Selective breeding

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situation. This is because of faster growth rates, decreased maintenance rates, increased energy and protein retention, and better feed efficiency. Applying genetic improvement programs to aquaculture species will increase their productivity. Thus allowing them to meet the increasing demands of growing populations. Conversely, selective breeding within aquaculture can create problems within the biodiversity of both stock and wild fish, which can hurt the industry down the road. Although there is great potential to improve aquaculture due to the current lack of domestication, it is essential that the genetic diversity of the fish are preserved through proper genetic management, as we domesticate these species. It is not uncommon for fish to escape the nets or pens that they are kept in, especially in mass. If these fish are farmed in areas they are not native to they may be able to establish themselves and outcompete native populations of fish, and cause ecological harm as an invasive species. Furthermore, if they are in areas where the fish being farmed are native too their genetics are selectively bred rather than being wild. These farmed fish could breed with the natives which could be problematic In the sense that they would have been bred for consumption rather than by chance. Resulting in an overall decrease in genetic diversity and rendering local fish populations less fit for survival. If proper management is not taking place then the economic benefits and the diversity of the fish species will falter.

1332:) led to an increase in body weight by 30% per generation. A comparative study on the performance of select Atlantic salmon with wild fish was conducted by AKVAFORSK Genetics Centre in Norway. The traits, for which the selection was done included growth rate, feed consumption, protein retention, energy retention, and feed conversion efficiency. Selected fish had a twice better growth rate, a 40% higher feed intake, and an increased protein and energy retention. This led to an overall 20% better Fed Conversion Efficiency as compared to the wild stock. Atlantic salmon have also been selected for resistance to bacterial and viral diseases. Selection was done to check resistance to Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus (IPNV). The results showed 66.6% mortality for low-resistant species whereas the high-resistant species showed 29.3% mortality compared to wild species. 1206:

meant that they did not completely stop their hunting and gathering immediately but instead over time transition and ultimately favored agriculture. Originally this was due to humans not wanting to risk using all their time and resources for their crops just to fail. Which was promptly called play farming due to the idea of "farmers" experimenting with agriculture. In addition, the ability for humans to stay within one place for food and create permanent settlements made the process move along faster. During this transitional period, crops began to acclimate and evolve with humans encouraging humans to invest further into crops. Over time this reliance on plant breeding has created problems, as highlighted by the book

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of 70% or more in shrimps. C.I. Oceanos S.A. in Colombia selected the survivors of the disease from infected ponds and used them as parents for the next generation. They achieved satisfying results in two or three generations wherein survival rates approached levels before the outbreak of the disease. The resulting heavy losses (up to 90%) caused by Infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) caused a number of shrimp farming industries started to selectively breed shrimps resistant to this disease. Successful outcomes led to development of Super Shrimp, a selected line of

1366:(1974) and Babouchkine (1987) selected carp for fast growth and tolerance to cold, the Ropsha carp. The results showed a 30–40% to 77.4% improvement of cold tolerance but did not provide any data for growth rate. An increase in growth rate was observed in the second generation in Vietnam. Moav and Wohlfarth (1976) showed positive results when selecting for slower growth for three generations compared to selecting for faster growth. Schaperclaus (1962) showed resistance to the dropsy disease wherein selected lines suffered low mortality (11.5%) compared to unselected (57%). 649: 47: 4464: 1178: 4963: 602: 682: 663: 5329: 589: 701: 4975: 1362:) include improvement in growth, shape and resistance to disease. Experiments carried out in the USSR used crossings of broodstocks to increase genetic diversity and then selected the species for traits like growth rate, exterior traits and viability, and/or adaptation to environmental conditions like variations in temperature. Kirpichnikov 1290:– growth rate is normally measured as either body weight or body length. This trait is of great economic importance for all aquaculture species as faster growth rate speeds up the turnover of production. Improved growth rates show that farmed animals utilize their feed more efficiently through a positive correlated response. 1339:) was reported to show large improvements in growth rate after 7–10 generations of selection. Kincaid et al. (1977) showed that growth gains by 30% could be achieved by selectively breeding rainbow trout for three generations. A 7% increase in growth was recorded per generation for rainbow trout by Kause et al. (2005). 1510:

which are usually present only in small amounts in potatoes fit for human consumption. When genetic diversity is lost it can also allow for populations to lack genetic alternatives to adapt to events. This becomes an issue of biodiversity, because attributes are so wide-spread they can result in mass

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Selective breeding is a direct way to determine if a specific trait can evolve in response to selection. A single-generation method of breeding is not as accurate or direct. The process is also more practical and easier to understand than sibling analysis. Selective breeding is better for traits such

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at The Oceanic Institute, Waimanalo, USA from 1995 to 1998. They reported significant responses to selection compared to the unselected control shrimps. After one generation, a 21% increase was observed in growth and 18.4% increase in survival to TSV. The Taura Syndrome Virus (TSV) causes mortalities

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Selective breeding in aquaculture holds high potential for the genetic improvement of fish and shellfish for the process of production. Unlike terrestrial livestock, the potential benefits of selective breeding in aquaculture were not realized until recently. This is because high mortality led to the

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style living to a mix of hunter-gatherer and agriculture practices. Although these higher yielding plants were derived from an extremely primitive version of plant breeding, this form of agriculture was an investment that the people who grew them were planting then could have a more varied diet. This

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Selective breeding can be unintentional, for example, resulting from the process of human cultivation; and it may also produce unintended – desirable or undesirable – results. For example, in some grains, an increase in seed size may have resulted from certain ploughing practices rather than from the

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However, there are disadvantages to this process. This is because a single experiment done in selective breeding cannot be used to assess an entire group of genetic variances, individual experiments must be done for every individual trait. Also, due to the necessity of selective breeding experiments

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Another was the failure of documentation of the genetic gains in successive generations. This in turn led to failure in quantifying economic benefits that successful selective breeding programs produce. Documentation of the genetic changes was considered important as they help in fine tuning further

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are a mix of several breeds, often unknown. Animal breeding begins with breeding stock, a group of animals used for the purpose of planned breeding. When individuals are looking to breed animals, they look for certain valuable traits in purebred stock for a certain purpose, or may intend to use some

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bred for fast growth or heavy muscles did not know how to perform typical rooster courtship dances, which alienated the roosters from hens and led the roosters to kill the hens after mating with them. A Soviet attempt to breed lab rats with higher intelligence led to cases of neurosis severe enough

