567:, but there are other possible uses for this cyanobacterium. As an example, it is suggested to be used medically for patients for whom it is difficult to chew or swallow food, or as a natural and cheap drug delivery system. Further, promising results in the treatment of certain cancers, allergies and anemia, as well as hepatotoxicity and vascular diseases were found. Spirulina may also be used as a healthy addition to animal feed if the price of its production can be further reduced. Spirulina can be used in technical applications, such as the biosynthesis of
55:
591:, nutrients and carbon dioxide level, need to be adjusted. In summer the main limiting factor of spirulina growth is light. When growing in water depths of 12–15 cm, self-shading governs the growth of the individual cell. However, research has shown, that growth is also photoinhibited, and can be increased through shading. The level of photoinhibition versus the lack of light is always a question of cell concentration in the medium. The optimal growth temperature for
208:
600:
locations, allowing small scale production. One of the major hurdles for large scale production is the complicated harvesting process which accounts for 20–30% of the total production costs. Due to their small cell size, and diluted cultures (mass concentration less than 1 g/L) with densities close to that of water microalgae, they are difficult to separate from their growing medium.
33:
636:
Closed systems have the advantage of being able to control the physical, chemical and biological environment. This allows for increased yield, and more control of the nutrient level. Typical forms such as tubes or polyethylene bags, also offer a larger surface-to-volume ratios than open pond systems,
662:
still has considerable potential for development, for example for nutritional improvement. New countries where this could happen, should dispose of alkaline-rich ponds on high altitudes or saline-alkaline-rich groundwater or coastal areas with high temperature. Otherwise, technical inputs needed for
571:, which allows the formation of metallic silver in an environmentally friendly way. In the creation of textiles it harbors some advantages, since it can be used for the production of antimicrobial textiles and paper or polymer materials. They also may have an antioxidant effect and may maintain the
666:
The international market of spirulina is divided into two target groups: the one includes NGO’s and institutions focusing on malnutrition and the other includes health conscious people. There are still some countries, especially in Africa, that produce at a local level. Those could respond to the
654:
and its production increased. In the past decades, large-scale production of the cyanobacterium developed. Japan started in 1960, and in the following years Mexico and several other countries over all continents, such as China, India, Thailand, Myanmar and the United States started to produce on
623:
due to their comparatively low cost. Typically, channels are built in form of a raceway from concrete or PVC coated earth walls, and water is moved by paddle wheels. The open design, however allows contamination by foreign algae and/or microorganisms. Another problem includes water loss due to
911:
Takatomo
Fujisawa; Rei Narikawa; Shinobu Okamoto; Shigeki Ehira; Hidehisa Yoshimura; Iwane Suzuki; Tatsuru Masuda; Mari Mochimaru; Shinichi Takaichi; Koichiro Awai; Mitsuo Sekine; Hiroshi Horikawa; Isao Yashiro; Seiha Omata; Hiromi Takarada; Yoko Katano; Hiroki Kosugi; Satoshi Tanikawa; Kazuko
599:
has been grown in fresh water, as well as in brackish water and sea water. Apart from mineral fertilizer, various sources such as waste effluents, and effluents from fertilizer, starch and noodle factories have been used as a nutrient source. Waste effluents are more readily available in rural
655:
large-scale. In little time, China has become the largest producer worldwide. A particular advantage of the production and use of spirulina is that its production can be conducted at a number of different scales, from household culture to intensive commercial production over large areas.
437:
is used to differentiate between and even within the same species. These differences may be induced by changing environmental conditions, such as temperature. The helical shape of the trichomes is only maintained in a liquid environment. The filaments are solitary and reproduce by
1522:
Kumaresan, Venkatesh; Nizam, Faizal; Ravichandran, Gayathri; Viswanathan, Kasi; Palanisamy, Rajesh; Bhatt, Prasanth; Arasu, Mariadhas Valan; Al-Dhabi, Naif
Abdullah; Mala, Kanchana; Arockiaraj, Jesu (2017). "Transcriptome changes of blue-green algae,
671:. Growing the product in Africa could offer an advantage in price, due to low costs of labour. On the other hand, African countries would have to surpass quality standards from importing countries, which could again result in higher costs.
