller font was placed above it for the pouring of children.' 63: 165: 22: 4348:, p. f2: 'One such baptistry in the catacomb of San Ponziano is four and a half feet long, three and a half feet wide, and three and a half feet deep. A channel diverted water from a nearby stream to fill this font. Wolfred Cote believes it was in use from the first to the fourth century. Neophytes either stood or knelt in the water and were immersed by 'bending forward under the hand of the administrator 1106:

was poured on the candidate's head...". In one form of early Christian baptism, the candidate stood in water and water was poured over the upper body. Baptism of the sick or dying usually used means other than even partial immersion and was still considered valid. Internet-available illustrations of ancient Christian representations of baptism from as early as the 2nd century include those in CF Rogers,

507:; and the central place of baptism in his message is confirmed by the passage in John about Jesus baptizing. After John's execution, Jesus ceased baptizing, through he may have occasionally returned to the practice; accordingly, while baptism played an important part in Jesus' ministry before John's death and again among his followers after his resurrection, it had no such prominence in between. 4580:, p. 858: 'Claiming that the literature and the church orders represent the ideal and archaeology the average, Rogers examines the artistic representations in various media and baptismal fonts. His work is now quite dated, especially in dates assigned to the items examined, is replaced by later, more complete knowledge, and includes many items later than the period of my study' 4374:, p. f4: 'Yet it is of interest to note that directly below this dome is a font for immersion that has been subsequently altered for sprinkling! This fact would tend to place a question on Brown's date for the mosaic, especially since it appears over a baptistry that is inside a church. Baptistries were only beginning to be moved into churches in the sixth century.' 922:

practice. Di Berardino describes the baptism of the New Testament era as generally requiring total immersion, Tischler says that total immersion seems to have been most commonly used, and Lang says "Baptism in the Bible was by immersion, that is, the person went fully under the waters". Sookey says it is "almost certain" that immersion was used. The

2989:, pp. 201–2: 'The baptism commanded by Jesus in the making of disciples is an immersion in water. The topic formerly was warmly debated, but in these days there is general scholarly agreement. Several lines of evidence converge in support of the baptismal action as a dipping. The New Testament descriptions of baptism imply a full bath.' 1234:

immersion used by early Christians in baptizing "need not have meant full submersion in the water" and, while it may have been normal practice, it was not seen as a necessary mode of baptism, so that other modes also may have been used. Submersion, as opposed to partial immersion, may even have been a minority practice in early Christianity.

1193:

him in water over the head; in the cases of pouring in the Didache and in sickbed baptism the baptized did not stand in the font"; but acknowledges that in present Greek practice the priest places the infant being baptized as far down in the water as possible and scoops water over the head so as to cover the child fully with water.

4285:

Stenzel is of the opinion that both immersion and affusion were practised. He bases his opinion on archaeological findings which show a lack of depth in baptismal 'pools' ('piscinae'), making a total immersion of an adult impossible. Pictorial representations which reflect baptismal procedures of the

1365:

tradition of presenting the Gospel of Matthew first in the order of the books in the Christian New Testament, a usage preserved today by every major Christian denomination and by every major Bible book printer and publisher world-wide. It is first here in accordance with tradition. Nevertheless, some

1192:

In the same year, Lothar Heiser, in his study of baptism in the Orthodox Church, concluded on the basis of the literary and pictorial evidence in that field that "the water customarily reached the hips of the baptizand; after calling on the triune God, the priest bent the baptizand under so as to dip

1181:

In his contribution to the 1986 11th International Archaeology Congress on "What do the texts teach us on the equipment and furnishings needed for baptism in southern Gaul and northern Italy?" Jean-Charles Picard concluded that the texts speak only of immersion and that the area has no archaeological

1105:

says that baptism was normally by immersion, without specifying whether total or partial. The Dictionary of the Bible (2004) says "Archaeological evidence from the early centuries shows that baptism was sometimes administered by submersion or immersion... but also by affusion from a vessel when water

502:

On the other hand, the Cambridge Companion to Jesus takes a different view. According to this source, Jesus accepted and made his own John the Baptist's message of repentance, forgiveness and baptism; taking over from John, when the latter was imprisoned, he called for repentance and for baptism as a

498:

actually speaks of Jesus and his disciples coming, not "εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν" (into Judea), but "εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν γῆν" (into the Judean countryside), which some interpret as contrasted with Jerusalem, the scene of the encounter with Nicodemus described immediately before. According to the Jesus Seminar,

1436:

Now concerning baptism, baptize thus: Having first taught all these things, baptize ye into the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in living water. And if thou hast not living water, baptize into other water; and if thou canst not in cold, then in warm (water). But if thou

1228:

Robin Jensen writes: "Historians have sometimes assumed that baptism was usually accomplished by full immersion – or submersion – of the body (dunking). However, the archaeological and iconographic evidence is ambiguous on this point. Many – if not most – surviving baptismal fonts are too shallow to

1220:

He observed that "those who approach the study of baptism from the standpoint of archaeology tend to find greater probability that affusion, or perfusion was a normal practice; those who come from the literary evidence see a greater likelihood of immersion, or submersion, being the normal practice";

1140:

spoke of the "bathed chests" of the baptized, and the views of two earlier Italian archaeologists, stated that "the primitive mode appears to have been this: The administrator and candidate both standing in the water the former placed his right hand on the head of the candidate, and, pronouncing the

1002:

The theology of baptism attained precision in the 3rd and 4th centuries. While instruction was at first given after baptism, believers were given increasingly specific instructions before being baptized, especially in the face of heresies in the 4th century. By the 4th and 5th centuries, a series of

4524:

Consequently I have come to the conclusion that an adult of average height should have adapted himself, helped by the priest, to the dimensions of the font and to its internal design by taking an appropriate position which would have enabled him to dip and rise his head without losing his balance.

4031:

The earliest preference was for baptism in running streams or in the sea (Mark 1:9; Acts 8:36; Didache 7). Next in preference was total immersion in a fountain or bath-sized tank (Tertullian, Baptism 4). Total immersion recalled the abyss of the Flood or the Red Sea, and reemergence into the light

4012:

Of special note are early baptisteries. The earliest preference was for baptism in running streams or in the sea (Mark 1:9; Acts 8:36; Didache 7). Next in preference was total immersion in a fountain or bath-sized tank (Tertullian, Baptism 4). Total immersion recalled the abyss of the Flood or the

3415:

Fonts and baptisteries were constructed with taps and channels to ensure that they were supplied with moving water, which, as Schmemann points out, is symbolically crucial: 'The early Christian prescription is to baptize in living water. This is not merely a technical term denoting running water as

2168:

and par) The Marcan tradition, for example, which is chronologically earlier than the Fourth Gospel, suggests that Jesus was so close to John that Jesus moved to Galilee to embark on an independent ministry when John was imprisoned. It appears that John and Jesus initially worked together, an event

2197:

This text from the fourth gospel gives the impression that when John was no longer at Bethany (Jn 3:23; cf. 1:28) Jesus— accompanied by former disciples of John—— was himself in the Jordan area conducting a ministry of baptism. When Jesus left the area of Judea and began his ministry in Galilee he

659:

Later, at the request of the mother of James and John, who prompted her to present their request to him to declare that they are to sit one at his right hand and the other at his left, Jesus speaks of the "cup" he is to drink, and he tells them that they too will drink of his cup, but in Matthew's

3519:

The Didache recognizes the superior value of running water for the baptismal immersion but does not impose it as a necessary condition… The regulations of the Didache also foresee the case in which immersion is impossible for lack of water and prescribe baptism by pouring water three times on the

1224:

Like Rice, whom he did not mention, Ferguson said that the size of the baptismal fonts was progressively reduced in connection with the prevalence of infant baptism, although there are a few cases where larger fonts are later than the smaller ones. Ferguson also stated: "The predominant number of

1144:

In 1903 Clement F Rogers published "Baptism and Christian Archaeology". This was a study of the archaeological evidence, both the positive evidence that paintings and carvings on sarcophagi etc. provide about how baptism actually was conferred, and the negative evidence given by the structure of

957:

Now about baptism: this is how to baptize. Give public instruction on all these points, and then baptize in running water, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit... If you do not have running water, baptize in some other. If you cannot in cold, then in warm. If you have

1233:

also casts doubt on "the usual assumption that all NT baptisms were by immersion", stating that some early baptisteries were deep enough to stand in but not broad enough to lie down in, and mentioning that ancient representation of Christ at his baptism show him standing in waist-deep water. The

1200:

With regard to the shallow baptismal fonts that archaeologists had discovered, Malka Ben Pechat expressed in 1999 the view that full immersion was possible even in small fonts with a mere 60 centimetres (2 feet) of water, while the fonts that were even shallower were intended for the baptism of

921:

similarly speaks of "general scholarly agreement" that the baptism commanded by Jesus was immersion in water by dipping, in the form of a "full bath". He describes medieval depictions of Jesus standing in water while John poured water over him as a "strange fantasy" deriving from later church

1177:

water over His head are of a much later date than those depicting immersion and they demonstrate the change in the mode of baptism that came into the church". He mentions a 4th-century baptistery sufficiently large for immersion, Rice says that archaeological evidence demonstrates some early

667:

The Gospel of Matthew also includes the most famous version of the Great Commission. Here, the resurrected Jesus appears to the apostles and commissions them to make disciples of all nations, to baptize, and teach. This commission reflects the program adopted by the infant Christian movement.

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Scholars "generally agree that the early church baptized by immersion", but sometimes used other forms. Howard Marshall says that immersion was the general rule, but affusion and even sprinkling were also practised. His presentation of this view has been described by Porter and Cross as "a

958:

neither, then pour water on the head three times in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Before the baptism, moreover, the one who baptizes and the one being baptized must fast, and any others who can. And you must tell the one being baptized to fast for one or two days beforehand.