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We are profoundly ignorant of the causes producing slight and unimportant variations; and we are immediately made conscious of this by reflecting on the differences in the breeds of our domesticated animals in different countries,—more especially in the less civilized countries where there has been

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Additionally, selective breeding can lead to a variety of issues including reduction of genetic diversity or physical problems. The process of selective breeding can create physical issues for plants or animals such as dogs selectively bred for extremely small sizes dislocating their kneecaps at a

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Control of the reproduction cycle was one of the main reasons as it is a requisite for selective breeding programs. Artificial reproduction was not achieved because of the difficulties in hatching or feeding some farmed species such as eel and yellowtail farming. A suspected reason associated with

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to produce a new type of stock with different, and, it is presumed, superior abilities in a given area of endeavor. For example, to breed chickens, a breeder typically intends to receive eggs, meat, and new, young birds for further reproduction. Thus, the breeder has to study different breeds and

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Slow though the process of selection may be, if feeble man can do much by his powers of artificial selection, I can see no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the co-adaptations between all organic beings, one with another and with their physical conditions of

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Selective breeding in aquaculture provide remarkable economic benefits to the industry, the primary one being that it reduces production costs due to faster turnover rates. When selective breeding is carried out, some characteristics are lost for others that may suit a specific environment or

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susceptibility to the infection differs across oyster strains in Europe. A study carried out by Culloty et al. showed that 'Rossmore' oysters in Cork harbour, Ireland had better resistance compared to other Irish strains. A selective breeding program at Cork harbour uses broodstock from 3– to

1350:) increase in weight was found to be more than 60% after four generations of selective breeding. In Chile, Neira et al. (2006) conducted experiments on early spawning dates in coho salmon. After selectively breeding the fish for four generations, spawning dates were 13–15 days earlier. 920:

The agriculturist selects his corn, letting grow as much as he requires, and tearing out the remainder. The forester leaves those branches which he perceives to be excellent, whilst he cuts away all others. The bees kill those of their kind who only eat, but do not work in their

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epidemic of 1970 that wiped out 15% of the United States corn crop due to the wide use of a type of Texan corn strain that was artificially selected due to having sterile pollen to make farming easier. At the same time it was more vulnerable to Southern Corn leaf-blight.

1308:– The age of maturity in aquaculture species is another very important attribute for farmers as during early maturation the species divert all their energy to gonad production affecting growth and meat production and are more susceptible to health problems (Gjerde 1986). 1270:

the late realization of success in selective breeding programs in aquaculture was the education of the concerned people – researchers, advisory personnel and fish farmers. The education of fish biologists paid less attention to quantitative genetics and breeding plans.

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Babouchkine, Y.P., 1987. La sélection d'une carpe résistant à l'hiver. In: Tiews, K. (Ed.), Proceedings ofWorld Symposium on Selection, Hybridization, and Genetic Engineering in Aquaculture, Bordeaux 27–30 May 1986, vol. 1. HeenemannVerlagsgesellschaft mbH, Berlin,

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types of chickens and analyze what can be expected from a certain set of characteristics before he or she starts breeding them. Therefore, when purchasing initial breeding stock, the breeder seeks a group of birds that will most closely fit the purpose intended.

1296:– survival rate may take into account the degrees of resistance to diseases. This may also see the stress response as fish under stress are highly vulnerable to diseases. The stress fish experience could be of biological, chemical or environmental influence. 1427:(Dermo). They achieved dual resistance to the disease in four generations of selective breeding. The oysters showed higher growth and survival rates and low susceptibility to the infections. At the end of the experiment, artificially selected 1342:

In Japan, high resistance to IPNV in rainbow trout has been achieved by selectively breeding the stock. Resistant strains were found to have an average mortality of 4.3% whereas 96.1% mortality was observed in a highly sensitive strain.

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Kause, A.; Ritola, O.; Paananen, T.; Wahlroos, H.; Mäntysaari, E. A. (2005). "Genetic trends in growth, sexual maturity and skeletal deformations, and rate of inbreeding in a breeding programme for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)".

1314:– As the fecundity in fish and shellfish is usually high it is not considered as a major trait for improvement. However, selective breeding practices may consider the size of the egg and correlate it with survival and early growth rate. 1302:– the quality of fish is of great economic importance in the market. Fish quality usually takes into account size, meatiness, and percentage of fat, color of flesh, taste, shape of the body, ideal oil and omega-3 content. 964:, and have contributed to numerous modern breeds, despite the fact that they fell quickly out of favor as market preferences in meat and textiles changed. Bloodlines of these original New Leicesters survive today as the 1282:

Aquaculture species are reared for particular traits such as growth rate, survival rate, meat quality, resistance to diseases, age at sexual maturation, fecundity, shell traits like shell size, shell color, etc.

1399:), selected for improvement in live weight and shell length showed a 10–13% gain in one generation. Bonamia ostrea is a protistan parasite that causes catastrophic losses (nearly 98%) in European flat oyster 1464:

Selective breeding programs for aquatic species provide better outcomes compared to terrestrial livestock. This higher response to selection of aquatic farmed species can be attributed to the following:

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in the 18th century. Arguably, his most important breeding program was with sheep. Using native stock, he was able to quickly select for large, yet fine-boned sheep, with long, lustrous wool. The

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Kirpichnikov, V. S.; Ilyasov, I.; Shart, L. A.; Vikhman, A. A.; Ganchenko, M. V.; Ostashevsky, A. L.; Simonov, V. M.; Tikhonov, G. F.; Tjurin, V. V. (1993). "Selection of Krasnodar common carp (

1266:, causing inbreeding depression, which then forced the use of wild broodstock. This was evident in selective breeding programs for growth rate, which resulted in slow growth and high mortality. 1498:, it is impractical to use this breeding method on many organisms. Controlled mating instances are difficult to carry out in this case and this is a necessary component of selective breeding. 1107:, considerable culling, and selection for "superior" qualities, one could develop a bloodline superior in certain respects to the original base stock. Such animals can be recorded with a 4276: 1626: 1103:

Purebred breeding aims to establish and maintain stable traits, that animals will pass to the next generation. By "breeding the best to the best," employing a certain degree of

4948: 991:(168 kg). By 1786, that weight had more than doubled to 840 pounds (381 kg). However, after his death, the Dishley Longhorn was replaced with short-horn versions. 2425:

Thodesen, J. R.; Grisdale-Helland, B.; Helland, S. L. J.; Gjerde, B. (1999). "Feed intake, growth and feed utilization of offspring from wild and selected Atlantic salmon (

787:. Flowers, vegetables and fruit-trees may be bred by amateurs and commercial or non-commercial professionals: major crops are usually the provenance of the professionals. 1378:. More recently, the response of the Channel Catfish to selection for improved growth rate was found to be approximately 80%, that is, an average of 13% per generation. 855:

intentional selection of larger seeds. Most likely, there has been an interdependence between natural and artificial factors that have resulted in plant domestication.