649:
has occurred for a long period of time, especially in Mexico and around Lake Chad on the
African continent. During the 21st century however, its beneficial properties were rediscovered and therefore studies about
1475:
Kumaresan, Venkatesh; Sannasimuthu, Anbazahan; Arasu, Mariadhas Valan; Al-Dhabi, Naif
Abdullah; Arockiaraj, Jesu (2018). "Molecular insight into the metabolic activities of a protein-rich micro alga,
555:, with paddle-wheels used to agitate the water. The largest commercial producers of spirulina are located in the United States, Thailand, India, Taiwan, China, Pakistan, Myanmar, Greece and Chile.
1679:
Tredici, M; Materassi, R (1992). "From open ponds to vertical alveolar panels: the
Italian experience in the development of reactors for the mass cultivation of phototrophic microorganisms".
637:
thus increasing the amount of sunlight available for photosynthesis. These closed systems help expanding the growing period into the winter months, but often lead to overheating in summer.
168:
390:
than previously thought and lacks characteristics of mass produced species (such as preference of alkaline habitats). As a result, researchers proposed a new genus closer to
1625:
Mass cultivation and wastewater treatment using
Spirulina. In A. Vonshak, ed. Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis) Physiology, Cell Biology and Biotechnology
154:
147:
1953:
182:
175:
410:
404:
189:
161:
1440:
Mahltig, B; et al. (2013). "Modification of algae with zinc, copper and silver ions for usage as natural composite for antibacterial applications".
310:
1927:
400:
1979:
979:"Detailed characterization of the Arthrospira type species separating commercially grown taxa into the new genus Limnospira (Cyanobacteria)"
1901:
1940:
350:. This misnomer has been difficult to correct. At present, taxonomy states that the name spirulina for strains which are used as
1556:
Photoinhibition as a limiting factor in outdoor cultivation of
Spirulina platensis. In Stadler et al. eds. Algal Biotechnology
1945:
278:
is now generally accepted, there has been much dispute in the past and the resulting taxonomical confusion is tremendous.
609:
757:
300:
and
Prochlorales. These photosynthetic organisms were first considered to be algae, a very large and diverse group of
1293:
2015:
1984:
1172:"A Review on Culture, Production and Use of Spirulina as Food dor Humans and Feeds for Domestic Animals and Fish"
595:
is 35–38 °C. This poses a major limiting factor outside the tropics, confining growth to the summer months.
451:
287:
253:
962:
Castenholz R.W.; Rippka R.; Herdman M.; Wilmotte A. (2007). Boone D.R.; Castenholz R.W.; Garrity G.M. (eds.).
2043:
1966:
430:
of varying size and with various degrees of coiling, including tightly-coiled morphology to a straight form.
1171:
54:
472:
463:, and constitute 53 to 68 percent by dry weight of the contents of the cell. Its protein harbours all
2020:
1994:
1169:
2048:
1035:
587:
depends on several factors. To achieve maximum output, factors such as the temperature, light and
346:, but the original species used to produce the dietary supplement spirulina belongs to the genus
1867:
1792:
475:(PUFAs), about 1.5–2 percent, and a total lipid content of 5–6 percent. These PUFAs contain the
1815:
624:
evaporation. Both of these problems can be addressed by covering the channels with transparent
488:
442:, and the cells of the trichomes vary in length from 2 to 12 μm and can sometimes reach 16 μm.
140:
1932:
1853:
292:
196:
2007:
1888:
1309:
Adiba, B. D.; et al. (2008). "Preliminary characterization of food tablets from date (
880:
in combating
Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) and Protein Energy Wasting (PEW) - A review"
551:
is endemic to the
Hawaiian islands. Most cultivated spirulina is produced in open-channel
464:
912:
Ohmori; Naoki Sato; Masahiko Ikeuchi; Nobuyuki Fujita & Masayuki Ohmori (2010-03-04).
8:
1196:
Phang, S. M. (2000). "Spirulina cultivation in digested sago starch factory wastewater".