953:. This work, rediscovered in the 19th century, provides a unique look at Christianity in the Apostolic Age and is the first explicit reference to baptism by pouring, although the New Testament does not exclude the possibility of this practice." Its instructions on baptism are as follows: 518:

that Jesus baptized only through his disciples was intended to clarify or correct the twice repeated statement in the preceding verses that Jesus did baptize, and that the reason for its insertion may have been that the author considered the baptism that the disciples administered to be a

879:

Also in Acts, some twelve men who had undergone John's baptism, a "baptism of repentance" that John administered, "telling the people to believe in the one who was to come after him, that is, Jesus", were baptized "in the name of the Lord Jesus", whereupon they received the Holy Spirit.

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time strengthen his opinion: 'The person being baptized stands in water which reaches only half way up his body and water is poured from above. If the flow of water is sufficient then he is wholly covered at least for an instant with water and so 'buried', 'immersed', as the Fathers say

978:

James V. Brownson notes that the Didache does not specify either immersion or pouring when using running water, and Sinclair B. Ferguson argues that really the only mode that the Didache mentions is affusion. Martin and Davids say the Didache envisages "some form of immersion", and the

1152:

responded to accusations by Eastern Orthodox that the Roman Catholic was corrupted because of "the Filioque, baptism by affusion, unleavened bread, &c.", by pointing to the absence of any ancient representation of baptism that showed the neophyte actually being immersed totally.

608:

The conception of a sacramental principle, widespread not only in the Greco-Roman world, but even in pre-Columbian America and in preliterate societies, took on a unique significance, and to Paul's influence is attributed an interpretation given to the Christian rite in terms of the

799:(he is straitened) until it is accomplished. (The petition of the mother of James and John, the personal request of James and John, and Jesus' declaration to them that they will be baptized as he will be baptized, and will drink the cup that he will drink, is not in Luke's gospel.) 546:

says that John's account "may be a snippet of historical tradition", and comments that the silence of the Synoptic Gospels does not mean that the information in John was invented, and that Mark's account also suggests that Jesus worked with John at first, before moving to Galilee.

683:

This gospel, today generally believed by scholars to be the first and to have been used as a basis for Matthew and Luke, begins with Jesus' baptism by John, who preached a baptism of repentance for forgiveness of sins. John says of Jesus that he will baptize not with water but

4443:

The philological evidence is technical and inconclusive. But the archaeological and Mishnaic evidence seems to support the argument for immersion. That is clearly what occurred in the contemporaneous Jewish miqva'ot, so that is probably what happened in early Jewish Christian

818:

mentions John the Baptist's baptizing activity, in particular his baptism of Jesus, and his statement that Jesus would baptize with the Holy Spirit. It also mentions baptizing activity by Jesus, specifying that the baptizing was not done by Jesus himself but by his disciples.

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During Jesus' ministry, when James and John ask Jesus for seats of honor in the coming kingdom, Jesus likens his fate to the cup that he will drink and to the baptism with which he must be baptized, the very cup and baptism in store for John and James (that is, martyrdom).

302:. Immersion in the mikvah represents a change in status in regards to purification, restoration, and qualification for full religious participation in the life of the community, ensuring that the cleansed person will not impose uncleanness on property or its owners. 916:

likewise states that "Most scholars agree that immersion was practiced in the NT", identifying submersion as the form of immersion practiced. Heyler says most New Testament scholars generally agree that Christian baptism in the New Testament era was by immersion.

1161:

Alois Stenzel's 1958 study of baptism with a focus on liturgy argued that both immersion and affusion were practised by the early Church, since some baptismal pools which have been uncovered were too shallow for baptism and pictorial evidence favoured affusion.

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hast neither, pour thrice upon the head in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. But before Baptism let the baptizer and the baptized fast, and any others who can; but thou shalt command the baptized to fast for one or two days before

3017:

It seems also that the profession was articulated in responses that the one being baptized made to the questions of the one baptizing during the baptismal rite, which in general was required to take place through total immersion, in total nudity, in running

4525:

Either bending his knees, kneeling, or sitting, an adult could have been totally immersed as required in fonts from 1.30 m to 60 cm deep ... Under 60 cm (2.0 ft) by depth the fonts were probably used for child baptism only

1060:

As baptism was believed to forgive sins, the issue of sins committed after baptism arose. Some insisted that apostasy, even under threat of death, and other grievous sins cut one off forever from the Church. As indicated in the writings of Saint

3456:

According to the Didache baptism was preferably to be in living, that is running, water, by immersion although, if running water was not at hand, other water could be used; if however neither was available then affusion could be used as second

2755:

The blood and water that flowed from the pierced side of the crucified Jesus are types of Baptism and the Eucharist, the sacraments of new life. From then on, it is possible 'to be born of water and the Spirit' in order to enter the Kingdom of

822:

Some references to water in John's Gospel have been interpreted as referring to baptism, in particular, the phrase "born of water and the Spirit" and the account of blood and water coming out of the side of Jesus when pierced after crucifixion

3416:

distinct from standing water… it is this understanding that determined the form and theology of the baptismal font… The characteristic feature of the "baptistery" was that water was carried into it by a conduit, thus remaining "living water".'

3268:

The Didache, representing practice perhaps as early as the beginning of the second century, also assumes immersion to be normal, but it allows that if sufficient water for immersion is not at hand, water may be poured three times on the head

4312:, p. f1: 'This fresco, showing the baptism of Christ, who stands waist-deep in water is attributed to the 9th or 10th century, but Rogers (pp. 289–90) thinks it more probably dates from the 6th. It is illustrated also in Cote, p. 32.' 4389:

Jean-Charles Picard, working with the literary texts but correlating them with archaeological sources for southern France and northern Italy, concludes that the authors who furnish details of the baptismal rite speak only of immersion.

1196:

In 1995, Renate Pillinger concluded from the evidence provided by images and buildings and by some literary sources that it was usual for the baptizand to stand in water no more than hip-deep and for the baptizer to pour water over him.

1100:

say that the immersion was total. The same encyclopedia of Roman Catholicism notes that the preference of the Early Church was total immersion in a stream or the sea or, if these were not available, in a fountain or bath-sized tank, and

1039:

with a long prayer recounting the types of baptisms. The catechumens disrobed, were anointed with oil, renounced the devil and his works, confessed their faith in the Trinity, and were immersed in the font. They were then anointed with

1169:", cited Cote with favour and claimed that archaeology "overwhelmingly testifies to immersion as the normal mode of baptism in the Christian church during the first ten to fourteen centuries". Rice cites in particular imagery in the 538:

reason to reject the report of Jesus and his disciples' conducting a ministry of baptism for a time", and mentions that report as one of the items in John's account "that are likely to be historical and ought to be given due weight".

962:

Commentaries typically understand that the Didache indicates a preference for baptizing by immersion. in "living water" (i.e., running water, seen as symbolic of life). Furthermore, in cases of insufficient water it permits pouring

1056:

was not baptized until he was dying); but as baptisms of the children of Christians, using an adaptation of the rite intended for adults, became more common than baptisms of adult converts, the number of catechumens decreased.

1221:

but he intended his own comprehensive survey to give coherence to the evidence (p. 857). Ferguson dismissed Rogers' 1903 study as dated with regard to both the depictions of baptism and his survey of the baptismal fonts.

3001:, p. 202: 'Later church practice in this regard led artists to the strange fantasy of Jesus standing waist deep in water while John poured water on his head (such pictures do not occur until medieval western times).' 739:

This gospel begins with a statement that it contains reliable information obtained directly from the original eyewitnesses and servants of the word. It introduces the conception of John the Baptist, the annunciation of

451:. Christian baptism has its origin in the baptism of Jesus, in both a direct and historical sense. Many of the earliest followers of Jesus were people who, like him, were baptized in the Jordan by John the Baptist. 2932:

Lexicographers universally agree that the primary meaning of baptizo G966 is 'to dip' or 'to immerse", and there is a similar consensus of scholarly opinion that both the baptism of John and of the apostles was by

1544:

The only conception of Baptism at variance with Jewish ideas is displayed in the declaration of John, that the one who would come after him would not baptize with water, but with the Holy Ghost (Mark i. 8; John i.

1229:

have allowed submersion. In addition, a significant number of depictions show baptismal water being poured over the candidate's head (affusion), either from a waterfall, an orb or some kind of liturgical vessel."

1375:

The primacy of Mark is disputed. The witnesses of the first five centuries unanimously supported the primacy of the Gospel of Matthew, a position undisputed for 1,700 years until the beginning of the

4257:, p. 5: 'Stenzel's introduction identifies his interest as liturgy, not theology or parallels from the history of religions, and primarily the Latin development leading to the medieval Roman liturgy' 1178:

baptismal fonts large enough for adult immersion were later made smaller or replaced, to accommodate affusion baptism of infants, leading to mistakes in the dating of art works by 20th-century studies.

3578:

In the Didache 7 (a.d. 100–160), the oldest baptismal manual extant, triple immersion is assumed, and pouring is allowed if there is an insufficient amount of water (the word used for pouring is ekcheō

494:

considers the account of Jesus' baptism ministry in John to have internal difficulties: that, for instance, it reports Jesus coming to Judea even though he is already in Jerusalem and thus in Judea.

2947:, p. 81: 'Most scholars agree that immersion was practiced in the NT, and it is likely that both of these texts allude to the practice, even though baptism is not the main point of either text.' 314:

includes several references to baptism as an important practice among early Christians and, while giving no actual account of its institution by Jesus, portrays him as giving instructions, after his

3376:

It contains details of the church life of the earliest Christians, their preference for baptism by immersion, their fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, the forms of their eucharistic prayers.

1173:

and a crypt in the catacomb of Santa Lucina, as well as a 9th- or 10th-century fresco in the basilica of San Clemente he also states that "pictures of Jesus standing in water while John

1048:, clothed in white, and led to join the congregation in the Easter celebration. By then, postponement of baptism had become general, and a large proportion of believers were merely 3232:

We may now turn briefly from the New Testament to an early teaching about baptism in the Didache. It specifies immersion as the basic practice but also offers the option of pouring.

939:, an anonymous book of 16 short chapters, is probably the earliest known written instructions, outside of the Bible, for administering baptism. The first version of it was written 2975:

Furthermore, modern NT scholars generally concede, regardless of denominational affiliation, that Christian baptism in NT times was by immersion, as it was and still is in Judaism.

