81:
202:
22:
142:'s 1978 article "A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems." They wrote, "For our scenarios we suppose that A and B (also known as Alice and Bob) are two users of a public-key cryptosystem". Previous to this article, cryptographers typically referred to message senders and receivers as A and B, or other simple symbols. In fact, in the two previous articles by Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman, introducing the
72:. As the use of Alice and Bob became more widespread, additional characters were added, sometimes each with a particular meaning. These characters do not have to refer to people; they refer to generic agents which might be different computers or even different programs running on a single computer.
171:
together. They live on opposite coasts, communicate mainly by telephone, and use their computers to transact business over the telephone." In 1984, John Gordon delivered his famous "After Dinner Speech" about Alice and Bob, which he imagines to be the first "definitive biography of Alice and Bob."
170:
Although Alice and Bob were invented with no reference to their personality, authors soon began adding colorful descriptions. In 1983, Blum invented a backstory about a troubled relationship between Alice and Bob, writing, "Alice and Bob, recently divorced, mutually distrustful, still do business
254:
The most common characters are Alice and Bob. Eve, Mallory, and Trent are also common names, and have fairly well-established "personalities" (or functions). The names often use alliterative mnemonics (for example, Eve, "eavesdropper"; Mallory, "malicious") where different players have different
174:
In addition to adding backstories and personalities to Alice and Bob, authors soon added other characters, with their own personalities. The first to be added was Eve, the "eavesdropper." Eve was invented in 1988 by
Charles Bennet, Gilles Brassard, and Jean-Marc Robert, in their paper, "Privacy
851:
A significant challenge with understanding climate change is the abstract nature of the problem, and the difficulty in relating it to personal actions and consequences. The names Alice and Bob have been used in this context to illustrate emissions and climate consequences on a personal level.
88:
Alice and Bob are the names of fictional characters used for convenience and to aid comprehension. For example, "How can Bob send a private message M to Alice in a public-key cryptosystem?" is believed to be easier to describe and understand than if the hypothetical people were simply named
2141:
Farbod
Khoshnoud, Maziar Ghazinejad, Automated quantum entanglement and cryptography for networks of robotic systems, IEEE/ASME International Conference on Mechatronic and Embedded Systems and Applications (MESA), IDETC-CIE 2021, Virtual Conference: August 17 – 20, DETC2021-71653,
838:
In experiments involving robotic systems, the terms "Alice Robot" and "Bob Robot" refer to mobile platforms responsible for transmitting quantum information and receiving it with quantum detectors, respectively, within the context of the field of
834:
The names Alice and Bob are often used to name the participants in thought experiments in physics. More alphabetical names, usually of alternating gender, are used as required, e.g. "Alice and Bob (and Carol and Dick and Eve)".
2235:
Farbod
Khoshnoud, Marco B. Quadrelli, Enrique Galvez, Clarence W. de Silva, Shayan Javaherian, B. Bahr, M. Ghazinejad, A. S. Eddin, M. El-Hadedy, Quantum Brain-Computer Interface, ASEE PSW, 2023, in press.
1709:
Mallet represents an active adversary that not only listens to all communications between Alice and Bob but can also modify the contents of any communication he sees while it is in transit.
163:
began his 1981 paper, "Bob and Alice each have a secret, SB and SA, respectively, which they want to exchange." Early on, Alice and Bob were starting to appear in other domains, such as in
504:), who can modify messages, substitute messages, or replay old messages. The difficulty of securing a system against a Mallory is much greater than against an Eve.
2152:
Khoshnoud, Farbod; Aiello, Clarice; Quadrelli, Bruno; Ghazinejad, Maziar; De Silva, Clarence; Khoshnoud, Farbod; Bahr, Behnam; Lamata, Lucas (April 23, 2021).
167:'s 1981 article, "Coin Flipping by Telephone: A Protocol for Solving Impossible Problems," which begins, "Alice and Bob want to flip a coin by telephone."