910:
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229:
476:
1731:
1696:
1639:
1605:
1504:
1256:
1213:
1133:
1086:
1011:
946:
913:
821:
668:
572:
480:
326:
based on the presence of septa, its helical form, and its multicellular structure, and
241:
49:
719:
694:
2002:
1875:
1508:
1496:
1457:
1382:
1377:
1360:
1289:
1248:
1125:
1104:
Van Eykelenburg, C (1977). "On the morphology and ultrastructure of the cell wall of
1016:
998:
978:
951:
845:
813:
724:
511:
in tropical and subtropical regions. Among the various species included in the genus,
371:
265:
1700:
1609:
1260:
1217:
1170:
Habib, M. Ahsan B.; Parvin, Mashuda; Huntington, Tim C.; Hasan, Mohammad R. (2008).
1137:
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825:
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1723:
1688:
1659:
1651:
1597:
1536:
1488:
1449:
1417:
1372:
1344:
Asghari, A.; et al. (2016). "A Review on Antioxidant Properties of Spirulin".
1326:
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1205:
1117:
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990:
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933:
891:
805:
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1880:
32:
1422:
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588:
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351:
96:
1971:
1571:
Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira). In Physiology, Cell Biology and Biotechnology
1540:
1231:
Spolaore, Pauline; et al. (2006). "Commercial applications of microalgae".
515:
is the most widely distributed and is mainly found in Africa, but also in Asia.
308:
and named Cyanobacteria. This designation was accepted and published in 1974 by
1655:
1453:
994:
504:
439:
327:
106:
1492:
1209:
896:
875:
296:, which belongs to the oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria that cover the groups
2037:
1838:
1002:
961:
297:
225:
86:
76:
1805:. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway.
937:
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1020:
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Nowicka-Krawczyk, Paulina; Mühlsteinová, Radka; Hauer, Tomáš (2019-01-24).
955:
817:
625:
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in aquatic bodies and reduces various stresses in the aquatic environment.
552:
508:
383:
728:
1958:
1914:
1847:
1129:
1061:
Marty, F; Busson, F (1970). "Données cytologiques sur deux Cyanophycées:
536:
1664:
358:
is a distinct genus, consisting of over 30 different species, including
1906:
1727:
1692:
1601:
1244:
1121:
1082:
809:
796:
Stanier, RY; Van Niel, Y (January 1962). "The concept of a bacterium".
387:
339:
305:
1919:
1772:
Smart Fish (2011). "Spirulina – a livelihood and a business venture".
1862:
1801:
1521:
844:
Sánchez, Bernal-Castillo; Van Niel, J; Rozo, C; Rodríguez, I (2003).
532:
301:
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1832:
1627:. Basingstoke, Hants, London: Taylor and Francis. pp. 159–174.
427:
233:
66:
1474:
976:
743:
460:
207:
914:"Genomic Structure of an Economically Important Cyanobacterium,
527:
occur naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with alkaline
1893:
1754:
Ecology of Cyanobacteria II: Their Diversity in Space and Time
334:. Geitler in 1932 reunified both members designating them as
237:
873:
843:
1177:. Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations
314:. Scientifically, quite a distinction exists between the
1640:"Harvesting techniques applied to microalgae: A review"
1165:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
528:
270:. Although the introduction of the two separate genera
1714:
Tomaselli, L; et al. (1987). "Recent research on
1361:"Spirulina as a livestock supplement and animal feed"
874:
Siva Kiran, RR; Madhu, GM; Satyanarayana, SV (2016).
304:
organisms, until 1962 when they were reclassified as
1144:
640:
330:, in 1892, confirmed the aseptate form of the genus
667:international demand by increasing production and
619:Open pond systems are the most common way to grow
543:occurs in Africa, Asia and South America, whereas
519:is believed to be found in California and Mexico.
1573:. Basingstoke, Hants, London: Taylor and Francis.
1365:Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition
966:(2nd ed.). Springer: Berlin. pp. 542–3.
215:, on unstained wet mount under 400x magnification
2035:
1678:
1402:"Green biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by
1103:
795:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1435:
1433:
780:
374:suggests that certain species of this genus (
322:genera. Stizenberger, in 1852, gave the name
311:Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology
1286:: Physiology, Cell-Biology And Biotechnology
839:
837:
835:
354:is inappropriate, and agreement exists that
338:without considering the septum. Research on
1558:. London: Elsevier Applied Sci. Publishers.