499:

the passage about Jesus "coming to Judea" (as they interpret "εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν γῆν") to lead a mission of baptism probably preserves no historical information (a "black" rating).

3340:

The argument of the section is clear: while adhering strictly to the preference for flowing water and baptism by immersion, necessary concessions are made to local circumstances.

1093:

compelling argument". Laurie Guy says immersion was probably the norm, but that at various times and places full immersion, partial immersion and affusion were probably in use.

601:

baptism effects and represents the believer's union with Christ, a union by which the believer shares in Christ's death and resurrection; cleanses of sin; incorporates into the

3054:

Baptism in the Bible was by immersion, that is, the person went fully under the waters, usually in a river or lake (harking back to the practice of John in the Jordan River).

802:

In the Gospel of Luke, the risen Jesus appears to the disciples and the eleven apostles gathered together with them in Jerusalem and gives them the Great Commission without

5187: 806:

speaking of baptism, but readers can infer that "the forgiveness of sins" here includes "baptism" according to the preaching of the apostles at the time of Luke's gospel.

478:

assert that Jesus did not baptize, detached the notion of repentance from baptism, recognized John's baptism, and put forward a purity ethic in tension with baptism. The

4032:

of day reenacted the death and resurrection of Jesus (Rom. 6:1–5). Here the covered and ornamented baptistery at Dura Europos takes pride of place (see ARCHAEOLOGY).

548: 876:

In Acts, the prerequisites of baptism are faith and repentance, but in certain cases (like Cornelius' household) the reception of the Spirit also precedes baptism.

3560:

This seems to say that to baptize by immersion was the practice recommended for general use, but that the mode of affusion was also valid and enjoined on occasions

3250:

Probably the oldest witness for baptism by immersion is the Didache, which also takes it for granted that immersion in 'living water' is the usual form of baptism

3641: 3636:

It is lexically significant that, in this document, first- (or early second-) century Greek-speaking Christians could refer to ἔκχεον as a βαπτίσματος (baptism)

716:

state that baptized persons who believe will be saved from the "wrath to come," the wrath to which John the Baptist refers in Matthew's gospel, but readers can

3914:, p. 268. "We imagine that immersion was used normally, but on the basis of the New Testament it is hard to insist that immersion was the only form used." 3733:

Although the meaning of this instruction is not very clear, the point may be that once a person has been fully bathed (that is, baptized by complete immersion)

447:

by John the Baptist. Critical scholars broadly agree that the baptism of Jesus is one of the most authentic, or historically likely, events in the life of the

706:

is thought to have been compiled early in the 2nd century, and initially appended to the gospel by the middle of that century. It says that those who believe

2132: 467:, considered by many scholars to be a later editorial insertion, denies that Jesus himself baptized and states that he did so only through his disciples. 2959:, p. 82: 'Submersion under the water in baptism – which is in Jesus' name – indicates that the persons have experienced God's judgment in Christ.' 543: 894:

speak of baptism "in the name of Jesus Christ" or "in the name of the Lord Jesus", but whether this was a formula that was used has been questioned.

3715:

Chs. 7–15 give instruction on baptism (ideally by total immersion but also by affusion), fasting (on Wednesdays and Fridays), prayer, and eucharist.

912:

and in the name of Jesus Christ or the name of the Lord as found in scripture references (Acts 2:38, Acts 8:16, Acts 10:48, Acts 19:5, Acts 22:16)

4402:

seem to imply a total immersion, and he notes that there is no ancient representation where the celebrant pours water on the head of the baptized.

353:, that he might present the church to himself in splendor, without spot or wrinkle or any such thing, that she might be holy and without blemish. 1069:" easily. The rule that prevailed was that they were readmitted only after undergoing a period of penance that demonstrated sincere repentance. 4414: 80: 35: 364:

God's patience waited in the days of Noah, during the building of the ark, in which a few, that is, eight persons, were saved through water.

127: 3083: 3036:

In the early days of the Church, total immersion, often in streams or rivers, seems to have been most commonly used (Mark 1:9; Acts 8:38).

99: 5179: 926:

says that it is probable that immersion was the early church's normal mode of baptism, but that it was not seen as an important issue.

270:

Although the term "baptism" is not today used to describe the Jewish rituals (in contrast to New Testament times, when the Greek word

398: 106: 772:; and then the calling and preaching of the prophet John the Baptist in the days of Tiberius Caesar, emperor, of Herod and Philip, 613:

but little weight can be attached to the counterparts of baptism in mystery religions as an explanation of the Christian practice.

577:

concludes, on the basis of Josephus's accounts, that John the Baptist likely had a larger presence in the public mind than Jesus.

5023: 3545: 2273: 1661: 113: 2740: 2262: 5130: 5066: 5031: 4973: 4952: 4928: 4804: 4073: 3783: 3757: 3676: 3629: 3602: 3075: 1497: 1471: 1225:

baptismal fonts permitted immersion, and many were so large as to defy any reason for their existence other than immersion".

555: 4479:

Pillinger, Renate (1995), "The Significance of Early Christian Monuments for the Study of Liturgy: The Example of Baptism",

3096: 688:. At Jesus' baptism, he hears God's voice proclaiming him to be his Son, and he sees the spirit like a dove descend on him. 4767: 4739: 4715: 4689: 4637: 1834: 440:

was a 1st-century mission preacher on the banks of the River Jordan. He baptized Jews for repentance in the River Jordan.

95: 2211: 1213:, Everett Ferguson devoted four pages (457–60) to summarizing his position on the mode of baptism, expressed also in his 1330: 41: 5109: 4997: 4890: 4855: 4825: 4663: 4278: 3976: 3935: 3553: 3512: 3408: 3315: 3136: 2788: 2532: 2460: 2190: 2146: 2106: 2069: 2042: 1934: 1887: 1851: 1798: 1724: 1669: 522:

Other New Testament scholars also accept the historical value of this passage in John. This is the view expressed by

222: 204: 146: 49: 3592: 2059: 298:) became ritually defiled by contact with a corpse had to use the mikvah before being allowed to participate in the 3500: 3203: 1535: 3475:

Cold running water was preferred, and immersion is probably the assumed mode. An alternate mode was pouring (7.3)

3438:

Baptism is by immersion in the threefold name, but sprinkling three times on the head is allowed in an emergency.

1487: 1399: 1081: 796: 4461:

The Baptism in the Orthodox Church: History, dispensation and symbolism according to the teaching of the Fathers

2903: 2615: 2251: 1053: 84: 4136: 3651: 3153: 1045: 685: 120: 4013:

Red Sea, and reemergence into the light of day reenacted the death and resurrection of Jesus (Rom. 6:1-5).

1080:

of 325, and known also as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed because of its adoption in that form by the

290:

was established for restoration to a condition of "ritual purity" in specific circumstances. For example,

5230: 4882: 1700: 2349: 2338: 626: 5101: 4796: 2327: 2034: 1771:

Brown, Raymond E (1966), "The Gospel according to John (i–xii): Introduction, translation, and notes",

622: 573:, that, though Jesus drew many people to his baptism, they still did not accept his testimony, and the 186: 3322:

According to the Didache (1st century), baptism should be done by a triple immersion in running water.

2566: 1084:

in 381, was probably the baptismal creed then in use in Constantinople, the venue of the 381 Council.

2859: 2728: 2662: 2643: 2475: 2433: 1513: 733: 696: 261: 2833: 2822: 2695: 2684: 2658: 2654: 2555: 2120: 1754: 729: 712:

are baptized will be saved, "but he who does not believe will be condemned." Mark's gospel does not

703: 632:

Matthew begins with the "generation" of Jesus as Son of David, followed by the visit of the gentile

488:

omits John's account of Jesus' baptizing mission from his portrait of Jesus as a historical figure.

3287:

One witnesses the fasting and the solemn rite of baptism, preferably by immersion in flowing water.

2914: 2588: 1829: 1391: 1020: 983:

refers its readers to its entry on immersion, which it distinguishes from submersion and affusion.

677: 403: 3746: 3665: 3050:

Everyday biblical literacy: the essential guide to biblical allusions in art, literature, and life

2881: 2870: 2848: 2717: 2706: 2632: 2577: 1758: 887: 4847: 2892: 2844: 2811: 2673: 2603: 2520: 2165: 1843: 1716: 1645: 1283: 1077: 891: 883: 858: 570: 73: 4433:

La Sor, Sanford (1987), "Discovering What Jewish Miqva'ot Can Tell Us About Christian Baptism",

3618: 2599: 1358: 515: 464: 4705: 2524: 2510: 1653: 1383: 1186: 745: 327: 5056: 4679: 4653: 4627: 4457:

Die Taufe in der orthodoxen Kirche: Geschichte, Spendung und Symbolik nach der Lehre der Väter

4268: 3533: 3176: 3128: 3116: 2096: 1461: 5191: 5089: 4755: 4146: 4097: 3925: 3832: 3773: 3488: 3392: 3213: 3163: 3121:

The Five Gospels: The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus: New Translation and Commentary

2776: 2305: 2136: 2022: 1704: 1387: 610: 514:, a specialist in the Johannine writings, considers that the parenthetic editorial remark of 315: 3875: 1378:

The subject of Matthean vs. Marcan primacy is outside the scope and intent of this article.

664:

state that the baptism with which he must be baptized is also the "cup" that he must drink.

4050:

Baptism was normally by immersion either in the river or in the bath-house of a large house

3124: 2387: 831: 245: 5197: 1590: 8: 5076: 5015: 1263: 1170: 913: 299: 287: 5203: 2287: 2285: 2283: 2281: 1606: 1440:, Philip Schaff's translation. Other translations are given at Early Christian Writings. 5173: 4965:

Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries

4835: 4496: 3818:, p. 482: 'Baptism is by *immersion if possible, otherwise by threefold *affusion' 3216:(quote): 'The document clearly prefers baptism by immersion in a natural body of water. 2092: 1278: 1027:

to show that they had completed their catechetical instruction. At dawn following the

992: 791:

from the baptism of the one who is to come after him. Jesus declares later that he has

531: 241: 3924:

Marshall, Howard (2002), "The Meaning of the Verb 'Baptize'", in Porter, Cross (ed.),

2198:

evidently abandoned his baptizing ministry and concentrated on preaching and teaching.