2109:
Lamata, Lucas; Quadrelli, Marco B.; de Silva, Clarence W.; Kumar, Prem; Kanter, Gregory S.; Ghazinejad, Maziar; Khoshnoud, Farbod (October 12, 2021).
1983:
1413:
Cho, Hyunghoon; Ippolito, Daphne; Yun
William Yu (2020). "Contact Tracing Mobile Apps for COVID-19: Privacy Considerations and Related Trade-offs".
1678:
Mallet maintains the illusion that Alice and Bob are talking to each other rather than to him by intercepting the messages and retransmitting them.
2301:
A short history of Bobs (story and slideshow) in the computing industry, from Alice & Bob to
Microsoft Bob and Father of Ethernet Bob Metcalfe
2009:
Frazier, Matthew; Taddese, Biniyam; Antonsen, Thomas; Anlage, Steven M. (February 7, 2013). "Nonlinear Time
Reversal in a Wave Chaotic System".
1070:
1447:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 10, 210. University of Pennsylvania and INRIA, CNRS, University of Lorraine. pp. 202–231.
823:. Additionally, Arthur, given the same outcome, prefers a game to take the fewest moves, while Bertha prefers a game to take the most moves.
255:
motives. Other names are much less common and more flexible in use. Sometimes the genders are alternated: Alice, Bob, Carol, Dave, Eve, etc.
424:. For example, Grace may try to force Alice or Bob to implement backdoors in their protocols. Grace may also deliberately weaken standards.
1209:
Cattaneoa, Giuseppe; De
Santisa, Alfredo; Ferraro Petrillo, Umberto (April 2008). "Visualization of cryptographic protocols with GRACE".
56:
in their 1978 paper "A Method for
Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-key Cryptosystems". Subsequently, they have become common
2300:
2330:
1854:
2290:
2270:
1942:
1928:
1640:
1535:
1470:
1397:
1298:
367:, who is usually a passive attacker. While they can listen in on messages between Alice and Bob, they cannot modify them. In
1085:
2158:. 2021 ASEE Pacific Southwest Conference - "Pushing Past Pandemic Pedagogy: Learning from Disruption". ASEE Conferences.
1647:
Mallet can intercept Alice's database inquiry, and substitute his own public key for Alice's. He can do the same to Bob.
1764:
148:
2170:
1967:
1733:
1702:
1671:
819:
Arthur is the "left", "black", or "vertical" player, and Bertha is the "right", "white", or "horizontal" player in a
241:
2320:
861:
763:
Merlin provides answers, and Arthur asks questions. Merlin has unbounded computational ability (like the wizard
1251:
Bennett, Charles H.; Brassard, Gilles; Robert, Jean-Marc (1988). "Privacy
Amplification by Public Discussion".
223:
219:
2340:
270:
The original, generic characters. Generally, Alice and Bob want to exchange a message or cryptographic key.
115:
Scientific papers about thought experiments with several participants often used letters to identify them:
159:. Cryptographers would often begin their academic papers with reference to Alice and Bob. For instance,
146:, there is no mention of Alice and Bob. The choice of the first three names may have come from the film
2325:
876:
820:
802:
155:
Within a few years, however, references to Alice and Bob in cryptological literature became a common
2183:
964:
1817:
1740:
We model key choices of Alice, Bob and adversary Mallet as independent random variables A, B and M
745:
501:
2285:
2335:
1607:
871:
212:
1812:
1555:
959:
37:
2182:
Khoshnoud, Farbod; Esat, Ibrahim I.; de Silva, Clarence W.; Quadrelli, Marco B. (April 2019).
950:(February 1, 1978). "A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-key Cryptosystems".
107:
such as "Mallory" for "malicious" to associate the name with the typical role of that person.