1060:
1771:
1760:
1553:
1430:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1270:
964:Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology
558:
445:
264:species were once classified in the genus
31:
1713:
1663:
1622:
1583:
1421:
1376:
1071:Schweizerische Zeitschritf für Hydrologie
1010:
945:
895:
832:
718:
688:
686:
684:
1644:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
1346:Journal of Applied Biotechnology Reports
1233:Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering
1230:
224:is a genus of free-floating filamentous
206:
1751:
1568:
1439:
1399:
1343:
1280:
1267:
783:Spirulina in human nutrition and health
741:
692:
433:The helical parameters of the shape of
2036:
1790:
1637:
1590:Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
1359:Holman, B. W. B.; et al. (2012).
1358:
681:
603:
1814:
1813:
1747:
1745:
1308:
1195:
695:"Spirulina, the edible microorganism"
663:new spirulina farms are quite basic.
1995:eb68fba7-5eab-4a09-9e60-010d1ffc8e6c
1638:Barros, Ana I.; et al. (2015).
1527:sp. in response to sulfate stress".
1479:by de novo transcriptome analysis".
1033:
869:
867:
850:: an edible microorganism: a review"
1584:Materassi, R; et al. (1984). "
610:Culture of microalgae in hatcheries
578:
13:
1742:
1623:Laliberte, G; et al. (1997).
658:Especially as a small-scale crop,
14:
2060:
1784:
1442:Materials Science and Engineering
1284:Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira)
864:
641:Market potentials and feasibility
503:have been isolated from alkaline
290:, refers to the dried biomass of
211:Spirulina powder, from the genus
1378:10.1111/j.1439-0396.2012.01328.x
631:
547:is confined to Central America.
53:
1707:
1672:
1631:
1616:
1577:
1562:
1547:
1515:
1468:
1393:
1352:
1337:
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1097:
1054:
781:Gershwin, ME; Belay, A (2007).
763:from the original on 2016-01-23
756:(Ph.D.). University of Durham.
563:Spirulina is widely known as a
487:include vitamins, minerals and
342:was carried out in the name of
1027:
970:
904:
789:
774:
742:Mühling, Martin (March 2000).
735:
711:10.1128/MMBR.47.4.551-578.1983
452:Spirulina (dietary supplement)
1:
1756:. Springer. pp. 701–711.
960:In its turn, it references:
884:Journal of Nutrition Research
674:
494:
471:also contain high amounts of
417:
169:Arthrospira innermongoliensis
1681:Journal of Applied Phycology
1423:10.1016/j.scient.2012.01.010
1331:10.1016/j.powtec.2011.01.016
1198:Journal of Applied Phycology
614:
123:Sitzenberger ex Gomont, 1892
7:
1554:Vonshak, A; Guy, R (1988).
1541:10.1016/j.algal.2017.01.012
531:and high concentrations of
473:polyunsaturated fatty acids
281:
10:
2067:
1656:10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.037
1454:10.1016/j.msec.2012.11.033
995:10.1038/s41598-018-36831-0
607:
449:
392:Limnoraphis and Neolyngbya
1822:
1791:Guiry, M.D.; Guiry, G.M.
1493:10.1007/s11033-018-4229-1
1481:Molecular Biology Reports
133:
128:
50:Scientific classification
48:
39:
30:
23:
1281:Vonshak, Avigad (2002).
798:Archiv für Mikrobiologie
1752:Whitton, B. A. (2012).
1588:culture in sea-water".
1210:10.1023/A:1008157731731
1110:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
897:10.55289/jnutres/v3i1.5
854:Universitas Scientiarum
848:Spirulina (Arthrospira)
699:Microbiological Reviews
559:Present and future uses
489:photosynthetic pigments
446:Biochemical composition
483:. Further contents of
372:16S rRNA gene sequence
293:Arthrospira platensis
216:
155:Arthrospira fusiformis
148:Arthrospira erdosensis
141:Arthrospira ardissonei
16:Genus of Cyanobacteria
1477:Arthrospira platensis
1038:Arthrospira platensis
938:10.1093/dnares/dsq004
499:Species of the genus
465:essential amino acids
450:Further information:
366:. A 2019 analysis of
236:in an open left-hand
210:
197:Arthrospira platensis
183:Arthrospira massartii
42:Arthrospira platensis
2044:Cyanobacteria genera
922:) platensis NIES-39"
745:Characterization of
693:Ciferri, O. (1983).