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Storset, A.; Strand, C.; Wetten, M.; Kjøglum, S.; Ramstad, A. (2007). "Response to selection for resistance against infectious pancreatic necrosis in Atlantic salmon (

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Nell, J. A.; Smith, I. R.; Sheridan, A. K. (1999). "Third generation evaluation of Sydney rock oyster Saccostrea commercialis (Iredale and Roughley) breeding lines".

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Langdon, C.; Evans, F.; Jacobson, D.; Blouin, M. (2003). "Yields of cultured Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas Thunberg improved after one generation of selection".

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that is resistant to IHHNV infection. Tang et al. (2000) confirmed this by showing no mortalities in IHHNV- challenged Super Shrimp post larvae and juveniles.

1231: 895:. Treatises as much as 2,000 years old give advice on selecting animals for different purposes, and these ancient works cite still older authorities, such as 3148:

Hetzel, D. J. S.; Crocos, P. J.; Davis, G. P.; Moore, S. S.; Preston, N. C. (2000). "Response to selection and heritability for growth in the Kuruma prawn,

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Okamoto, N.; Tayama, T.; Kawanobe, M.; Fujiki, N.; Yasuda, Y.; Sano, T. (1993). "Resistance of a rainbow trout strain to infectious pancreatic necrosis".

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Nell, J. A.; Sheridan, A. K.; Smith, I. R. (1996). "Progress in a Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea commercialis (Iredale and Roughley), breeding program".

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showed a 10.7% increase in growth after the first generation. Argue et al. (2002) conducted a selective breeding program on the Pacific White Shrimp,

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Tang, K. F. J.; Durand, S. V.; White, B. L.; Redman, R. M.; Pantoja, C. R.; Lightner, D. V. (2000). "Postlarvae and juveniles of a selected line of

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Health, National Research Council (US) Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human (2004),

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Animals with homogeneous appearance, behavior, and other characteristics are known as particular breeds or pure breeds, and they are bred through

1119:. However, single-trait breeding, breeding for only one trait over all others, can be problematic. In one case mentioned by animal behaviorist 633: 5013: 1391:

Selection for live weight of Pacific oysters showed improvements ranging from 0.4% to 25.6% compared to the wild stock. Sydney-rock oysters (

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The deliberate exploitation of selective breeding to produce desired results has become very common in agriculture and experimental biology.

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from individuals that showed desirable characteristics, and discouraging the breeding of individuals with less desirable characteristics.

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Kincaid, H. L.; Bridges, W. R.; von Limbach, B. (1977). "Three Generations of Selection for Growth Rate in Fall-Spawning Rainbow Trout".

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was improved by Bakewell, and in turn the Lincoln was used to develop the subsequent breed, named the New (or Dishley) Leicester. It was

983:. As more and more farmers followed his lead, farm animals increased dramatically in size and quality. In 1700, the average weight of a 2636:

Hershberger, W. K.; Myers, J. M.; Iwamoto, R. N.; McAuley, W. C.; Saxton, A. M. (1990). "Genetic changes in the growth of coho salmon (

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Bakewell was also the first to breed cattle to be used primarily for beef. Previously, cattle were first and foremost kept for pulling

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Culloty, S. C.; Cronin, M. A.; Mulcahy, M. I. F. (2001). "An investigation into the relative resistance of Irish flat oysters

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coined the term 'selective breeding'; he was interested in the process as an illustration of his proposed wider process of

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Ragone Calvo, L. M.; Calvo, G. W.; Burreson, E. M. (2003). "Dual disease resistance in a selectively bred eastern oyster,

2378:"Maternal, dominance and additive genetic effects in Nile tilapia; influence on growth, fillet yield and body size traits" 4184: 3599: 1936: 1749: 1717: 1683: 1506:

potatoes were selectively bred for their disease or pest resistance which was attributed to their high levels of toxic

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stands in contrast to the notion of breed purity. However, on the other hand, indiscriminate breeding of crossbred or

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Culloty, S. C.; Cronin, M. A.; Mulcahy, M. F. (2004). "Potential resistance of a number of populations of the oyster

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On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

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and behavior that are hard to measure because it requires fewer individuals to test than single-generation testing.

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humans have influenced these plants as much as the plants have influenced the people that consume them, is known as

4031: 1008:. Darwin noted that many domesticated animals and plants had special properties that were developed by intentional 88: 5101: 4938: 4660: 4211: 3762: 3597:

FAO. 2015. The Second Report on the State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Rome.

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Goyard, E.; Patrois, J.; Reignon, J.-M.; Vanaa, V.; Dufour, R; Be (1999). "IFREMER's shrimp genetics program".

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L. This protistan parasite is endemic to three oyster-regions in Europe. Selective breeding programs show that

567: 350: 3300: 2099:, T. Jr. (2003). Selection experiments: an under-utilized tool in biomechanics and organismal biology. Ch. 3, 4787: 4554: 4048: 2516: 2341:

Gjedrem, T. (1983). "Genetic variation in quantitative traits and selective breeding in fish and shellfish".

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varieties have been particularly important in agriculture. As crops improved, humans were able to move from

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Cock, J.; Gitterle, T.; Salazar, M.; Rye, M. (2009). "Breeding for disease resistance of Penaeid shrimps".

1151:, and other areas of organismal biology have also made use of deliberate selective breeding, though longer 537: 5333: 5081: 4777: 4413: 4201: 4147: 4115: 4076: 3187:

Argue, B. J.; Arce, S. M.; Lotz, J. M.; Moss, S. M. (2002). "Selective breeding of Pacific white shrimp (

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Donaldson, L. R.; Olson, P. R. (1957). "Development of Rainbow Trout Brood Stock by Selective Breeding".

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Purugganan, Michael D.; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2009). "The nature of selection during plant domestication".

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The process of plant breeding has been used for thousands of years, and began with the domestication of

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FAO. 2007. The Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources and the Interlaken Declaration. Rome.

3329: 1905: 1395:) showed a 4% increase after one generation and a 15% increase after two generations. Chilean oysters ( 896: 93: 5202: 5076: 4448: 4234: 4140: 4103: 3922: 3847: 3822: 2104: 1870:

Wilczynski, J. Z. (1959). "On the Presumed Darwinism of Alberuni Eight Hundred Years before Darwin".