1389:
633:, who usually uses a large number of identities. For example, Sybil may attempt to subvert a
40:, and in other science and engineering literature where there are several participants in a
2028:
1327:
912:
595:
368:
61:
767:). In interactive proof systems, Merlin claims the truth of a statement, and Arthur (like
8:
2096:
2092:
663:
2032:
1331:
594:
to show that the intended transaction has actually taken place. Peggy is often found in
2211:
2052:
2018:
1911:
1850:"Arthur-Merlin games: A randomized proof system, and a hierarchy of complexity classes"
1830:
1659:
1577:
1476:
1448:
1414:
1358:
1315:
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1147:
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985:
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156:
143:
41:
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1963:
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1868:
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1345:
1294:
977:
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634:
314:
2056:
1915:
1581:
1480:
1195:
1151:
25:
Example scenario where communication between Alice and Bob is intercepted by
Mallory
2195:
2159:
2122:
2040:
2036:
1903:
1863:
1822:
1567:
1458:
1353:
1335:
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1260:
1218:
1181:
1137:
1103:
989:
969:
902:
840:
786:
160:
2267:
1891:
1438:; Thomé, Emmanuel (2017). "A Kilobit Hidden SNFS Discrete Logarithm Computation".
347:
A generic fifth participant, but rarely used, as "E" is usually reserved for Eve.
2274:
2246:
2097:
Journal of Mechatronic Systems and Control, Volume 49, Issue 3, pp. 124-131, 2021
2070:
1690:
1502:
1383:
1052:
1026:
947:
764:
613:
139:
53:
2127:
2110:
1932:
1462:
915:
896:
470:
who may be called upon to resolve a potential dispute between participants. See
1628:
1595:
1523:
1435:
1286:
1222:
866:
546:
534:
Used as an alternative to the eavesdropper Eve in several South Asian nations.
392:, courier or intermediary. Faythe is used infrequently, and is associated with
176:
2199:
1907:
1599:
97:
as in "How can B send a private message M to A in a public-key cryptosystem?"
2314:
2207:
1887:
1349:
981:
733:, who is an insider with privileged access capable of divulging information.
729:
713:
555:
363:
1783:
1142:
1125:
790:
32:
are fictional characters commonly used as placeholders in discussions about
2048:
1883:
1800:
1721:
1367:
638:
550:, who responds to queries from other participants. Olivia often acts as a "
101:
80:
33:
2279:
2091:
Farbod Khoshnoud, Lucas Lamata, Clarence W. De Silva, Marco B. Quadrelli,
1826:
1237:
1186:
1169:
973:
400:. Faythe may be a repository of key service or courier of shared secrets.
1803:; et al. (1992). "Algebraic Methods for Interactive Proof Systems".
1165:
1121:
785:
Paul asks questions, and Carole provides answers. In the solution of the
768:
164:
130:
The first mention of Alice and Bob in the context of cryptography was in
65:
2164:
1771:
Suppose Alice and Bob wish to exchange keys, and Darth is the adversary.
1572:
1316:"Efficient multiuser quantum cryptography network based on entanglement"
1551:
1439:
1372:
An example from quantum cryptography with Alice, Bob, Carol, and David.
1126:"Coin Flipping by Telephone a Protocol for Solving Impossible Problems"
1048:
1044:
1022:
1018:
943:
939:
520:
500:. Unlike the passive Eve, Mallory is an active attacker (often used in
471:
226: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
135:
131:
49:
45:
2268:
A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-Key Cryptosystems
1340:
1784:"A Collaborative Access Control Framework for Online Social Networks"
907:
628:
551:
57:
1264:
1110:. Aiken Computation Lab, Harvard University. Technical Report TR-81.
1007:. Santa Barbara California: Instructional Horizons, Inc. p. 10.