569:silver nanoparticles
381:) is much closer to
1569:Vonshak, A (1997).
1404:Spirulina platensis
1313:L.) and spirulina (
1311:Phoenix dactylifera
1106:Spirulina platensis
1063:Spirulina platensis
604:Cultivation systems
176:Arthrospira jenneri
1728:10.1007/bf00046110
1722:. 151/152: 79–82.
1693:10.1007/bf02161208
1602:10.1007/bf00454374
1245:10.1263/jbb.101.87
1122:10.1007/bf00395664
1083:10.1007/bf02502570
1067:Spirulina geitleri
1065:(Gom.) Geitler et
983:Scientific Reports
810:10.1007/bf00425185
669:economies of scale
573:ecological balance
481:omega-6 fatty acid
426:comprises helical
242:dietary supplement
217:
190:Arthrospira maxima
162:Arthrospira indica
2031:
2030:
2003:Open Tree of Life
1816:Taxon identifiers
1319:Powder Technology
1044:Revue Algologique
785:. CRC Press, USA.
286:The common name,
228:characterized by
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204:
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1400:Mahdieh (2012).
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579:Cropping systems
477:γ-linolenic acid
459:is very rich in
352:food supplements
232:, multicellular
122:
58:
57:
35:
21:
20:
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2049:Oscillatoriales
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1317:sp.) powders".
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645:Cultivation of
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589:photoinhibition
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565:food supplement
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97:Oscillatoriales
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1785:External links
1783:
1780:
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1759:
1741:
1706:
1687:(3): 221–231.
1671:
1630:
1615:
1596:(6): 384–386.
1576:
1561:
1546:
1529:Algal Research
1514:
1487:(5): 829–838.
1467:
1448:(2): 979–983.
1429:
1416:(3): 926–929.
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1371:(4): 615–623.
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1325:(3): 725–730.
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1077:(2): 559–565.
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831:
788:
773:
734:
705:(4): 551–578.
679:
678:
676:
673:
642:
639:
633:
630:
616:
613:
608:Main article:
605:
602:
580:
577:
560:
557:
496:
493:
447:
444:
440:binary fission
419:
416:
370:species using
283:
280:
203:
202:
201:
200:
193:
186:
179:
172:
165:
158:
151:
144:
131:
130:
126:
125:
114:
110:
109:
107:Microcoleaceae
104:
100:
99:
94:
90:
89:
84:
80:
79:
74:
70:
69:
64:
60:
59:
46:
45:
37:
36:
28:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2062:
2061:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1849:
1845:
1840:
1834:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1812:
1804:
1803:
1798:
1789:
1788:
1775:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1755:
1748:
1746:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1675:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1650:: 1489–1500.
1649:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1626:
1619:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
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1572:
1565:
1557:
1550:
1542:
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1534:
1530:
1526:
1518:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
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1486:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1436:
1434:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1405:
1396:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1347:
1340:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1297:
1295:9780203483961
1291:
1288:. CRC Press.
1287:
1283:
1277:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1173:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1100:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1069:J. de Toni".
1068:
1064:
1057:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1039:
1030:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
973:
965:
957:
953:
948:
943:
939:
935:
932:(2): 85–103.