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saw an 18% increase in growth after the fourth generation and 21% growth after the fifth generation.

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Selection for growth in Penaeid shrimps yielded successful results. A selective breeding program for

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discussed how selective breeding had been successful in producing change over time in his 1859 book,

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infection and percentage mortality. Ragone Calvo et al. (2003) selectively bred the eastern oyster,

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Purugganan, M. D.; Fuller, D. Q. (2009). "The nature of selection during plant domestication".

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Bondari, K. (1983). "Response to bidirectional selection for body weight in channel catfish".

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4-year-old survivors and is further controlled until a viable percentage reaches market size.

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is maintained through linebreeding and is responsible for its accelerated lean muscle growth.

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Neira, R.; Díaz, N. F.; Gall, G. A. E.; Gallardo, J. A.; Lhorente, J. P.; Alert, A. (2006).

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animals with particular traits and selecting for further breeding those with other traits.

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animals have a single, recognizable breed, and purebreds with recorded lineage are called

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Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods: Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects

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but distinguished the latter from the former as a separate process that is non-directed.

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Darwin used the term "artificial selection" twice in the 1859 first edition of his work

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life, which may be effected in the long course of time by nature's power of selection.

979:, but he crossed long-horned heifers and a Westmoreland bull to eventually create the 5354: 5264: 5259: 5197: 5124: 5116: 5091: 4917: 4912: 4867: 4690: 4564: 4239: 3827: 3711: 3699: 3640:

Gjedrem, T (1979). "Selection for growth rate and domestication in Atlantic salmon".

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The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design

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are resistant to infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus infection".

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Experimental Evolution: Concepts, Methods, and Applications of Selection Experiments

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High fecundity in both sexes fish and shellfish enabling higher selection intensity.

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shows the connection between basic human desires through four different plants:

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and greater difficulty in breeding can make these projects challenging in such

1120: 1112: 1108: 1083: 1052: 1034: 1024:, in Chapter IV: Natural Selection, and in Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory: 1012: 1001: 900: 879:

have been significantly different from their wild ancestors for millennia, and

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Conner, J. K. (2003). "Artificial Selection: A Powerful Tool for Ecologists".

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much more frequent rate then other dogs. An example in the plant world is the

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Selective breeding of both plants and animals has been practiced since early

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Gjedrem, T. (1477). "Selective breeding to improve aquaculture production".

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Gjedrem, T. (1985). "Improvement of productivity through breeding schemes".

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Over the years 'Rossmore' oysters have shown to develop lower prevalence of

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shows the wide range of dog breed sizes created using selective breeding.

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to make the animals incapable of any problem solving unless drugs like

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Mai Thien Tran; Cong Thang Nguyen (1993). "Selection of common carp (

2424: 1566: 1190: 1116: 957: 752: 671: 542: 156: 76: 3609:

Gjerdem, B (1986). "Growth and reproduction in fish and shellfish".

4922: 4824: 4377: 4367: 4362: 4306: 4281: 3857: 3775: 2376:

Joshi, Rajesh; Woolliams, John; Meuwissen, Theo MJ (January 2018).

1883: 1556: 1507: 1223: 1194: 1079: 994:

He also bred the Improved Black Cart horse, which later became the

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Arid Agriculture; A Hand-Book for the Western Farmer and Stockman

1627:

Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction

1551: 1124: 1075: 841: 764: 4398: 2737:

L.) for resistance to dropsy: Principal results and prospects".

779:, or breeds. Two purebred animals of different breeds produce a 700: 5328: 4907: 4499: 3301:"What Is the Main Idea of Overproduction in Natural Selection?" 2779: 2732: 1459: 1227: 972: 937:

Selective breeding was established as a scientific practice by

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artificial selection is often combined with techniques such as

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Large phenotypic and genetic variation in the selected traits.

1143:

animals may also result in degradation of quality. Studies in

899:. The notion of selective breeding was later expressed by the 4949:

List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization

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Selective plant breeding is also used in research to produce

1219: 1215: 880: 868: 760: 744: 709: 4523: 3419:

10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[1650:asaptf]2.0.co;2

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Lind, Ce; Ponzoni, Rw; Nguyen, Nh; Khaw, Hl (August 2012).

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Moral Origins: The Evolution of Virtue, Altruism, and Shame

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10.1577/1548-8659(1977)106<621:tgosfg>2.0.co;2

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Growth was seen to increase by 12–20% in selectively bred

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in the 11th century. He noted the idea in his book titled

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Gjedrem (1979) showed that selection of Atlantic salmon (

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10.1577/1548-8659(1955)85[93:dortbs]2.0.co;2

2246:. Boston, London, Dordecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 1494:

to require maintaining the organisms tested in a lab or

2821:"Two-way selection for growth rate in the common carp ( 2375: 1185:

have selectively bred carrots with a variety of colors.

3736:

The Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources

3225: 3191:) for growth and resistance to Taura Syndrome Virus". 3147: 953:

and had a square, meaty body with straight top lines.

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The botany of desire: a plant's-eye view of the world