2098:

Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship

495: 5152: 5126: 5105: 5062: 5027: 5003: 4993: 4987: 4969: 4948: 4924: 4896: 4886: 4861: 4851: 4821: 4800: 4763: 4735: 4711: 4685: 4659: 4633: 4500: 4408: 4274: 4124: 4069: 3972: 3931: 3779: 3753: 3672: 3625: 3598: 3591:

Schöllgen, Georg (1996), "The Didache as Church Order", in Draper, Jonathan A (ed.),

3549: 3508: 3404: 3311: 3299: 3193: 3142: 3132: 3071: 2794: 2784: 2768: 2538: 2528: 2456: 2278: 2186: 2142: 2102: 2065: 2038: 1930: 1893: 1883: 1857: 1847: 1804: 1794: 1730: 1720: 1675: 1665: 1567: 1493: 1467: 1395: 1355: 1248: 1066: 909: 862: 773: 637: 415: 3968:

Introducing Early Christianity: A Topical Survey of Its Life, Beliefs, and Practices

274:

did indicate Jewish ablutions or rites of purification), the purification rites (or

5225: 4938: 4488: 3900:

New Testament scholars generally agree that the early church baptized by immersion.

3772:

Ferguson, Sinclair B (2009b), "Infant Baptism Response", in Wright, David F (ed.),

2750: 2487: 1429: 1403: 1293: 1273: 918: 850: 598: 592: 586: 511: 448: 444: 437: 387: 319: 249: 5058:

Studies in Biblical and Patristic Criticism: or Studia Biblica & Ecclesiastica

4091: 1775:, vol. 29 (2nd ed.), Garden City, NY: Doubleday, pp. 164–65, 188–89 5120: 4963: 4942: 4875:

The Relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth: A Critical Study

4815: 4786: 4063: 3966: 3400: 3388: 2448: 2180: 1924: 1641: 1623: 1621: 1407: 1166: 641: 3428:

Vokes (1993), "Life and Order in an Early Church: The Didache", in Haase (ed.),

1217:

of 1996, that the normal early-Christian mode of baptism was by full immersion.

768:

of the Roman Empire. There follows the account of Jesus in the Temple among the

542:

In his book on the relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth,

392: 349:

Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her, that he might sanctify her

4983: 4907: 4878: 4492: 3697:

It shows that baptism in the early Church was, if possible, by total immersion.

3112: 2375: 1315: 1258: 1149: 815: 649: 602: 504: 491: 463:

states that Jesus at an early stage led a mission of baptism that drew crowds.

460: 427: 423: 419: 180: 175: 2219: 1618: 566:

his disciples; 'For he suffered them for an example, preferring one another.'

5219: 3262:

Meeks (2006), "Social and ecclesial life", in Mitchell; Young; Bowie (eds.),

2506: 2359: 2357: 2088: 2084: 1875: 1786: 1734: 1556: 1268: 1028: 1024: 903: 574: 527: 523: 485: 471: 311: 5209: 5007: 4900: 4865: 3146: 2798: 1897: 1861: 1808: 1679: 551:

agrees that the account in John "gives the impression" that Jesus baptized.

2542: 1410:," and most particularly the textual footnotes and References lists citing 1136: 1073: 1012: 475: 323: 283: 282:

and tradition are similar to baptism, and the two have been linked. In the

5156: 3358:

As a rule, it involved immersion in running water (see Acts 8:38; Did. 7).

2354: 1361:

of the New Testament scriptures of the first five centuries CE, hence the

908:

There is a scholarly consensus that the earliest Christian baptism was by

841:, states that about 3,000 people in Jerusalem were baptized in one day on 1253: 1185:

In 1987, on the basis of archaeology and parallels with Jewish practice,

1008: 777: 645: 1642:"Syncretistic Features in Jewish and Jewish-Christian Baptism Movements" 2780: 1904: 1325: 1189:

considered it likely that total immersion was also Christian practice.

1131: 1096:

It is disputed where immersion was necessarily total. Tischler and the

1049: 1036: 854: 5097: 4792: 3504: 3307: 2030: 1303: 1298: 1032: 842: 756:

of the Most High, and then the birth of Jesus, in the days of Herod,

717: 3228:

Renewal theology: systematic theology from a charismatic perspective

519:

continuation of the Baptist's work, not baptism in the Holy Spirit.

62: 5020:

The Shaping of the Reformed Baptismal Rite in the Sixteenth Century

4126:

The Oldest Church Manual Called the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles

3541: 2428: 2398: 1657: 1112:

The Oldest Church Manual Called the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles

964: 866: 761: 653: 5212:

in Tiresias: The Ancient Mediterranean Religions Source Database.

1575: 1571: 1288: 1156: 1110:, the chapter "The Didache and the Catacombs" of Philip Schaff's 1062: 931: 870: 846: 765: 753: 741: 279: 237: 3809: 3576:, vol. 1. A-C (rev, full-color ed.), pp. 494–95, 3088: 3086: 1709:

The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great

1003:

rites spread over several weeks led up to the actual baptism at

967:), which it differentiates from immersion, using the Greek word 482:

also states that Jesus did not baptize as part of his ministry.

5055:

Rogers, Clement F (2006) , "Baptism and Christian Archeology",

4843: 2516: 2411: 1839: 1712: 1320: 1041: 1016: 1004: 749: 411: 265: 5172: 4989:

The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus

4090: 3993:

All Things in the Bible: An Encyclopedia of the Biblical World

3032:

All Things in the Bible: An Encyclopedia of the Biblical World

3617:

Dever, Mark E (2007), "The Church", in Akin, Daniel A (ed.),

2746: 769: 470:

Some prominent scholars conclude that Jesus did not baptize.

431: 295: 2455:, SNTS Monograph, vol. 34, Cambridge University Press, 1926:

The Gospel according to John: an Introduction and Commentary

1031:

starting the night of Holy Saturday, they were taken to the

4559: 757: 633: 4583: 4547: 4236: 3800:

Dictionary of the later New Testament and its developments

1650:

Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, AD 70 to 135

946:. The second, with insertions and additions, was written 4919:

Dyrness, William A; Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti, eds. (2008),

4200: 2980: 1165:"Baptism in the Early Church" by George Rice (1981), in " 291: 4607: 4595: 4571: 4463:] (in German), Trier: Paulinus, 1987, pp. 101–2 3117:"Stages in the Development of Early Christian Tradition" 2138:

Exploring the Gospel of John: In Honor of D. Moody Smith

873:

and of certain Corinthians baptized by Paul personally.

4944:

The church of Christ: a biblical ecclesiology for today

4385:

Actes du Congrès International d'Archéologie Chrétienne

4224: 4188: 4176: 3927:

Dimensions of Baptism: Biblical and Theological Studies

2992: 2971:

Exploring Jewish literature of the Second Temple Period

2950: 2938: 2155: 1954: 1418:

provided—far too many for a comprehensive listing here.

5081:

Believer's Baptism: Sign of the New Covenant in Christ

4248: 4212: 4164: 3351: 2930:, vol. 1 (rev ed.), Zondervan, p. 466, 2002: 1990: 1966: 1366:

scholars dispute the primacy of the Gospel of Matthew.

4710:, et al, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 682, 699, 1397, 4535: 2083: 2061:

The Gospel and Epistles of John: a Concise Commentary

1023:, and other rites. Catechumens recited the Creed on 720:

that being "condemned" includes the "wrath to come".

5041:

Rice, George (1981), "Baptism in the Early Church",

4327: 4315: 3853: 3851: 3013:

We Believe in One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church

2233: 1978: 1942: 1489:

The Expositor's Bible Commentary: Hebrews-Revelation

4652:Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C, eds. (2000), 4365: 4353: 4339: 4303: 4152: 4105: 3905: 2131: 1019:himself, and often accompanied by special prayers, 845:. It further relates baptisms of men and women in 87:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3729:The Sermon on the Mount in the Light of the Temple 1793:. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. pp. 209, 377. 795:baptism to be baptized with, and that he is under 784:in the canonical Gospels of the baptism of Jesus. 752:, the birth of the Baptist who will be called the 334:Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is born of 4918: 4387:, vol. 2, Vatican, 1989 , pp. 1451–68, 4291: 3863: 3848: 3647: 3092: 2512:The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha 1103:Eerdman's Handbook to the History of Christianity 5217: 5188:WELS Topical Q&A: Why sprinkling or washing? 5183:. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). pp. 364–369. 4834: 3881: 3815: 3747:"not+say+however+whether+immersion"&pg=PA75 2773:Understanding the Bible: A Reader's Introduction 2498: 2291: 1612: 1242: 1182:images of baptism by pouring water on the head. 4753: 4029:, Encyclopedia of World Religions, p. 52, 4010:, Encyclopedia of World Religions, p. 52, 3372:The Routledge Companion to the Christian Church 971:, ("pour", in the English translation) and not 286:and other Jewish texts, immersion in water for 3826: 3824: 2761: 2135:; Culpepper, R Alan; Black, C Clifton (1996), 1485: 1354:is listed first in every complete (undamaged) 1209:In the close of his comprehensive 2009 study, 1157:Studies in the second half of the 20th century 1148:In his "Churches Separated from Rome" (1907), 255: 4840:The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church 4651: 3930:, Sheffield Academic Press, pp. 18, 23, 3538:The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia 3436:] (in German), vol. 2, p. 221, 1639: 318:, for his followers to perform the rite (see 3943: 3797: 3010: 2453:Synoptic and Text-critical Studies 1776-1976 1785: 1412:names and titles of works by various authors 1309: 176:texts from within a religion or faith system 4658:, Amsterdam University Press, p. 148, 3821: 3571: 3468: 3369: 3107: 3105: 2926:Jewett (2009), "Baptism", in Murray (ed.), 2480: 2169:which the Fourth Evangelist makes explicit' 2141:, Westminster John Knox Press, p. 28, 1791:The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide 1769:See, e.g., the summary of such opinions by 1486:Longman, Tremper; Garland, David E (2006), 50:Learn how and when to remove these messages 4426: 4413:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3430:Aufstieg Und Niedergang Der Romischen Welt 3111: 2504: 2437:, Book 3, chapter 24 and Book 5, chapter 8 2178: 5170: 5151:. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House. 5146: 5075: 4478: 4062:Browning, W. R. F. (2004). "Submersion". 3984: 3917: 3771: 3666:"immersion+though+normally"&pg=PA146 3590: 2956: 2944: 2447: 2297: 1459: 981:Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church 410:The baptism of Jesus is described in the 223:Learn how and when to remove this message 205:Learn how and when to remove this message 147:Learn how and when to remove this message 5171:Conybeare, Frederick Cornwallis (1911). 4961: 4937: 4906: 4784: 4703: 4613: 4601: 4589: 4577: 4565: 4553: 4541: 4529: 4505: 4466: 4420: 4254: 4242: 4230: 4061: 3990: 3923: 3896:Expository outlines on the New Testament 3791: 3744: 3663: 3497:History of the Liturgy: The Major Stages 3480: 3225: 3102: 3065: 3029: 2998: 2986: 2008: 1996: 1972: 1835:The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions 1699: 391: 322:). It also gives interpretations by the 4681:Companion to the Book of Common Worship 4377: 4266: 4088: 4082: 4046:Handbook to the History of Christianity 3971:, InterVarsity Press, pp. 224–25, 3893: 3690: 3574:The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible 3486: 3471:The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible 3449: 3381: 3352:Fahlbusch; Bromiley, eds. (1999–2003), 3304:Encyclopedia of Christian Theology: G–O 3298: 3280: 3243: 2427: 2020: 1874: 1868: 1824: 1822: 1820: 1818: 1204: 1011:attended several meetings of intensive 244:, as shown by the many mentions in the 5218: 5118: 5087: 5054: 4872: 4625: 4517: 4432: 4218: 4206: 4111: 4043: 3949: 3708: 3387: 3333: 3209: 3159: 2968: 2925: 2767: 2494:, Palo Alto: Mayfield, pp. 302–10 2486: 2239: 2161: 1984: 1948: 1828: 1779: 1511: 1121: 1076:, longer than the text adopted by the 4677: 4024: 4005: 3726: 3619:"lexically+significant"&pg=PA786 3616: 3525: 3427: 3261: 3183:, translation by Cyril C. Richardson. 2416:Commentaries on the Gospel of Matthew 2057: 1922: 1770: 986: 605:and makes one "drink of the Spirit." 556:Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible 503:first step in accepting the imminent 351:by the washing of water with the word 338:, he cannot enter the kingdom of God 5040: 4982: 4813: 4371: 4359: 4345: 4333: 4321: 4309: 4297: 4194: 4182: 4170: 4158: 4142: 4132:, September 15, 1885, pp. 36–41 4101:. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 3958: 3884:, p. 1145-1146, 'Nicene Creed'. 3507:: Liturgical Press. pp. 25–26. 3292: 3047: 2363: 1960: 1910: 1815: 1627: 616: 480:Oxford Dictionary of World Religions 158: 85:adding citations to reliable sources 56: 15: 5014: 4838:; Livingstone, Elizabeth A (2005), 4734:, InterVarsity Press, p. 225, 4729: 3964: 3911: 3869: 3857: 3804:Some form of immersion is envisaged 3531: 3452:Justin Martyr: his life and thought 3434:Rise and Decline of the Roman World 3169: 2928:Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible 2749:: The Vatican, 1225, archived from 2101:, InterVarsity Press, p. 375, 1929:, William B Eerdmans, p. 119, 1065:, others favoured readmitting the " 534:. Another states that there is "no 454: 381: 13: 5140: 3778:, InterVarsity Press, p. 52, 2410: 1630:, p. 268, 'John the Baptist'. 1615:, p. 888, 'John the Baptist'. 1331:Holy water in Eastern Christianity 1087: 580: 14: 5242: 5164: 5125:, Liturgy Training Publications, 3536:. In Bromiley, Geoffrey W (ed.). 3473:, vol. 2. D–G, p. 139, 2209: 1463:Hebrews: New Testament Commentary 1231:Eerdman's Dictionary of the Bible 1072:What is now generally called the 809: 723: 671: 31:This article has multiple issues. 5094:The Cambridge Companion to Jesus 4788:The Cambridge Companion to Jesus 4747: 4723: 4707:Ablution, Initiation and Baptism 4697: 4671: 4655:Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible 4645: 4619: 4511: 4472: 4449: 4260: 4117: 4095:. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). 4055: 4037: 4018: 3999: 3887: 3765: 3738: 3720: 3702: 3684: 3657: 3610: 3584: 3565: 3462: 3443: 3421: 3363: 3354:The encyclopedia of Christianity 3345: 3327: 3274: 3255: 3198:Early Christian writings Didache 3070:, Wm. B. Eerdmans, p. 148, 2742:Catechism of the Catholic Church 2179:Cwiekowski, Frederick J (1988), 2027:The Cambridge Companion to Jesus 1108:Baptism and Christian Archeology 897: 330:of the significance of baptism. 305: 163: 61: 20: 5200:Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4778: 4068:. Oxford University Press, UK. 3237: 3219: 3186: 3059: 3041: 3023: 3004: 2962: 2919: 2908: 2897: 2886: 2875: 2864: 2853: 2838: 2827: 2816: 2805: 2733: 2722: 2711: 2700: 2689: 2678: 2667: 2648: 2637: 2626: 2608: 2593: 2582: 2571: 2560: 2549: 2469: 2441: 2421: 2404: 2392: 2381: 2369: 2343: 2332: 2321: 2267: 2256: 2245: 2203: 2172: 2125: 2114: 2077: 2064:, Liturgical Press, p. 3, 2051: 2014: 1916: 1763: 1748: 1693: 1633: 1514:"A Christian Glossary: Baptism" 1421: 1400:Christianity in the 1st century 1369: 1343: 1082:First Council of Constantinople 937:Teaching of the Twelve Apostles 569:The Gospel of John remarks, in 96:"Baptism in early Christianity" 72:needs additional citations for 39:or discuss these issues on the 5092:, in Bockmuehl, Markus (ed.), 5061:, vol. 5, Gorgias Press, 4962:——— (2009), 4785:Bockmuel, Markus, ed. (2001), 4732:Introducing Early Christianity 3671:, Chalice Press, p. 146, 3594:The Didache in Modern Research 3336:The Didache in Modern Research 2366:, pp. 129–270, 'Matthew'. 2218:, Center place, archived from 2058:Brown, Raymond Edward (1988), 2025:. In Bockmuehl, Markus (ed.). 1880:The Historical Figure of Jesus 1640:Lichtenberger, Herman (1999). 1582: 1561: 1550: 1528: 1505: 1479: 1453: 1427:A more literal translation is 443:At the start of his ministry, 240:has been part of Christianity 1: 4921:Global Dictionary of Theology 4684:, Geneva Press, p. 163, 3798:Martin; Davids, eds. (2000), 3648:Dyrness & Kärkkäinen 2008 3489:"The Order of Baptism in the 3093:Dyrness & Kärkkäinen 2008 2783:: Mayfield. pp. 266–68. 