931:
927:
923:
921:
917:
907:
898:
893:
889:
885:
881:
879:
870:
868:
859:
855:
851:
849:
840:
838:
836:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
792:
784:
777:
759:
755:
754:
750:
746:
738:
730:
726:
721:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
689:
687:
685:
680:
672:
670:
664:
661:
656:
653:
648:
638:
632:Closed system
629:
627:
622:
611:
601:
598:
594:
590:
586:
576:
574:
570:
566:
556:
554:
553:raceway ponds
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
509:saline waters
506:
502:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
453:
443:
441:
436:
431:
429:
425:
415:
413:
412:
407:
406:
402:
401:L. fusiformis
398:
393:
389:
386:
385:
380:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
312:
307:
303:
299:
298:Cyanobacteria
295:
294:
289:
279:
277:
273:
269:
268:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
244:is made from
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
226:cyanobacteria
223:
222:
214:
209:
199:
198:
194:
192:
191:
187:
185:
184:
180:
178:
177:
173:
171:
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166:
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163:
159:
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145:
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138:
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132:
127:
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119:
115:
112:
111:
108:
105:
102:
101:
98:
95:
92:
91:
88:
85:
82:
81:
78:
77:Cyanobacteria
75:
72:
71:
68:
65:
62:
61:
56:
51:
47:
43:
38:
34:
29:
26:
22:
19:
1823:
1800:
1773:
1753:
1720:Hydrobiology
1719:
1715:
1709:
1684:
1680:
1674:
1665:10216/103426
1647:
1643:
1633:
1624:
1618:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1579:
1570:
1564:
1555:
1549:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1517:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1470:
1445:
1441:
1413:
1409:
1403:
1395:
1368:
1364:
1354:
1345:
1339:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1304:
1285:
1282:
1239:(2): 87–96.
1236:
1232:
1226:
1201:
1197:
1191:
1181:November 20,
1179:. Retrieved
1116:(2): 89–99.
1113:
1109:
1105:
1099:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1056:
1047:
1043:
1037:
1029:
986:
982:
972:
963:
929:
926:DNA Research
925:
919:
915:
906:
890:(1): 62–79.
887:
883:
877:
857:
853:
847:
801:
797:
791:
782:
776:
765:. Retrieved
752:
748:
744:
737:
702:
698:
665:
659:
657:
651:
646:
644:
635:
626:polyethylene
621:A. platensis
620:
618:
597:A. platensis
596:
593:A. platensis
592:
585:A. platensis
584:
582:
562:
548:
544:
541:A. platensis
540:
524:
521:A. platensis
520:
516:
513:A. platensis
512:
500:
498:
484:
468:
456:
455:
434:
432:
423:
421:
409:
396:
395:
391:
384:Planktothrix
382:
378:
375:
367:
363:
360:A. platensis
359:
355:
347:
343:
335:
331:
323:
319:
315:
309:
291:
285:
275:
271:
266:
262:A. platensis
261:
257:
249:
246:A. platensis
245:
220:
219:
218:
212:
195:
188:
181:
174:
167:
160:
153:
146:
139:
134:
117:
116:
87:Cyanophyceae
41:
24:
18:
1959:arthrospira
1915:iNaturalist
1854:Arthrospira
1848:Wikispecies
1824:Arthrospira
1795:Arthrospira
1718:in Italy".
1525:Arthrospira
916:Arthrospira
747:Arthrospira
660:Arthrospira
652:Arthrospira
647:Arthrospira
549:A. pacifica
537:bicarbonate
501:Arthrospira
485:Arthrospira
469:Arthrospira
457:Arthrospira
435:Arthrospira
424:Arthrospira
399:comprising
368:Arthrospira
356:Arthrospira
348:Arthrospira
324:Arthrospira
320:Arthrospira
306:prokaryotes
272:Arthrospira
252:, known as
230:cylindrical
221:Arthrospira
213:Arthrospira
118:Arthrospira
25:Arthrospira
2038:Categories
1535:: 96–103.
1036:"Notes on
989:(1): 694.
860:(1): 7–24.
767:2016-01-23
675:References
583:Growth of
495:Occurrence
479:(GLA), an
422:The genus
418:Morphology
397:Limnospira
340:microalgae
302:eukaryotic
135:About 35.
1863:AlgaeBase
1802:AlgaeBase
1716:Spirulina
1586:Spirulina
1509:254835532
1315:Spirulina
1003:2045-2322
920:Spirulina
878:Spirulina
804:: 17–35.