820:. Its first chapter discusses selective breeding and 3510:"Southern Corn Leaf Blight: A Story Worth Retelling" 3398: 3046: 3011: 1256: 3642:Zeitschrift für Tierzüchtung und Züchtungsbiologie 2681:). II: Selection response for early spawning date" 2273:Selective breeding in Aquaculture: An Introduction 2244:Plant breeding – Mendelian to molecular approaches 1983: 1381: 3186: 2976: 2941: 1358:Selective breeding programs for the Common carp ( 1193:plants into uniform and predictable agricultural 5341: 3673: 2109: 1764: 1658:https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/breed 1419:, for resistance against co-occurring parasites 1318: 1277: 1815: 1480: 956:These sheep were exported widely, including to 883:, which required especially large changes from 2532:Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 2505:Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 2502: 2040: 1633:Selective Breeding and the Birth of Philosophy 739:(characteristics) by choosing which typically 5007: 4414: 3756: 2818: 627: 3718: 2241: 2235: 1974: 1972: 1842: 1460:Aquatic species versus terrestrial livestock 2763: 2165: 5014: 5000: 4421: 4407: 3848:Smart breeding (Marker-assisted selection) 3763: 3749: 1869: 891:. Selective breeding was practiced by the 634: 620: 3533: 2848: 2401: 2065: 1990:. New York, New York: Scribner. pp. 1969: 887:, its wild form, was selectively bred in 840:. Darwin used artificial selection as an 767:, while domesticated plants are known as 4454:Competitions and prizes in biotechnology 3770: 2166:Deresiewicz, William (18 October 2021). 1176: 699: 680: 661: 647: 5021: 3660: 3639: 3608: 2871: 2340: 2300: 2090: 2034: 1698: 14: 5342: 5307:Index of evolutionary biology articles 3559: 3483: 3457: 3404: 2336: 2334: 2332: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2288: 2271:Gjedrem, T & Baranski, M. (2009). 2216: 1669: 1431:showed a 34–48% higher survival rate. 4995: 4402: 3744: 3431: 3373: 3371: 3323: 3321: 2677:"Genetic improvement in coho salmon ( 2267: 2265: 2263: 2242:Jain, H. K.; Kharkwal, M. C. (2004). 2161: 2159: 2101:Vertebrate Biomechanics and Evolution 1931:. Troubador Publishing. p. 114. 1732: 1245:animals that breed "true" (i.e., are 844:to propose and explain the theory of 723:) is the process by which humans use 708:'s few fruitcases (left) into modern 4974: 3094:, strain tested in Chesapeake Bay". 1926: 1090:are a mix of two purebreds, whereas 27:Breeding for desired characteristics 4277:Selection methods in plant breeding 2329: 2285: 916:, which included various examples. 712:'s rows of exposed kernels (right). 24: 3654:10.1111/j.1439-0388.1979.tb00199.x 3584: 3569:. London: CRW Publishing Limited. 3502: 3477: 3460:"Unintended Effects from Breeding" 3368: 3318: 2747:10.1016/b978-0-444-81527-9.50006-3 2260: 2156: 2022:from the original on 9 August 2014 1434: 1369: 1111:, the organization that maintains 1063: 783:, and crossbred plants are called 763:, normally bred by a professional 25: 5376: 4428: 3729: 3248:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.09.011 3077:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2004.04.007 2705:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2006.03.001 2588:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.02.023 2490:10.1016/j.aquaculture.2007.08.011 2103:ed. Bels VL, Gasc JP, Casinos A. 1257:Selective breeding in aquaculture 1166: 5327: 4973: 4962: 4961: 4462: 3346:10.1111/j.1439-0531.2012.02084.x 3334:Reproduction in Domestic Animals 2197:education.nationalgeographic.org 2143:education.nationalgeographic.org 2139:"The Development of Agriculture" 2118:, T. Jr., Rose MR, eds. (2009). 1047:but little artificial selection. 601: 600: 587: 45: 4939:Index of biotechnology articles 3721:Traité de pisciculture en étang 3553: 3484:Clarke, Robert Connell (1981). 3466:, National Academies Press (US) 3451: 3425: 3293: 3254: 3219: 3180: 3141: 3122: 3083: 3040: 3005: 2970: 2935: 2900: 2865: 2812: 2773: 2726: 2668: 2629: 2594: 2558: 2523: 2496: 2457: 2418: 2369: 2210: 2185: 2131: 2008: 1957: 1945: 1920: 1382:Shellfish response to selection 1249:) for artificially inserted or 943:British Agricultural Revolution 704:Selective breeding transformed 670:cow. The defect in the breed's 594:Evolutionary biology portal 5107:Constructive neutral evolution 4944:List of biotechnology articles 3488:. Berkeley, Calif: And/Or Pr. 2819:Moav, R; Wohlfarth, G (1976). 2168:"Human History Gets a Rewrite" 2126:University of California Press 1898: 1863: 1836: 1809: 1758: 1726: 1692: 1674:(Reissue ed.). New York: 1663: 1651: 553:Creation–evolution controversy 307:History of evolutionary theory 13: 1: 4788:Genetically modified organism 4555:Biotechnology industrial park 3379:"Prevent farmed fish escapes" 3287:10.1016/s0044-8486(00)00407-5 3213:10.1016/s0044-8486(01)00830-4 3174:10.1016/S0044-8486(99)00237-9 3116:10.1016/s0044-8486(02)00399-x 3034:10.1016/s0044-8486(01)00569-5 2999:10.1016/s0044-8486(98)00408-6 2929:10.1016/s0044-8486(02)00621-x 2451:10.1016/s0044-8486(99)00204-5 1982:; Johnson, Catherine (2005). 1906:"Robert Bakewell (1725–1795)" 1849:. Orchard Press. p. 21. 1645: 1319:Finfish response to selection 1278:Quality traits in aquaculture 1135:The observable phenomenon of 5057:Fisher's fundamental theorem 3633:10.1016/0044-8486(86)90179-1 2964:10.1016/0044-8486(96)01328-2 2894:10.1016/0044-8486(83)90387-3 2806:10.1016/0044-8486(93)90064-6 2662:10.1016/0044-8486(90)90018-i 2623:10.1016/0044-8486(93)90124-h 2363:10.1016/0044-8486(83)90386-1 1481:Advantages and disadvantages 1323: 810:, similar methods are used. 538:Evolution as fact and theory 7: 5082:Coefficient of relationship 4778:Environmental biotechnology 3432:admin (16 September 2010). 3131:Global Aquaculture Advocate 1822:. Read Books. p. 232. 1519: 987:sold for slaughter was 370 10: 5381: 1929:Trail of the Viking Finger 1710:W. W. Norton & Company 1511:epidemics. As seen in the 1386: 1230:for control. In a form of 1170: 1067: 858: 573:Nature-nurture controversy 5302: 5237: 5211: 5173: 5148: 5115: 5077:Coefficient of inbreeding 5029: 4957: 4931: 4838: 4718: 4648: 4597: 4588: 4547: 4492: 4471: 4460: 4449:Timeline of biotechnology 4436: 4345: 4235:Marker-assisted selection 4220: 4017: 3866: 3823:Marker-assisted selection 3800: 3782: 3719:Schäperclaus, W. (1962). 3602:18 September 2018 at the 2394:10.1038/s41437-017-0046-x 2275:. 1st Edition. Springer. 2193:"Hunter-Gatherer Culture" 1670:Darwin, Charles (2008) . 1587:Marker-assisted selection 1577:Genomics of domestication 1513:Southern Corn leaf-blight 460:Evolutionary neuroscience 435:Evolutionary epistemology 415:Evolutionary anthropology 395:Applications of evolution 5255:Evolutionary game theory 5037:Hardy–Weinberg principle 4805:Microbial biodegradation 4484:Industrial biotechnology 4444:History of biotechnology 2841:10.1093/genetics/82.1.83 2217:Pollan, Michael (2002). 1816:Buffum, Burt C. (2008). 1441:Litopenaeus stylirostris 1306:Age at sexual maturation 1262:selection of only a few 1057:On the Origin of Species 1039:On the Origin of Species 1021:On the Origin of Species 817:On the Origin of Species 450:Evolutionary linguistics 445:Evolutionary game theory 420:Evolutionary computation 5067:Shifting balance theory 4479:Colors of biotechnology 3535:10.2134/csa2017.62.0806 2739:Genetics in Aquaculture 2128:, Berkeley, California. 