201:
21:
1453:
1419:
1208:
104:
2151:
2023:
2093:
Quantum Teleportation for Control of Dynamic Systems and Autonomy
1633:
Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithms, and Source Code in C
1528:
Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithms, and Source Code in C
794:
388:
69:
1984:"Alice and Bob communicate without transferring a single photon"
1291:
Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C
798:
2181:
2153:
2184:"Quantum Network of Cooperative Unmanned Autonomous Systems"
2108:
2008:
2262:
1556:"Formalizing and Securing Relationships on Public Networks"
1757:
Cryptography and Network Security: Principles and Practice
100:
The names are conventional, and where relevant may use an
2282:, given at the Zurich Seminar, April 1984, by John Gordon
1412:
2305:
2155:
Modernizing Mechatronics course with Quantum Engineering
1433:
319:
often encountered in situations with stored passwords.
1033:. Cambridge MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
16:
Characters used in cryptography and science literature
1250:
572:, similar to Mallory, but not necessarily malicious.
518:
Used as an alternative to the eavesdropper Eve, from
84:
An example of an "Alice and Bob" used in cryptography
801:") answered them. Paul and Carole were also used in
554:" with some concealed state or information, or as a
1043:
1017:
938:
60:in many scientific and engineering fields, such as
1031:On Digital Signatures and Public-Key Cryptosystems
302:A third participant, usually of malicious intent.
452:, mentioned first by Ian Grigg in the context of
2312:
1314:Xue, Peng; Wang, Kunkun; Wang, Xiaoping (2017).
1086:"Security's inseparable couple: Alice & Bob"
44:. The Alice and Bob characters were invented by
1726:Algorithmic Aspects of Wireless Sensor Networks
1518:
1516:
1108:How to exchange secrets with oblivious transfer
1882:
1057:Cryptographic Communications System and Method
438:for cryptographic standards, but rarely used.
1927:
1745:
1683:
1385:Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms
2069:
1621:
1513:
739:
1848:Babai, László; Moran, Shlomo (April 1988).
1652:
1313:
1211:Journal of Visual Languages & Computing
1847:
1069:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2244:
2163:
2126:
2022:
1934:Data Streams: Algorithms and Applications
1867:
1816:
1751:
1714:
1689:
1571:
1452:
1418:
1381:
1357:
1339:
1185:
1141:
963:
906:
894:
612:who appears for interactions that desire
242:Learn how and when to remove this message
1896:Combinatorics, Probability and Computing
1627:
1594:
1522:
1285:
191:
175:Amplification by Public Discussion." In
79:
20:
2245:Rasmussen, Carl Edward (July 4, 2024).
1855:Journal of Computer and System Sciences
1658:
1441:Advances in Cryptology – EUROCRYPT 2017
1238:"The Alice and Bob After Dinner Speech"
2313:
1957:
1610:from the original on December 22, 2021
1530:(Second ed.). Wiley. p. 23.
1293:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
1235:
1002:
888:
805:, in the roles of pusher and chooser.
771:), questions him to verify the claim.
2280:The Alice and Bob After-Dinner Speech
1720:
1550:
1500:
1102:
1083:
898:Internet Security Glossary, Version 2
186:
149:Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice
1962:. CRC Press. pp. 71, 175, 176.
1799:
1174:ACM Transactions on Computer Systems
1164:
1120:
934:
932:
930:
928:
224:adding citations to reliable sources
195:
13:
2075:"209: Notes on Special Relativity"
14:
2352:
2256:
1434:Fried, Joshua; Gaudry, Pierrick;
925:
846:
793:) asked questions and Carole (an
1501:Grigg, Ian (November 24, 2002).
200:
2238:
2229:
2175:
2145:
2135:
2102:
2085:
2063:
2002:
1976:
1951:
1921:
1876:
1841:
1793:
1776:
1697:. Addison-Wesley. p. 616.
1588:
1544:
1540:. Table 2.1: Dramatis Personae.
1494:
1427:
1406:
1375:
1307:
1279:
1244:
1229:
1202:
1170:"How to exchange (Secret) keys"
1084:Brown, Bob (February 7, 2005).
789:problem, Paul (standing in for
717:, who may guard Alice and Bob.
211:needs additional citations for
183:, other characters are listed.