753:) Strains
751:Spirulina
615:Open pond
545:A. maxima
533:carbonate
525:A. maxima
517:A. maxima
428:trichomes
411:L. indica
405:L. maxima
364:A. maxima
344:Spirulina
336:Spirulina
332:Spirulina
316:Spirulina
288:spirulina
276:Spirulina
267:Spirulina
258:A. maxima
254:spirulina
250:A. maxima
234:trichomes
40:A single
1833:Wikidata
1701:20554506
1610:31267876
1501:29978380
1462:25427514
1387:22860698
1261:16896655
1253:16569602
1218:20718419
1138:22249310
1091:44855904
1050:: 75–79.
1021:30679537
956:20203057
826:29859498
818:13916221
758:Archived
505:brackish
461:proteins
282:Taxonomy
129:Species
103:Family:
73:Phylum:
67:Bacteria
63:Domain:
1933:1023925
1907:3218397
1839:Q987596
1736:9903582
1012:6345927
947:2853384
729:6420655
394:called
379:jenneri
256:. The
113:Genus:
93:Order:
83:Class:
44:colony
2021:162385
2008:231664
1992:NZOR:
1920:474641
1734:
1699:
1608:
1507:
1499:
1460:
1385:
1292:
1259:
1251:
1216:
1136:
1130:413479
1128:
1089:
1019:
1009:
1001:
954:
944:
824:
816:
727:
720:283708
717:
628:film.
328:Gomont
2016:WoRMS
1985:35823
1928:IRMNG
1894:12113
1868:43076
1732:S2CID
1697:S2CID
1606:S2CID
1505:S2CID
1257:S2CID
1214:S2CID
1175:(PDF)
1134:S2CID
1087:S2CID
822:S2CID
761:(PDF)
388:clade
240:. A
238:helix
1980:NCBI
1954:LPSN
1946:1090
1941:ITIS
1902:GBIF
1881:33DX
1497:PMID
1458:PMID
1383:PMID
1290:ISBN
1249:PMID
1183:2011
1126:PMID
1017:PMID
999:ISSN
952:PMID
814:PMID
725:PMID
535:and
523:and
507:and
408:and
362:and
318:and
274:and
260:and
248:and
1967:NBN
1889:EoL
1876:CoL
1724:doi
1689:doi
1660:hdl
1652:doi
1598:doi
1537:doi
1489:doi
1450:doi
1418:doi
1373:doi
1327:doi
1323:208
1241:doi
1237:101
1206:doi
1118:doi
1108:".
1079:doi
1007:PMC
991:doi
942:PMC
934:doi
892:doi
806:doi
715:PMC
707:doi
2040::
2018::
2005::
1982::
1969::
1956::
1943::
1930::
1917::
1904::
1891::
1878::
1865::
1850::
1835::
1799:.
1762:^
1744:^
1730:.
1695:.
1683:.
1658:.
1648:41
1646:.
1642:.
1604:.
1594:19
1592:.
1533:23
1531:.
1503:.
1495:.
1485:45
1483:.
1456:.
1446:33
1444:.
1432:^
1414:19
1412:.
1408:.
1381:.
1369:97
1367:.
1363:.
1321:.
1269:^
1255:.
1247:.
1235:.
1212:.
1202:12
1200:.
1146:^
1132:.
1124:.
1114:43
1112:.
1085:.
1075:32
1073:.
1046:.
1042:.
1015:.
1005:.
997:.
985:.
981:.
950:.
940:.
930:17
928:.
924:.
886:.
882:.
866:^
856:.
852:.
834:^
820:.
812:.
802:42
800:.
723:.
713:.
703:47
701:.
697:.
683:^
539:.
529:pH
491:.
467:.
414:.
403:,
376:A.
1797:"
1793:"
1776:.
1738:.
1726::
1703:.
1691::
1685:4
1668:.
1662::
1654::
1612:.
1600::
1543:.
1539::
1511:.
1491::
1464:.
1452::
1426:.
1420::
1406:"
1389:.
1375::
1348:.
1333:.
1329::
1298:.
1263:.
1243::
1220:.
1208::
1185:.
1140:.
1120::
1093:.
1081::
1048:6
1040:"
1023:.
993::
987:9
958:.
936::
918:(
900:.
894::
888:3
876:"
858:8
846:"
828:.
808::
770:.
749:(
731:.
709::
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