1393:Saccostrea commercialis 1145:evolutionary physiology 747:males and females will 563:Objections to evolution 470:Evolutionary psychology 465:Evolutionary physiology 410:Evolutionary aesthetics 389:Fields and applications 371:History of paleontology 5052:Linkage disequilibrium 4873:Biomedical engineering 4580:Pharmaceutical company 4560:Biotechnology products 4317:Outbreeding depression 3723:. Paris: Vigot Frères. 3520:(8): 13. August 2017. 1986:Animals in Translation 1562:Experimental evolution 1508:glycoalkaloid solanine 1445:Marsupenaeus japonicas 1226:for intoxication, and 1186: 1061: 1043: 935: 867:; key species such as 713: 697: 678: 659: 495:Speciation experiments 475:Experimental evolution 430:Evolutionary economics 252:Recent human evolution 110:Processes and outcomes 5294:Quantitative genetics 5203:Balding–Nichols model 5188:Population bottleneck 5183:Small population size 5087:Selection coefficient 4322:Inbreeding depression 3838:Preservation breeding 3566:The Origin of Species 3092:Crassostrea virginica 1846:Animal Breeding Plans 1843:Lush, Jay L. (2008). 1612:Quantitative genetics 1421:Haplosporidium nelson 1417:Crassostrea virginica 1180: 1044: 1026: 918: 897:Mago the Carthaginian 759:animals are known as 703: 684: 665: 651: 455:Evolutionary medicine 400:Biosocial criminology 366:History of speciation 279:Evolutionary taxonomy 242:Timeline of evolution 5334:Evolutionary biology 5165:Background selection 5152:on genomic variation 5150:Effects of selection 5102:Population structure 4898:Chemical engineering 4761:Reproductive cloning 4625:Hybridoma technology 4575:Human Genome Project 3263:Penaeus stylirostris 3189:Litopenaeus vannamei 2679:Oncorhynchus kisutch 2638:Oncorhynchus kisutch 2067:10.1093/icb/45.3.387 1449:Litopenaeus vannamei 1376:Iictalurus punctatus 1348:Oncorhynchus kisutch 1232:reciprocal evolution 721:artificial selection 425:Evolutionary ecology 39:Evolutionary biology 18:Artificial Selection 5360:Population genetics 5284:Population genomics 5160:Genetic hitchhiking 5047:Identity by descent 5023:Population genetics 4783:Genetic engineering 4766:Therapeutic cloning 4746:Bionic architecture 4726:Animal cell culture 4493:Biological concepts 4009:Designer crossbreed 3696:10.1038/nature07895 3688:2009Natur.457..843P 3625:1986Aquac..57...37G 3526:2017CSAN...62S..13. 3279:2000Aquac.190..203T 3240:2009Aquac.286....1C 3205:2002Aquac.204..447A 3166:2000Aquac.181..215H 3108:2003Aquac.220...69R 3069:2004Aquac.237...41C 3016:L. to the parasite 2991:1999Aquac.170..195N 2956:1996Aquac.144..295N 2921:2003Aquac.220..227L 2886:1983Aquac..33...73B 2798:1993Aquac.111..301M 2697:2006Aquac.257....1N 2654:1990Aquac..85..187H 2615:1993Aquac.117...71O 2580:2005Aquac.247..177K 2544:1977TrAFS.106..621K 2482:2007Aquac.272..S62S 2443:1999Aquac.180..237T 2355:1983Aquac..33...51G 1927:Bean, John (2016). 1787:10.1038/nature07895 1779:2009Natur.457..843P 1660:(Noun definition 1) 1572:Genetic engineering 1274:selection schemes. 1181:Researchers at the 1149:behavioral genetics 824:of such animals as 735:develop particular 527:Social implications 515:Universal Darwinism 505:Island biogeography 440:Evolutionary ethics 405:Ecological genetics 351:Molecular evolution 289:Transitional fossil 117:Population genetics 33:Part of a series on 5270:Landscape genetics 4839:Interdisciplinary 4793:Molecular genetics 4539:Selective breeding 3843:Selective breeding 3792:Lists of cultivars 2714:on 5 February 2020 2315:10.1007/BF00462124 1734:Boehm, Christopher 1678:. pp. 9–132. 1187: 749:sexually reproduce 717:Selective breeding 714: 698: 679: 660: 558:Theistic evolution 490:Selective breeding 202:Parallel evolution 167:Adaptive radiation 5315: 5314: 5265:Genetic genealogy 5260:Fitness landscape 4989: 4988: 4918:Nanobiotechnology 4913:Molecular biology 4714: 4713: 4565:Biotechnology law 4396: 4395: 4240:Natural selection 4221:Selection methods 3828:Mutation breeding 3682:(7231): 843–848. 3663:World Aquaculture 3576:978-1-904633-78-5 3495:978-0-915904-45-7 3150:Penaeus japonicus 2784:L.) in Vietnam". 2770:pp. 447–454. 2281:978-90-481-2772-6 2253:978-1-4020-1981-4 2228:978-0-375-76039-6 2016:"Жили-были крысы" 2001:978-0-7432-4769-6 1856:978-1-4437-8451-1 1829:978-1-4086-6710-1 1712:. pp. 7–11. 1597:Natural selection 1592:Mutation breeding 1425:Perkinsus marinus 1006:natural selection 966:English Leicester 927:Abu Rayhan Biruni 910:Abu Rayhan Biruni 846:natural selection 737:phenotypic traits 644: 643: 335:Origin of Species 137:Natural selection 16:(Redirected from 5372: 5332: 5331: 5323: 5224:J. 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Jr. 2039: 2035: 2025: 2023: 2014: 2013: 2009: 2002: 1980:Grandin, Temple 1977: 1970: 1962: 1958: 1950: 1946: 1939: 1925: 1921: 1911: 1909: 1904: 1903: 1899: 1868: 1864: 1857: 1841: 1837: 1830: 1814: 1810: 1773:(7231): 843–8. 1763: 1759: 1752: 1731: 1727: 1720: 1697: 1693: 1686: 1668: 1664: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1643: 1527:Animal breeding 1522: 1483: 1462: 1454:L. stylirostris 1437: 1435:Penaeid shrimps 1389: 1384: 1372: 1370:Channel Catfish 1360:Cyprinus carpio 1335:Rainbow trout ( 1326: 1321: 1280: 1259: 1218:for sweetness, 1203:hunter-gatherer 1175: 1169: 1072: 1070:Animal breeding 1066: 1064:Animal breeding 1060: 1051: 1042: 1033: 939:Robert Bakewell 934: 925: 861: 792:animal breeding 725:animal breeding 640: 599: 586: 585: 578: 577: 528: 520: 519: 390: 382: 381: 380: 308: 300: 299: 298: 247:Human evolution 237:History of life 221: 220:Natural history 213: 212: 211: 111: 103: 58: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5378: 5368: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5337: 5336: 5313: 5312: 5310: 5309: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5297: 5296: 5291: 5289:Phylogeography 5286: 5281: 5279:Microevolution 5276: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5241: 5239: 5238:Related topics 5235: 5234: 5232: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5215: 5213: 5209: 5208: 5206: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5193:Founder effect 5190: 5185: 5179: 5177: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5167: 5162: 5156: 5154: 5149: 5146: 5145: 5143: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5121: 5119: 5113: 5112: 5110: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5072:Price equation 5069: 5064: 5062:Neutral theory 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5033: 5031: 5027: 5026: 5019: 5018: 5011: 5004: 4996: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4983: 4971: 4958: 4955: 4954: 4952: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4935: 4933: 4929: 4928: 4926: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4858:Bioengineering 4855: 4853:Bioelectronics 4850: 4844: 4842: 4836: 4835: 4833: 4832: 4830:Tissue culture 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4796: 4795: 4790: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4769: 