2331:Thought experiments in physics
2082:An example with several names.
2041:10.1103/physrevlett.110.063902
1666:. Network Press. p. 130.
1158:
1114:
1096:
1077:
1037:
1011:
996:
697:, who requires proof from the
337:A generic fourth participant.
1:
1937:. Now Publishers. p. 3.
1892:"Three Thresholds for a Liar"
1392:. p. 171;399–402.
1382:Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (2007).
882:
410:A generic sixth participant.
371:, Eve may also represent the
288:A generic third participant.
2247:"Alice, Bob and the Climate"
1958:Conway, John Horton (2000).
1869:10.1016/0022-0000(88)90028-1
1005:Encyclopedia of Cryptography
748:there are other characters:
496:. Associated with Trudy, an
7:
2128:10.3390/electronics10202483
1463:10.1007/978-3-319-56620-7_8
1236:Gordon, John (April 1984).
862:Diffie–Hellman key exchange
855:
75:
10:
2357:
2286:Geek Song: "Alice and Bob"
2273:December 17, 2008, at the
1600:"Who are Alice & Bob?"
1223:10.1016/j.jvlc.2007.05.001
877:Security protocol notation
829:
110:
2200:10.1142/S2301385019500055
1908:10.1017/S0963548300000080
1253:SIAM Journal on Computing
1003:Newton, David E. (1997).
952:Communications of the ACM
901:. Network Working Group.
895:R. Shirey (August 2007).
746:interactive proof systems
740:Interactive proof systems
590:, who interacts with the
502:man-in-the-middle attacks
422:government representative
2306:XKCD #177: Alice and Bob
2263:History of Alice and Bob
1759:. Pearson. p. 317.
1728:. Springer. p. 67.
1059:. Cambridge MA. 4405829.
2321:Cryptographic protocols
2011:Physical Review Letters
1695:.NET Framework Security
1143:10.1145/1008908.1008911
1055:(September 20, 1983) .
872:Public-key cryptography
2111:"Quantum Mechatronics"
1662:; et al. (2000).
1598:(September 23, 2010),
85:
26:
1827:10.1145/146585.146605
1635:. Wiley. p. 44.
1503:"Ivan The Honourable"
1390:Pearson Prentice Hall
1187:10.1145/357360.357368
1124:(November 10, 1981).
974:10.1145/359340.359342
596:zero-knowledge proofs
192:Cryptographic systems
83:
24:
2341:History of computing
1960:On Numbers and Games
436:mischievous designer
369:quantum cryptography
220:improve this article
181:Applied Cryptography
62:quantum cryptography
2291:Alice and Bob jokes
2165:10.18260/1-2--38241
2033:2013PhRvL.110f3902F
1660:Perkins, Charles L.
1573:10.5210/fm.v2i9.548
1332:2017NatSR...745928X
803:combinatorial games
664:neutral third party
482:or (less commonly)
454:Ricardian contracts
1805:Journal of the ACM
1753:Stallings, William
1664:Firewalls: 24seven
1554:(September 1997).
1320:Scientific Reports
821:combinatorial game
494:malicious attacker
187:Cast of characters
86:
42:thought experiment
27:
2326:Placeholder names
2295:Quantum Computing
2073:(March 5, 2000).
1944:978-1-933019-14-7
1929:Muthukrishnan, S.
1642:978-0-471-59756-8
1537:978-0-471-11709-4
1472:978-3-319-56619-1
1399:978-0-13-239227-3
1341:10.1038/srep45928
1300:978-0-471-59756-8
1104:Rabin, Michael O.