2294:, pp. 151–54, 'Baptism'. 2185:, Paulist Press, p. 55, 1447: 1243:Related articles and subjects 1130:(1876) Wolfrid Cote, quoting 947: 940: 924:Global Dictionary of Theology 835: 368:, which corresponds to this, 183:that critically analyze them. 4912:Churches Separated from Rome 4754:Francis Mannion, M. (2002), 4678:Bower, Peter C, ed. (2003), 3882:Cross & Livingstone 2005 3816:Cross & Livingstone 2005 3652:"baptism+any+less+valid" 101 3572:Silva; Tenney, eds. (2009), 3469:Silva; Tenney, eds. (2009), 3356:, vol. 1, p. 184, 2292:Cross & Livingstone 2005 2182:The Beginnings of the Church 1613:Cross & Livingstone 2005 869:jailer's household, of many 7: 5206:Dispensationally Considered 5147:Jungkuntz, Richard (1968). 4883:University Press of America 4435:Biblical Archaeology Review 4027:Encyclopedia of Catholicism 4008:Encyclopedia of Catholicism 3711:The Oxford Bible commentary 3034:, vol. 1, p. 57, 1913:, pp. 365–440, 'John'. 1237: 1211:Baptism in the Early Church 1098:Encyclopedia of Catholicism 997: 430:does not directly describe 256:Background in Jewish ritual 10: 5247: 5102:Cambridge University Press 4817:The Archaeology of Baptism 4797:Cambridge University Press 4493:10.1177/003932079502500102 3745:Brownson, James V (2006), 2035:Cambridge University Press 1128:The Archaeology of Baptism 1116:The Archaeology of Baptism 1015:instruction, often by the 990: 901: 704:traditional ending of Mark 590: 584: 385: 259: 4992:, San Francisco: Harper, 4873:Dapaah, Daniel S (2005), 4270:The Liturgy of the Church 4267:Kunzler, Michael (2001), 4089:Fanning, William (1913). 4025:Flinn (2007), "Baptism", 4006:Flinn (2007), "Baptism", 3693:The Letter to the Hebrews 3664:Toulouse, Mark G (1992), 3621:A Theology for the Church 1492:, Zondervan, p. 61, 1416:External Links to sources 1310:People and ritual objects 776:, of Annas and Caiaphas, 262:Ritual washing in Judaism 5210:Ancient texts on Baptism 5088:Tomson, Peter J (2001), 4704:Hellholm, David (2011), 3752:, Eerdmans, p. 75, 3624:, B&H, p. 786, 3487:Metzger, Marcel (1997). 3115:; Hoover, Roy W (1993). 2216:Translation of the Bible 1789:; Merz, Annette (1998). 1460:MacArthur, John (1983), 1392:Jewish-Christian Gospels 1336: 1171:Catacomb of San Ponziano 644:, after whose death the 404:National Gallery, London 5180:Encyclopædia Britannica 5090:"Jesus and His Judaism" 4848:Oxford University Press 4065:Dictionary of the Bible 4048:, Eerdman, p. 10, 3837:(online ed.), 2009 3834:Encyclopædia Britannica 3802:(electronic ed.), 3068:Dictionary of the Bible 2521:Oxford University Press 2492:Understanding the Bible 2310:(Online ed.), 2009 2307:Encyclopædia Britannica 2021:Chilton, Bruce (2001). 1923:Kruse, Colin G (2004), 1844:Oxford University Press 1717:Oxford University Press 1595:(online ed.), 2009 1592:Encyclopædia Britannica 1078:First Council of Nicaea 826: 787:The baptism of John is 549:Frederick J. Cwiekowski 4923:, Intervarsity Press, 4814:Cote, Wolfrid (1876), 4632:, Brill, p. 137, 4626:Jensen, Robin (2010), 3950:Porter, Cross (2002), 3749:The Promise of Baptism 3668:Joined in Discipleship 3370:Manion; Mudge (2008), 3264:Origins to Constantine 2434:Ecclesiastical History 1882:. London: Allen Lane. 1466:, Moody, p. 139, 1384:Augustinian hypothesis 1380:For further discussion 960: 951: 100–150 AD 857:, of the household of 780:; and then by far the 660:gospel Jesus does not 510:New Testament scholar 407: 379: 361: 346: 328:First Epistle of Peter 294:who (according to the 278:—ritual immersion) in 5192:Confessional Lutheran 5149:The Gospel of Baptism 5119:Turner, Paul (2000), 4820:, Read Books Design, 4098:Catholic Encyclopedia 3952:Dimensions of Baptism 3597:, Brill, p. 47, 3501:Collegeville Township 3393:"Water in the Church" 3011:Di Berardino (2009), 2753:on December 3, 2010, 2505:May, Herbert Gordon; 2023:"Friends and enemies" 1516:. The Abraham Project 1512:Stoltz, Eric (2005). 1388:Two-gospel hypothesis 1114:, and Wolfrid Cote's 1037:consecrated the water 955: 865:'s household, of the 611:Greco-Roman mysteries 562:himself baptized not 395: 362: 358:Ephesians 5:25–27 RSV 347: 332: 179:without referring to 5022:, Grand Rapids, MI: 5016:Old, Hughes Oliphant 4842:(3rd rev ed.), 4730:Guy, Laurie (2011), 4273:, LIT, p. 262, 4044:Dowley, ed. (1977), 3965:Guy, Laurie (2004), 3775:Baptism: Three Views 3397:The Meaning of Water 2222:on February 27, 2010 2212:"St. John Chapter 4" 1284:Jesus' Name doctrine 1215:The Church of Christ 1205:21st-century studies 944: 60–80 AD 832:Acts of the Apostles 686:with the Holy Spirit 336:water and the Spirit 246:Acts of the Apostles 187:improve this article 81:improve this article 5024:William B Eeerdmans 4947:, Wm. B. Eerdmans, 4836:Cross, Frank Leslie 4518:Ben Pechat, Malka, 3898:, pp. 466–67, 3266:, pp. 160–61, 3113:Funk, Robert Walter 2133:Smith, Dwight Moody 1963:, pp. 365–440. 1540:Jewish Encyclopedia 1434:, Catholic planet, 1264:Conditional baptism 1122:Studies before 1950 376:1 Peter 3:20–21 RSV 300:Temple in Jerusalem 288:ritual purification 5231:Early Christianity 5122:Hallelujah Highway 4760:Our Sunday Visitor 4756:"Pastoral Answers" 4209:, pp. 257–58. 4197:, pp. 160–61. 4185:, pp. 177–78. 3546:William B Eerdmans 3374:, pp. 42–43, 3300:Lacoste, Jean-Yves 2093:Marshall, I Howard 1662:William B Eerdmans 1414:together with the 1279:History of baptism 1046:laying on of hands 993:Early Christianity 987:Early Christianity 558:says that "though 532:I. Howard Marshall 445:Jesus was baptized 408: 5132:978-1-56854-320-8 5077:Schreiner, Thomas 5068:978-1-59333-465-9 5033:978-0-8028-2489-9 4975:978-0-8028-2748-7 4954:978-0-8028-4189-6 4939:Ferguson, Everett 4930:978-0-8308-2454-0 4806:978-0-521-79678-1 4556:, pp. 201–3. 4465:, as reported in 4419:; as reported in 4173:, pp. 34–35. 4075:978-0-19-860890-5 3991:Tischler (2006), 3785:978-0-8308-3856-1 3759:978-0-8028-3307-5 3678:978-0-8272-1710-2 3631:978-0-8054-2640-3 3604:978-90-04-10375-7 3540:. Vol. A–D. 3532:Dau, WHT (1995). 3520:candidate's head. 3226:Williams (2007), 3123:. New York City: 3077:978-0-8028-2748-7 3066:Eerdmans (2009), 3030:Tischler (2006), 2769:Harris, Stephen L 2488:Harris, Stephen L 1568:Babylonian Talmud 1499:978-0-310-26894-9 1473:978-0-8024-0753-5 1396:Gospel of Matthew 1363:two-millennia-old 1249:Baptism of desire 1035:where the bishop 760:of Judea, and of 648:returns into the 638:flight into Egypt 617:Gospel of Matthew 399:Baptism of Christ 233: 232: 225: 215: 214: 207: 181:secondary sources 157: 156: 149: 131: 54: 5238: 5184: 5176: 5160: 5135: 5114: 5083: 5071: 5050: 5036: 5010: 4978: 4957: 4933: 4914: 4903: 4868: 4830: 4809: 4773: 4772: 4769:978-0-87973725-2 4751: 4745: 4744: 4741:978-0-83083942-1 4727: 4721: 4720: 4717:978-3-11024751-0 4701: 4695: 4694: 4691:978-0-66450232-4 4675: 4669: 4668: 4649: 4643: 4642: 4639:978-9-00418898-3 4623: 4617: 4611: 4605: 4599: 4593: 4587: 4581: 4575: 4569: 4563: 4557: 4551: 4545: 4539: 4533: 4527: 4515: 4509: 4503: 4481:Studia liturgica 4476: 4470: 4464: 4453: 4447: 4446: 4430: 4424: 4418: 4412: 4404: 4381: 4375: 4369: 4363: 4357: 4351: 4343: 4337: 4331: 4325: 4319: 4313: 4307: 4301: 4295: 4289: 4288: 4264: 4258: 4252: 4246: 4240: 4234: 4228: 4222: 4216: 4210: 4204: 4198: 4192: 4186: 4180: 4174: 4168: 4162: 4156: 4150: 4140: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4121: 4115: 4109: 4103: 4102: 4094: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4041: 4035: 4034: 4022: 4016: 4015: 4003: 3997: 3996: 3988: 3982: 3981: 3962: 3956: 3955: 3947: 3941: 3940: 3921: 3915: 3909: 3903: 3902: 3894:Wiersbe (1997), 3891: 3885: 3879: 3873: 3867: 3861: 3855: 3846: 3845: 3844: 3842: 3828: 3819: 3813: 3807: 3806: 3795: 3789: 3788: 3769: 3763: 3762: 3742: 3736: 3735: 3724: 3718: 3717: 3713:, p. 1309, 3706: 3700: 3699: 3691:Barclay (2002), 3688: 3682: 3681: 3661: 3655: 3645: 3639: 3638: 3614: 3608: 3607: 3588: 3582: 3581: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3529: 3523: 3522: 3484: 3478: 3477: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3450:Barnard (1967), 3447: 3441: 3440: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3389:Strang, Veronica 3385: 3379: 3378: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3349: 3343: 3342: 3331: 3325: 3324: 3310:. p. 1607. 