4768: 4763: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4736:Bioinformatics 4733: 4731:Biofabrication 4728: 4722: 4720: 4716: 4715: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4671:Chromatography 4668: 4663: 4658: 4656:Centrifugation 4652: 4650: 4649:Chemical field 4646: 4645: 4643: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4620:Flow cytometry 4617: 4612: 4607: 4601: 4599: 4592: 4586: 4585: 4583: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4551: 4549: 4545: 4544: 4542: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4507: 4502: 4496: 4494: 4490: 4489: 4487: 4486: 4481: 4475: 4473: 4469: 4468: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4456: 4451: 4446: 4440: 4438: 4434: 4433: 4426: 4425: 4418: 4411: 4403: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4373:Heirloom plant 4370: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4353:Breed registry 4349: 4347: 4343: 4342: 4340: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4273: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4237: 4232: 4226: 4224: 4218: 4217: 4215: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4188: 4187: 4182: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4152: 4145: 4138: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4113: 4108: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4090: 4089: 4079: 4074: 4067: 4060: 4053: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4035: 4034: 4023: 4021: 4015: 4014: 4012: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3984:Breed standard 3981: 3975: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3953: 3952: 3942: 3937: 3936: 3935: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3899: 3898: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3872: 3870: 3864: 3863: 3861: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3804: 3802: 3798: 3797: 3795: 3794: 3789: 3783: 3780: 3779: 3768: 3767: 3760: 3753: 3745: 3739: 3738: 3731: 3730:External links 3728: 3726: 3725: 3716: 3671: 3658: 3648:(1–4): 56–59. 3637: 3619:(1–4): 37–55. 3606: 3594: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3582: 3581: 3575: 3555: 3552: 3550: 3549: 3501: 3494: 3476: 3450: 3424: 3397: 3367: 3317: 3292: 3253: 3218: 3179: 3140: 3121: 3102:(1–4): 69–87. 3082: 3063:(1–4): 41–58. 3039: 3004: 2969: 2950:(4): 295–302. 2934: 2899: 2880:(1–4): 73–81. 2864: 2811: 2772: 2762: 2755: 2725: 2667: 2628: 2609:(1–2): 71–76. 2593: 2557: 2538:(6): 621–628. 2522: 2495: 2456: 2417: 2388:(5): 452–462. 2368: 2349:(1–4): 51–72. 2328: 2309:(3): 233–241. 2284: 2259: 2252: 2234: 2227: 2209: 2184: 2155: 2130: 2108: 2089: 2060:(3): 387–390. 2033: 2007: 2000: 1968: 1956: 1944: 1938:978-1785893056 1937: 1919: 1897: 1884:10.1086/348801 1878:(4): 459–466. 1862: 1855: 1835: 1828: 1808: 1757: 1751:978-0465020485 1750: 1725: 1719:978-0393351491 1718: 1691: 1685:978-0553214635 1684: 1662: 1649: 1647: 1644: 1642: 1641: 1639:Smart breeding 1636: 1629: 1624: 1619: 1617:Serial passage 1614: 1609: 1607:Potsdam Giants 1604: 1602:Plant breeding 1599: 1594: 1589: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1537:Breed registry 1534: 1529: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1482: 1479: 1474: 1473: 1470: 1461: 1458: 1436: 1433: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1371: 1368: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1316: 1315: 1309: 1303: 1297: 1291: 1279: 1276: 1258: 1255: 1212:Michael Pollan 1173:Plant breeding 1171:Main article: 1168: 1167:Plant breeding 1165: 1121:Temple Grandin 1109:breed registry 1068:Main article: 1065: 1062: 1053:Charles Darwin 1049: 1035:Charles Darwin 1031: 1013:plant breeding 1002:Charles Darwin 923: 860: 857: 812:Charles Darwin 808:plant breeding 729:plant breeding 642: 641: 639: 638: 631: 624: 616: 613: 612: 611: 610: 597: 580: 579: 576: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 548:Social effects 545: 540: 535: 529: 526: 525: 522: 521: 518: 517: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 407: 402: 397: 391: 388: 387: 384: 383: 379: 378: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 331: 326: 321: 316: 310: 309: 306: 305: 302: 301: 297: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 274:Classification 271: 266: 261: 256: 255: 254: 244: 239: 234: 232:Common descent 229: 227:Origin of life 223: 222: 219: 218: 215: 214: 210: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 113: 112: 109: 108: 105: 104: 102: 101: 96: 91: 85: 84: 79: 74: 69: 63: 60: 59: 50: 42: 41: 35: 34: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5377: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5350:Biotechnology 5348: 5347: 5345: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5324: 5321: 5308: 5305: 5304: 5301: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5242: 5240: 5236: 5230: 5229:Sewall Wright 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5216: 5214: 5210: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5178: 5176: 5175:Genetic drift 5172: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5157: 5155: 5147: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5122: 5120: 5118: 5114: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5017: 5012: 5010: 5005: 5003: 4998: 4997: 4994: 4982: 4981: 4972: 4970: 4969: 4960: 4959: 4956: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4930: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4837: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4785: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4751:Cell immunity 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4723: 4721: 4717: 4707: 4706:Sedimentation 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4653: 4651: 4647: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4615:Cultured meat 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4600: 4598:Biology field 4596: 4593: 4587: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4552: 4550: 4546: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4497: 4495: 4491: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4476: 4474: 4470: 4465: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4441: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4430:Biotechnology 4424: 4419: 4417: 4412: 4410: 4405: 4404: 4401: 4389: 4388:Tree breeding 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4350: 4348: 4344: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4219: 4213: 4212:Venus flytrap 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4177: 4176: 4173: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4150: 4146: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4118: 4114: 4112: 4109: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4088: 4085: 4084: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4072: 4068: 4066: 4065: 4061: 4059: 4058: 4054: 4052: 4051: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4033: 4030: 4029: 4028: 4025: 4024: 4022: 4020: 4016: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3995: 3994:Breeding pair 3992: 3990: 3989:Breeding back 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3976: 3973: 