827:
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635:reputation system
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2188:Unmanned Systems
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1997:
1995:
1990:. April 16, 2013
1988:physicsworld.com
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908:10.17487/RFC4949
892:
841:quantum robotics
787:Twenty Questions
751:
750:
662:, who acts as a
315:password cracker
258:
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144:RSA cryptosystem
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1596:Schneier, Bruce
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1524:Schneier, Bruce
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1287:Schneier, Bruce
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1130:ACM SIGACT News
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965:10.1.1.607.2677
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614:non-repudiation
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54:Leonard Adleman
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2219:. Retrieved
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1992:. Retrieved
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1902:(1): 81–93,
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213:verification
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102:alliterative
99:
94:
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36:systems and
29:
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2115:Electronics
1552:Szabo, Nick
1486:October 12,
1049:Shamir, Adi
1023:Shamir, Adi
944:Shamir, Adi
769:King Arthur
373:environment
165:Manuel Blum
66:game theory
2315:Categories
1454:1610.02874
1420:2003.11511
883:References
791:Paul Erdős
695:A verifier
659:arbitrator
610:repudiator
521:microphone
472:Judge Judy
58:archetypes
50:Adi Shamir
46:Ron Rivest
2297:-related)
2216:149842737
2208:2301-3850
2024:1207.1667
1835:207170996
1813:CiteSeerX
1350:2045-2322
1240:. Zurich.
1065:cite book
982:0001-0782
960:CiteSeerX
552:black box
38:protocols
2293:(mainly
2271:Archived
2057:35907279
2049:23432243
1994:June 19,
1931:(2005).
1916:45707043
1890:(1992),
1755:(1998).
1693:(2002).
1631:(1994).
1608:archived
1582:33773111
1526:(1996).
1507:iang.org
1481:12341745
1368:28374854
1289:(2015).
1196:16304470
1168:(1983).
1152:19928725
1106:(1981).
856:See also
678:intruder
657:trusted
631:attacker
592:verifier
570:opponent
498:intruder
387:trusted
232:May 2023
179:'s book
105:mnemonic
76:Overview
2029:Bibcode
1604:YouTube
1359:5379677
1328:Bibcode
1273:5956782
990:2873616
830:Physics
795:anagram
510:Michael
480:Mallory
389:advisor
284:Charlie
140:Adleman
127:, etc.
111:History
70:physics
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815:Bertha
811:Arthur
799:oracle
781:Carole
765:Merlin
759:Merlin
755:Arthur
714:warden
707:Walter
699:prover
686:Victor
637:. See
604:Rupert
588:prover
547:oracle
540:Olivia
484:Mallet
450:issuer
381:Faythe
280:Carlos
138:, and
136:Shamir
132:Rivest
52:, and
2212:S2CID
2142:2021.
2078:(PDF)
2053:S2CID
2019:arXiv
1912:S2CID
1831:S2CID
1787:(PDF)
1578:S2CID
1566:(9).
1477:S2CID
1449:arXiv
1445:(PDF)
1415:arXiv
1269:S2CID
1192:S2CID
1148:S2CID
986:S2CID
723:Wendy
690:Vanna
672:Trudy
647:Trent
622:Sybil
578:Peggy
564:Oscar
488:Darth
468:judge
430:Heidi
416:Grace
406:Frank
394:faith
333:David
308:Craig
294:Chuck
276:Carol
262:Alice
157:trope
2223:2023
2204:ISSN
2045:PMID
1996:2017
1964:ISBN
1939:ISBN
1761:ISBN
1730:ISBN
1699:ISBN
1668:ISBN
1637:ISBN
1616:2017
1532:ISBN
1488:2016
1467:ISBN
1394:ISBN
1364:PMID
1346:ISSN
1295:ISBN
1071:link
978:ISSN
916:4949
813:and
797:of "
779:and
777:Paul
757:and
744:For
530:Niaj
514:Mike
462:Judy
444:Ivan
396:and
357:Yves
343:Erin
329:Dave
298:Chad
264:and
93:and
68:and
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2171:PDF
2160:doi
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2015:110
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1823:doi
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1459:doi
1354:PMC
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970:doi
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903:doi
688:or
676:An
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649:or
582:Pat
580:or
568:An
544:An
512:or
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331:or
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