3296: 3290: 3289: 3281:Milavec (2003), 3278: 3272: 3271: 3259: 3253: 3252: 3246:Church's Liturgy 3244:Knuzler (2001), 3241: 3235: 3234: 3223: 3217: 3207: 3201: 3200: 3190: 3184: 3182: 3173: 3167: 3157: 3151: 3150: 3109: 3100: 3090: 3081: 3080: 3063: 3057: 3056: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3027: 3021: 3020: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2984: 2978: 2977: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2948: 2942: 2936: 2935: 2923: 2917: 2912: 2906: 2901: 2895: 2890: 2884: 2879: 2873: 2868: 2862: 2857: 2851: 2842: 2836: 2831: 2825: 2820: 2814: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2737: 2731: 2726: 2720: 2715: 2709: 2704: 2698: 2693: 2687: 2682: 2676: 2671: 2665: 2652: 2646: 2641: 2635: 2630: 2624: 2623: 2612: 2606: 2597: 2591: 2586: 2580: 2575: 2569: 2564: 2558: 2553: 2547: 2546: 2502: 2496: 2495: 2490:(1985), "John", 2484: 2478: 2473: 2467: 2465: 2445: 2439: 2438: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2408: 2402: 2396: 2390: 2385: 2379: 2373: 2367: 2361: 2352: 2347: 2341: 2336: 2330: 2325: 2319: 2318: 2317: 2315: 2301: 2295: 2289: 2276: 2271: 2265: 2260: 2254: 2249: 2243: 2237: 2231: 2230: 2229: 2227: 2207: 2201: 2200: 2176: 2170: 2159: 2153: 2151: 2129: 2123: 2118: 2112: 2111: 2081: 2075: 2074: 2055: 2049: 2048: 2018: 2012: 2006: 2000: 1994: 1988: 1982: 1976: 1970: 1964: 1958: 1952: 1946: 1940: 1939: 1920: 1914: 1908: 1902: 1901: 1872: 1866: 1865: 1826: 1813: 1812: 1783: 1777: 1776: 1773:The Anchor Bible 1767: 1761: 1752: 1746: 1745: 1743: 1741: 1697: 1691: 1690: 1688: 1686: 1637: 1631: 1625: 1616: 1610: 1604: 1603: 1602: 1600: 1586: 1580: 1565: 1559: 1554: 1548: 1547: 1532: 1526: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1509: 1503: 1502: 1483: 1477: 1476: 1457: 1441: 1439: 1425: 1419: 1404:Synoptic problem 1373: 1367: 1347: 1294:Prevenient Grace 1274:Divine filiation 952: 949: 945: 942: 919:Everett Ferguson 914:Thomas Schreiner 851:Ethiopian eunuch 840: 837: 782:briefest account 652:, then moves to 627:Matthew 28:18–20 599:Pauline epistles 593:Ex opere operato 587:Pauline epistles 544:Daniel S. Dapaah 512:Raymond E. Brown 455:Baptism by Jesus 449:historical Jesus 438:John the Baptist 388:Baptism of Jesus 382:Baptism of Jesus 377: 359: 344: 320:Great Commission 250:Pauline epistles 228: 221: 210: 203: 199: 196: 190: 167: 166: 159: 152: 145: 141: 138: 132: 130: 89: 65: 57: 46: 24: 23: 16: 5246: 5245: 5241: 5240: 5239: 5237: 5236: 5235: 5216: 5215: 5204:"Water Baptism" 5174:"Baptism" 5167: 5143: 5141:Further reading 5133: 5112: 5069: 5043:Bible and Spade 5034: 5000: 4984:Funk, Robert W. 4976: 4955: 4931: 4908:Duchesne, Louis 4893: 4858: 4828: 4807: 4781: 4776: 4770: 4752: 4748: 4742: 4728: 4724: 4718: 4702: 4698: 4692: 4676: 4672: 4666: 4650: 4646: 4640: 4624: 4620: 4612: 4608: 4600: 4596: 4588: 4584: 4576: 4572: 4564: 4560: 4552: 4548: 4540: 4536: 4516: 4512: 4477: 4473: 4455: 4454: 4450: 4431: 4427: 4406: 4405: 4383: 4382: 4378: 4370: 4366: 4358: 4354: 4344: 4340: 4332: 4328: 4320: 4316: 4308: 4304: 4296: 4292: 4281: 4265: 4261: 4253: 4249: 4241: 4237: 4229: 4225: 4217: 4213: 4205: 4201: 4193: 4189: 4181: 4177: 4169: 4165: 4157: 4153: 4141: 4137: 4129: 4123: 4122: 4118: 4110: 4106: 4092:"Baptism" 4087: 4083: 4076: 4060: 4056: 4042: 4038: 4023: 4019: 4004: 4000: 3989: 3985: 3979: 3963: 3959: 3948: 3944: 3938: 3922: 3918: 3910: 3906: 3892: 3888: 3880: 3876: 3868: 3864: 3856: 3849: 3840: 3838: 3830: 3829: 3822: 3814: 3810: 3796: 3792: 3786: 3770: 3766: 3760: 3743: 3739: 3731:, p. 142, 3725: 3721: 3709:Barton (2001), 3707: 3703: 3689: 3685: 3679: 3662: 3658: 3646: 3642: 3632: 3615: 3611: 3605: 3589: 3585: 3570: 3566: 3556: 3548:. p. 419. 3530: 3526: 3515: 3485: 3481: 3467: 3463: 3454:, p. 139, 3448: 3444: 3426: 3422: 3411: 3401:Berg Publishers 3386: 3382: 3368: 3364: 3350: 3346: 3334:Draper (1996), 3332: 3328: 3318: 3306:. Milton Park: 3297: 3293: 3279: 3275: 3260: 3256: 3248:, p. 262, 3242: 3238: 3230:, p. 227, 3224: 3220: 3208: 3204: 3192: 3191: 3187: 3175: 3174: 3170: 3158: 3154: 3139: 3110: 3103: 3091: 3084: 3078: 3064: 3060: 3046: 3042: 3028: 3024: 3009: 3005: 2997: 2993: 2985: 2981: 2973:, p. 481, 2969:Helyer (2002), 2967: 2963: 2955: 2951: 2943: 2939: 2924: 2920: 2913: 2909: 2902: 2898: 2891: 2887: 2880: 2876: 2869: 2865: 2858: 2854: 2843: 2839: 2832: 2828: 2821: 2817: 2810: 2806: 2791: 2766: 2762: 2739: 2738: 2734: 2727: 2723: 2716: 2712: 2705: 2701: 2694: 2690: 2683: 2679: 2672: 2668: 2653: 2649: 2642: 2638: 2631: 2627: 2614: 2613: 2609: 2598: 2594: 2587: 2583: 2576: 2572: 2565: 2561: 2554: 2550: 2535: 2503: 2499: 2485: 2481: 2474: 2470: 2463: 2446: 2442: 2426: 2422: 2409: 2405: 2397: 2393: 2386: 2382: 2374: 2370: 2362: 2355: 2348: 2344: 2337: 2333: 2326: 2322: 2313: 2311: 2303: 2302: 2298: 2290: 2279: 2272: 2268: 2261: 2257: 2250: 2246: 2238: 2234: 2225: 2223: 2210:Smith, Joseph, 2208: 2204: 2193: 2177: 2173: 2160: 2156: 2149: 2130: 2126: 2119: 2115: 2109: 2082: 2078: 2072: 2056: 2052: 2045: 2019: 2015: 2007: 2003: 1995: 1991: 1983: 1979: 1971: 1967: 1959: 1955: 1947: 1943: 1937: 1921: 1917: 1909: 1905: 1890: 1873: 1869: 1854: 1827: 1816: 1801: 1784: 1780: 1768: 1764: 1753: 1749: 1739: 1737: 1727: 1701:Chadwick, Henry 1698: 1694: 1684: 1682: 1672: 1638: 1634: 1626: 1619: 1611: 1607: 1598: 1596: 1588: 1587: 1583: 1566: 1562: 1555: 1551: 1534: 1533: 1529: 1519: 1517: 1510: 1506: 1500: 1484: 1480: 1474: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1445: 1444: 1428: 1426: 1422: 1408:Aramaic primacy 1377: 1374: 1370: 1348: 1344: 1339: 1312: 1245: 1240: 1207: 1167:Bible and Spade 1159: 1124: 1090: 1088:Mode of baptism 1044:, received the 1000: 995: 989: 950: 943: 906: 900: 838: 829: 812: 762:Caesar Augustus 726: 674: 623:Matthew 3:11–17 619: 595: 589: 583: 581:Paul's epistles 457: 390: 384: 378: 375: 360: 357: 345: 342: 308: 268: 260:Main articles: 258: 229: 218: 217: 216: 211: 200: 194: 191: 184: 168: 164: 153: 142: 136: 133: 90: 88: 78: 66: 25: 21: 12: 11: 5: 5244: 5234: 5233: 5228: 5214: 5213: 5207: 5201: 5195: 5185: 5166: 5165:External links 5163: 5162: 5161: 5142: 5139: 5138: 5137: 5131: 5116: 5110: 5104:, p. 27, 5085: 5073: 5067: 5052: 5038: 5032: 5012: 4998: 4980: 4974: 4959: 4953: 4935: 4929: 4916: 4904: 4891: 4879:Washington, DC 4870: 4856: 4832: 4826: 4811: 4805: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4774: 4768: 4762:, p. 99, 4746: 4740: 4722: 4716: 4696: 4690: 4670: 4664: 4644: 4638: 4618: 4616:, p. 834. 4606: 4604:, p. 849. 4594: 4582: 4570: 4558: 4546: 4534: 4532:, p. 852. 4510: 4508:, p. 858. 4504:, reported in 4471: 4448: 4425: 4423:, p. 852. 4376: 4364: 4352: 4338: 4336:, p. 127. 4326: 4324:, p. 126. 4314: 4302: 4290: 4279: 4259: 4247: 4235: 4223: 4221:, p. 304. 4211: 4199: 4187: 4175: 4163: 4151: 4135: 4116: 4104: 4081: 4074: 4054: 4036: 4017: 3998: 3983: 3977: 3957: 3942: 3936: 3916: 3904: 3886: 3874: 3862: 3847: 3831:"Catechumen", 3820: 3808: 3790: 3784: 3764: 3758: 3737: 3727:Welch (2009), 3719: 3701: 3695:, p. 64, 3683: 3677: 3656: 3640: 3630: 3609: 3603: 3583: 3564: 3554: 3524: 3513: 3479: 3461: 3442: 3420: 3409: 3403:. p. 91. 3380: 3362: 3344: 3338:, p. 47, 3326: 3316: 3291: 3285:, p. ix, 3273: 3254: 3236: 3218: 3202: 3185: 3168: 3152: 3137: 3101: 3082: 3076: 3058: 3052:, p. 47, 3040: 3022: 3015:, p. 88, 3003: 2991: 2979: 2961: 2957:Schreiner 2007 2949: 2945:Schreiner 2007 2937: 2918: 2907: 2896: 2885: 2874: 2863: 2852: 2837: 2826: 2815: 2804: 2789: 2760: 2732: 2721: 2710: 2699: 2688: 2677: 2666: 2647: 2636: 2625: 2607: 2592: 2581: 2570: 2559: 2548: 2533: 2507:Metzger, Bruce 2497: 2479: 2468: 2461: 2440: 2420: 2403: 2391: 2380: 2368: 2353: 2342: 2331: 2320: 2296: 2277: 2266: 2255: 2244: 2232: 2202: 2191: 2171: 2154: 2147: 2124: 2113: 2107: 2089:McKnight, Scot 2076: 2070: 2050: 2043: 2037:. p. 75. 2013: 2001: 1989: 1977: 1965: 1953: 1941: 1935: 1915: 1903: 1888: 1867: 1852: 1814: 1799: 1787:Theissen, Gerd 1778: 1762: 1747: 1725: 1719:. p. 12. 1705:"John Baptist" 1692: 1670: 1664:. p. 87. 1646:Dunn, James DG 1632: 1617: 1605: 1581: 1560: 1549: 1527: 1504: 1498: 1478: 1472: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1443: 1442: 1420: 1368: 1341: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1334: 1333: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1316:Baptismal font 1311: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1281: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1259:Christifideles 1256: 1251: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1206: 1203: 1187:Sanford La Sor 1158: 1155: 1150:Louis Duchesne 1123: 1120: 1089: 1086: 999: 996: 991:Main article: 988: 985: 902:Main article: 899: 896: 855:Saul of Tarsus 828: 825: 816:Gospel of John 811: 810:Gospel of John 808: 737: 736: 725: 724:Gospel of Luke 722: 700: 699: 681: 680: 673: 672:Gospel of Mark 670: 650:land of Israel 630: 629: 618: 615: 603:Body of Christ 585:Main article: 582: 579: 505:Kingdom of God 492:Robert W. Funk 461:Gospel of John 456: 453: 386:Main article: 383: 380: 373: 355: 340: 307: 304: 257: 254: 242:from the start 231: 230: 213: 212: 171: 169: 162: 155: 154: 69: 67: 60: 55: 29: 28: 26: 19: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5243: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5221: 5211: 5208: 5205: 5202: 5199: 5196: 5193: 5189: 5186: 5182: 5181: 5175: 5169: 