3972:Water buffalo 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3951: 3948: 3947: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3897: 3894: 3893: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3873: 3871: 3869: 3868:Animal breeds 3865: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3805: 3803: 3799: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3784: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3766: 3761: 3759: 3754: 3752: 3747: 3746: 3743: 3737: 3734: 3733: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3613: 3607: 3605: 3601: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3589: 3578: 3572: 3568: 3567: 3562: 3558: 3557: 3545: 3541: 3536: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3505: 3497: 3491: 3487: 3480: 3465: 3461: 3454: 3439: 3435: 3428: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3401: 3386: 3385: 3384:Seafood Watch 3380: 3374: 3372: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3324: 3322: 3306: 3302: 3296: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3257: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3234:(1–2): 1–11. 3233: 3229: 3222: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3183: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3125: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3086: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3049:Ostrea edulis 3043: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3014:Ostrea edulis 3008: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2973: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2938: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2868: 2860: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2835:(1): 83–101. 2834: 2830: 2826: 2824: 2815: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2776: 2766: 2758: 2756:9780444815279 2752: 2748: 2744: 2741:. p. 7. 2740: 2736: 2729: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2680: 2671: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2632: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2597: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2561: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2526: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2499: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2460: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2421: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2268: 2266: 2264: 2255: 2249: 2245: 2238: 2230: 2224: 2220: 2213: 2198: 2194: 2188: 2173: 2169: 2162: 2160: 2144: 2140: 2134: 2127: 2124: 2122: 2117: 2112: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2093: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2048: 2044: 2041:Swallow, JG; 2037: 2021: 2017: 2011: 2003: 1997: 1993: 1988: 1987: 1981: 1975: 1973: 1966: 1960: 1954: 1948: 1940: 1934: 1930: 1923: 1908:. BBC History 1907: 1901: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1866: 1858: 1852: 1848: 1847: 1839: 1831: 1825: 1821: 1820: 1812: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1761: 1753: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1729: 1721: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1706: 1701: 1695: 1687: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1666: 1659: 1654: 1650: 1640: 1637: 1635: 1634: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1583: 1580: 1578: 1575: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1542:Breeding back 1540: 1538: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1524: 1517: 1514: 1509: 1505: 1499: 1497: 1491: 1489: 1478: 1471: 1468: 1467: 1466: 1457: 1455: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1409: 1406: 1402: 1401:Ostrea edulis 1398: 1394: 1379: 1377: 1367: 1365: 1361: 1356: 1355: 1351: 1349: 1346:Coho salmon ( 1344: 1340: 1338: 1333: 1331: 1313: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1301: 1298: 1295: 1294:Survival rate 1292: 1289: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1265: 1254: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1239: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1204: 1200: 1199:high-yielding 1196: 1192: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1133: 1131: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1101: 1098: 1097:crossbreeding 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1071: 1058: 1054: 1048: 1040: 1036: 1030: 1025: 1023: 1022: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 997: 992: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 969: 967: 963: 962:North America 959: 954: 952: 948: 944: 940: 932: 928: 922: 917: 915: 911: 908: 905: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 856: 852: 849: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 822:domestication 819: 818: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 788: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 719:(also called 718: 711: 707: 702: 695: 691: 688: 683: 676: 673: 669: 664: 658: 654: 650: 646: 637: 632: 630: 625: 623: 618: 617: 615: 614: 608: 598: 595: 590: 584: 583: 582: 581: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 530: 524: 523: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 483: 481: 480:Phylogenetics 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 401: 398: 396: 393: 392: 386: 385: 376: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 336: 332: 330: 327: 325: 324:Before Darwin 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 311: 304: 303: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 253: 250: 249: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 224: 217: 216: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 152:Genetic drift 150: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 114: 107: 106: 100: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 86: 83: 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 68: 65: 64: 62: 61: 57: 53: 48: 44: 43: 40: 37: 36: 32: 31: 19: 5245:Biogeography 5219:R. A. Fisher 5129: 5097:Heritability 5030:Key concepts 4978: 4966: 4903:Microbiology 4888:Biochemicals 4800:Gene therapy 4741:Biosynthesis 4719:Applications 4640:Spectroscopy 4610:Cell culture 4538: 4519:Fermentation 4223:and genetics 4197:Sweet potato 4148: 4141: 4133: 4116: 4104: 4070: 4063: 4056: 4049: 3842: 3808:Backcrossing 3720: 3679: 3675: 3666: 3662: 3645: 3641: 3616: 3610: 3565: 3554:Bibliography 3517: 3513: 3504: 3485: 3479: 3468:, retrieved 3463: 3453: 3441:. Retrieved 3437: 3427: 3410: 3406: 3400: 3388:. Retrieved 3382: 3337: 3333: 3308:. Retrieved 3304: 3295: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3256: 3231: 3227: 3221: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3182: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3143: 3134: 3130: 3124: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3085: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3042: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3007: 2982: 2978: 2972: 2947: 2943: 2937: 2912: 2908: 2902: 2877: 2873: 2867: 2832: 2828: 2822: 2814: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2775: 2765: 2738: 2734: 2728: 2716:. 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