Disease theory of alcoholism

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that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type NAc neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type NAc neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state. Many other ΔFosB targets have been shown to mediate the ability of certain drugs of abuse to induce synaptic plasticity in the NAc and associated changes in the dendritic arborization of NAc medium spiny neurons, as will be discussed below.

2121:ΔFosB is an essential transcription factor implicated in the molecular and behavioral pathways of addiction following repeated drug exposure. The formation of ΔFosB in multiple brain regions, and the molecular pathway leading to the formation of AP-1 complexes is well understood. The establishment of a functional purpose for ΔFosB has allowed further determination as to some of the key aspects of its molecular cascades, involving effectors such as GluR2 (87,88), Cdk5 (93) and NFkB (100). Moreover, many of these molecular changes identified are now directly linked to the structural, physiological and behavioral changes observed following chronic drug exposure (60,95,97,102). New frontiers of research investigating the molecular roles of ΔFosB have been opened by epigenetic studies, and recent advances have illustrated the role of ΔFosB acting on DNA and histones, truly as a 342:

that even contests the proposition that alcoholism is a disease, much less that it is a disease for which the victim bears no responsibility". He also wrote: "Indeed, even among many who consider alcoholism a 'disease' to which its victims are genetically predisposed, the consumption of alcohol is not regarded as wholly involuntary." However, the majority opinion stated in conclusion that "this litigation does not require the Court to decide whether alcoholism is a disease whose course its victims cannot control. It is not our role to resolve this medical issue on which the authorities remain sharply divided." The dissenting opinion noted that "despite much comment in the popular press, these cases are not concerned with whether alcoholism, simplistically, is or is not a 'disease.'"

434:(NIAAA), concerned with the support and conduct of biomedical and behavioral research on the causes, consequences, treatment, and prevention of alcoholism and alcohol-related problems. It funds approximately 90 percent of all such research in the United States. The official NIAAA position is that "alcoholism is a disease. The craving that an alcoholic feels for alcohol can be as strong as the need for food or water. An alcoholic will continue to drink despite serious family, health, or legal problems. Like many other diseases, alcoholism is chronic, meaning that it lasts a person's lifetime; it usually follows a predictable course; and it has symptoms. The risk for developing alcoholism is influenced both by a person's genes and by his or her lifestyle." 292:(NIAAA) study, about one of every six (18%) of alcohol dependent adults in the U.S. whose dependence began over one year previously had become "low-risk drinkers" (less than fourteen drinks per week and five drinks per day for men, or less than seven per week and four per day for women). This modern longitudinal study surveyed more than 43,000 individuals representative of the U.S. adult population, rather than focusing solely on those seeking or receiving treatment for alcohol dependence. "Twenty years after onset of alcohol dependence, about three-fourths of individuals are in full recovery; more than half of those who have fully recovered drink at low-risk levels without symptoms of alcohol dependence." 388:

summarizing the vast amount of knowledge gained in the last 20-30 years. The report highlights the current state of knowledge of the mechanisms of action of different types of psychoactive substances, and explains how the use of these substances can lead to the development of dependence syndrome." The report states that "dependence has not previously been recognized as a disorder of the brain, in the same way that psychiatric and mental illnesses were not previously viewed as being a result of a disorder of the brain. However, with recent advances in neuroscience, it is clear that dependence is as much a disorder of the brain as any other neurological or psychiatric illness."

43: 2125:(34). As a consequence of our improved understanding of ΔFosB in addiction, it is possible to evaluate the addictive potential of current medications (119), as well as use it as a biomarker for assessing the efficacy of therapeutic interventions (121,122,124). Some of these proposed interventions have limitations (125) or are in their infancy (75). However, it is hoped that some of these preliminary findings may lead to innovative treatments, which are much needed in addiction. 461:

commitment to total abstinence to be factors correlated with increased likelihood that an alcoholic would have a full-blown relapse (substantial continued use) following an initial lapse (single use). However, the authors noted that "the direction of causality cannot be determined from these data. It is possible that belief in alcoholism as a loss-of-control disease predisposes clients to relapse, or that repeated relapses reinforce clients' beliefs in the disease model."