5168: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5145: 5144: 5134: 5128: 5124: 5123: 5117: 5113: 5111:0-521-79678-4 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5064: 5060: 5059: 5053: 5048: 5044: 5039: 5035: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4999:0-06-062978-9 4995: 4991: 4990: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4971: 4967: 4966: 4960: 4956: 4950: 4946: 4945: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4926: 4922: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4892:0-7618-3109-6 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4857:0-19-280290-9 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4827:9781445599786 4823: 4819: 4818: 4812: 4808: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4789: 4783: 4782: 4771: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4750: 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4148: 4144: 4139: 4128: 4127: 4120: 4113: 4108: 4100: 4099: 4093: 4085: 4077: 4071: 4067: 4066: 4058: 4051: 4047: 4040: 4033: 4028: 4021: 4014: 4009: 4002: 3995:, vol. 1 3994: 3987: 3980: 3978:9780830826988 3974: 3970: 3969: 3961: 3953: 3946: 3939: 3937:0-8264-6203-0 3933: 3929: 3928: 3920: 3913: 3908: 3901: 3897: 3890: 3883: 3878: 3871: 3866: 3859: 3854: 3852: 3836: 3835: 3827: 3825: 3817: 3812: 3805: 3801: 3794: 3787: 3781: 3777: 3776: 3768: 3761: 3755: 3751: 3750: 3741: 3734: 3730: 3723: 3716: 3712: 3705: 3698: 3694: 3687: 3680: 3674: 3670: 3669: 3660: 3653: 3649: 3644: 3637: 3633: 3627: 3623: 3622: 3613: 3606: 3600: 3596: 3595: 3587: 3580: 3575: 3568: 3561: 3557: 3555:0-8028-3781-6 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3528: 3521: 3516: 3514:0-8146-2433-2 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3492: 3483: 3476: 3472: 3465: 3458: 3453: 3446: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3424: 3417: 3412: 3410:1-85973-753-6 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3359: 3355: 3348: 3341: 3337: 3330: 3323: 3319: 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2534:0-19-528348-1 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2508: 2501: 2493: 2489: 2483: 2477: 2472: 2464: 2462:0-521-02055-7 2458: 2454: 2450: 2449:Griesbach, JJ 2444: 2436: 2435: 2430: 2424: 2417: 2413: 2407: 2400: 2395: 2389: 2384: 2377: 2372: 2365: 2360: 2358: 2351: 2346: 2340: 2335: 2329: 2324: 2309: 2308: 2304:"Sacrament", 2300: 2293: 2288: 2286: 2284: 2282: 2275: 2270: 2264: 2259: 2253: 2248: 2242:, p. 97. 2241: 2236: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2206: 2199: 2194: 2192:9780809129263 2188: 2184: 2183: 2175: 2167: 2163: 2158: 2150: 2148:9780664220839 2144: 2140: 2139: 2134: 2128: 2122: 2117: 2110: 2108:9780830817771 2104: 2100: 2099: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2085:Green, Joel B 2080: 2073: 2071:9780814612835 2067: 2063: 2062: 2054: 2046: 2044:0-521-79678-4 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2017: 2011:, p. 30. 2010: 2009:Bockmuel 2001 2005: 1999:, p. 40. 1998: 1997:Bockmuel 2001 1993: 1987:, p. 27. 1986: 1981: 1975:, p. 27. 1974: 1973:Bockmuel 2001 1969: 1962: 1957: 1951:, p. 98. 1950: 1945: 1938: 1936:9780802827715 1932: 1928: 1927: 1919: 1912: 1907: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1889:0-7139-9059-7 1885: 1881: 1877: 1871: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1853:0-19-866242-4 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1836: 1831: 1825: 1823: 1821: 1819: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1800:0-8006-3122-6 1796: 1792: 1788: 1782: 1774: 1766: 1760: 1756: 1751: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1726:0-19-924695-5 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1696: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1671:0-8028-4498-7 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1636: 1629: 1624: 1622: 1614: 1609: 1594: 1593: 1585: 1578: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1564: 1558: 1553: 1546: 1541: 1537: 1531: 1515: 1508: 1501: 1495: 1491: 1490: 1482: 1475: 1469: 1465: 1464: 1456: 1452: 1438: 1433: 1432: 1424: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1372: 1364: 1360: 1357: 1353: 1352: 1346: 1342: 1332: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1269:Consolamentum 1267: 1265: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1255: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1235: 1232: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1216: 1212: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1188: 1183: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1163: 1154: 1151: 1146: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1134:, who in his 1133: 1129: 1119: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1094: 1085: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1058: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1029:Paschal Vigil 1026: 1025:Holy Saturday 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 994: 984: 982: 976: 974: 970: 966: 959: 954: 938: 934: 933: 927: 925: 920: 915: 911: 905: 904:Apostolic Age 898:Apostolic Age 895: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 874: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 833: 824: 820: 817: 807: 805: 800: 798: 794: 790: 785: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 735: 734:Luke 24:45–47 731: 728: 727: 721: 719: 715: 711: 710: 705: 698: 697:Mark 16:19–20 695: 694: 693: 689: 687: 679: 676: 675: 669: 665: 663: 657: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 628: 624: 621: 620: 614: 612: 606: 604: 600: 594: 588: 578: 576: 575:Jesus Seminar 572: 567: 565: 561: 557: 552: 550: 545: 540: 537: 533: 529: 528:Scot McKnight 525: 524:Joel B. Green 520: 517: 513: 508: 506: 500: 497: 493: 489: 487: 486:E. P. Sanders 483: 481: 477: 473: 472:Gerd Theissen 468: 466: 462: 452: 450: 446: 441: 439: 435: 433: 429: 428:John's gospel 425: 421: 417: 413: 405: 401: 400: 394: 389: 372: 371: 370:now saves you 367: 354: 352: 339: 337: 331: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 312:New Testament 306:New Testament 303: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 267: 263: 253: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 227: 224: 209: 206: 198: 195:February 2021 188: 182: 178: 177: 172:This article 170: 161: 160: 151: 148: 140: 137:February 2021 129: 126: 122: 119: 115: 112: 108: 105: 101: 98: – 97: 93: 92:Find sources: 86: 82: 76: 75: 70:This article 68: 64: 59: 58: 53: 51: 44: 43: 38: 37: 32: 27: 18: 17: 5194:perspective) 5178: 5148: 5121: 5093: 5080: 5057: 5046: 5042: 5019: 4988: 4968:, Eerdmans, 4964: 4943: 4920: 4911: 4874: 4839: 4816: 4787: 4779:Bibliography 4759: 4749: 4731: 4725: 4706: 4699: 4680: 4673: 4654: 4647: 4629:Living Water 4628: 4621: 4609: 4597: 4585: 4573: 4561: 4549: 4537: 4523: 4519: 4513: 4484: 4480: 4474: 4460: 4456: 4451: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4428: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4388: 4384: 4379: 4367: 4355: 4349: 4341: 4329: 4317: 4305: 4293: 4284: 4269: 4262: 4250: 4238: 4226: 4214: 4202: 4190: 4178: 4166: 4154: 4138: 4125: 4119: 4107: 4096: 4084: 4064: 4057: 4049: 4045: 4039: 4030: 4026: 4020: 4011: 4007: 4001: 3992: 3986: 3967: 3960: 3951: 3945: 3926: 3919: 3907: 3899: 3895: 3889: 3877: 3872:, p. 7. 3865: 3860:, p. 3. 3839:, retrieved 3833: 3811: 3803: 3799: 3793: 3774: 3767: 3748: 3740: 3732: 3728: 3722: 3714: 3710: 3704: 3696: 3692: 3686: 3667: 3659: 3643: 3635: 3620: 3612: 3593: 3586: 3577: 3573: 3567: 3559: 3537: 3527: 3518: 3496: 3490: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3464: 3455: 3451: 3445: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3423: 3414: 3396: 3383: 3375: 3371: 3365: 3357: 3353: 3347: 3339: 3335: 3329: 3321: 3303: 3294: 3286: 3282: 3276: 3267: 3263: 3257: 3249: 3245: 3239: 3231: 3227: 3221: 3205: 3197: 3188: 3177: 3171: 3155: 3120: 3067: 3061: 3053: 3049: 3043: 3035: 3031: 3025: 3016: 3012: 3006: 2994: 2982: 2974: 2970: 2964: 2952: 2940: 2931: 2927: 2921: 2910: 2899: 2888: 2877: 2866: 2855: 2840: 2829: 2818: 2807: 2772: 2763: 2754: 2751:the original 2741: 2735: 2724: 2713: 2702: 2691: 2680: 2669: 2650: 2639: 2628: 2619: 2616:"Straitened" 2610: 2595: 2584: 2573: 2562: 2551: 2511: 2500: 2491: 2482: 2471: 2452: 2443: 2432: 2423: 2415: 2406: 2394: 2383: 2371: 2345: 2334: 2323: 2312:, retrieved 2306: 2299: 2269: 2258: 2247: 2235: 2224:, retrieved 2220:the original 2215: 2205: 2196: 2181: 2174: 2157: 2137: 2127: 2116: 2097: 2079: 2060: 2053: 2026: 2016: 2004: 1992: 1980: 1968: 1956: 1944: 1925: 1918: 1906: 1879: 1870: 1833: 1830:Bowker, John 1790: 1781: 1772: 1765: 1750: 1740:February 24, 1738:. 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Baptism in early Christianity

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