4095: 255:. Some argue he was the first to systematically describe the physical characteristics of habitual drinking and claim that it was a mental disease. However, Huss regarded heavy drinking still as a vice (that causes a destruction of the nervous system). Moreover, this came decades after Trotter, Rush, Hufeland and Brühl-Cramer wrote their works, and some historians argue that the idea that habitual drinking was a mental disease emerged even earlier. 2116:

subsequent action (38). It is likely that ΔFosB research will now progress into a new era – the use of ΔFosB as a biomarker. If ΔFosB detection is indicative of chronic drug exposure (and is at least partly responsible for dependence of the substance), then its monitoring for therapeutic efficacy in interventional studies is a suitable biomarker (Figure 2). Examples of therapeutic avenues are discussed herein. ...

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faulty data." The most recent study, a long-term (60 year) follow-up of two groups of alcoholic men by George Vaillant at Harvard Medical School concluded that "return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence." Vaillant also noted that "return-to-controlled drinking, as reported in short-term studies, is often a mirage."

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consumption of alcohol is necessary to develop alcoholism, the availability of and attitudes towards alcohol in an individual's environment affect their likelihood of developing the disease. Current evidence indicates that in both men and women, alcoholism is 50–60% genetically determined, leaving 40-50% for environmental influences.

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years). Davies concluded that "the accepted view that no alcohol addict can ever again drink normally should be modified, although all patients should be advised to aim at total abstinence"; After the Davies study, several other researchers reported cases of problem drinkers returning to controlled drinking.

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80 (1985): 385-96) who places the idea to emerge with Trotter, Jessica Warner who uses a narrow reading of 17th century sermons to place it in the 1600s, Peter Ferentzy who successfully challenges Warner's argument by showing that the term "disease" was applied to many conditions that had little to

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Lynn M. Appleton noted that "Despite all public pronouncements about alcoholism as a disease, medical practice rejects treating it as such. Not only does alcoholism not follow the model of a 'disease,' it is not amenable to standard medical treatment." She says that "Medical doctors' rejection of the

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The second RAND study, in 1980, found that alcohol dependence represents a factor of central importance in the process of relapse. Among people with low dependence levels at admission, the risk of relapse appears relatively low for those who later drank without problems. But the greater the initial

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These critics hold that by removing some of the stigma and personal responsibility the disease concept actually increases alcoholism and drug abuse and thus the need for treatment. This is somewhat supported by a study which found that a greater belief in the disease theory of alcoholism and higher

174:

In artificial selection studies, specific strains of rats were bred to prefer alcohol. These rats preferred drinking alcohol over other liquids, resulting in a tolerance for alcohol and exhibited a physical dependency on alcohol. Rats that were not bred for this preference did not have these traits.

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In a review in 2001, McLellan et al. compared the diagnoses, heritability, etiology (genetic and environmental factors), pathophysiology, and response to treatments (adherence and relapse) of drug dependence vs type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and asthma. They found that genetic heritability,

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was able to avoid paying benefits by presuming that primary alcoholism is always the result of the veteran's "own willful misconduct." The majority opinion written by Justice Byron R. White echoed the District of Columbia Circuit's finding that there exists "a substantial body of medical literature

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The disease theory is often interpreted as implying that problem drinkers are incapable of returning to 'normal' problem free drinking, and therefore that treatment should focus on total abstinence. Some critics have used evidence of controlled drinking in formerly dependent drinkers to dispute the

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in 2005 which found that severity was associated positively with the likelihood of abstinent recovery and associated negatively with the likelihood of non-abstinent recovery or controlled drinking. Other factors such as a significant period of abstinence or changes in life circumstances were also

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DESPITE THE IMPORTANCE OF NUMEROUS PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS, AT ITS CORE, DRUG ADDICTION INVOLVES A BIOLOGICAL PROCESS: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use,

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published a detailed report on alcohol and other psychoactive substances entitled "Neuroscience of psychoactive substance use and dependence". It stated that this was the "first attempt by WHO to provide a comprehensive overview of the biological factors related to substance use and dependence by

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However, many researchers have debated the results of the smaller studies. A 1994 followup of the original seven cases studied by Davies suggested that he "had been substantially misled, and the paradox exists that a widely influential paper which did much to stimulate new thinking was based on

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In 1976, a major study commonly referred to as the RAND report, published evidence of problem drinkers learning to consume alcohol in moderation. The publication of the study renewed controversy over how people with a disease which reputedly leads to uncontrollable drinking could manage to drink

283:

The first major empirical challenge to this interpretation of the disease theory followed a 1962 study by Dr. D. L. Davies. Davies' follow-up of ninety-three problem drinkers found that seven of them were able to return to "controlled drinking" (less than seven drinks per day for at least seven

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Between 1980 and 1991, medical organizations, including the AMA, worked together to establish policies regarding their positions on the disease theory. These policies were developed in 1987 in part because third-party reimbursement for treatment was difficult or impossible unless alcoholism were

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Rush argued that "habitual drunkenness should be regarded not as a bad habit but as a disease", describing it as "a palsy of the will". Rush expounded his views in a book published in 1808. His views are described by Valverde, Levine Spode, and Perkins-McVey. Already in 1802 the prominent German

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The risk of developing alcoholism depends on many factors, such as environment. Those with a family history of alcoholism are more likely to develop it themselves (Enoch & Goldman, 2001); however, many individuals have developed alcoholism without a family history of the disease. Since the

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by German-Russian physician C. von Brühl-Cramer. As Spode points out, this study marked the birth of a consistent "paradigm" of addiction as a mental illness, although it took many decades until this view was accepted. Perkins-McVey argues that Rush, Trotter, and Brühl-Cramer each independently

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The strong correlation between chronic drug exposure and ΔFosB provides novel opportunities for targeted therapies in addiction (118), and suggests methods to analyze their efficacy (119). Over the past two decades, research has progressed from identifying ΔFosB induction to investigating its

170:

Adoption studies also suggest a strong genetic tendency towards alcoholism. Studies on children separated from their biological parents demonstrates that sons of alcoholic biological fathers were more likely to become alcoholic, even though they have been separated and raised by non alcoholic

240:] of stimulus dependence is arguably the primary vehicle driving the disease model in the works of Rush, Trotter, and Brühl-Cramer." This shifts the discussion away from the question of historical priority, instead identifying a common conceptual influence on early disease theorists. 258:

Given this controversy, the best one can say is that the idea that habitual alcohol drinking was a disease had become more acceptable by the second half of the nineteenth century, although many writers still argued it was a vice, a sin, and not the purview of medicine but of religion.

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My observations authorize me to say, that persons who have been addicted to them, should abstain from them suddenly and entirely. 'Taste not, handle not, touch not' should be inscribed upon every vessel that contains spirits in the house of a man, who wishes to be cured of habits of

167:—76% for monozygotic twins and 61% for dizygotic twins. However, female twin studies demonstrate that females have much lower concordance rates than males. Reasons for gender differences may include environmental factors, such as negative public attitudes towards female drinkers. 468:

Thomas R. Hobbs says that "Based on my experiences working in the addiction field for the past 10 years, I believe many, if not most, health care professionals still view alcohol addiction as a willpower or conduct problem and are resistant to look at it as a disease."

726:

Morse, RM; Flavin, DK (August 26, 1992). "The definition of alcoholism, The Joint Committee of the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence and the American Society of Addiction Medicine to Study the Definition and Criteria for the Diagnosis of Alcoholism".

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problem for which abstinence is required. A brain disease model of addiction, based on the extent of neuroadaptation and impaired control, is main position advanced for proposing a disease model of alcohol use disorder. However, if managed properly,

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Upon analyzing the brains of these two strains of rats, it was discovered that there were differences in chemical composition of certain areas of the brain. This study suggests that certain brain mechanisms are more genetically prone to alcoholism.

159:, adoption studies, and artificial selection studies have shown that a person's genes can predispose them to developing alcoholism. Evidence from twin studies show that concordance rates for alcoholism are higher for 491:

Frequency and quantity of alcohol use are not related to the presence of the condition; that is, people can drink a great deal without necessarily being alcoholic, and alcoholics may drink minimally or infrequently.

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personal choice, and environmental factors are comparably involved in the etiology and course of all of these disorders, providing evidence that drug (including alcohol) dependence is a chronic medical illness.

124:

can be stopped and to some extent reversed. In addition to problem drinking, the disease is characterized by symptoms including an impaired control over alcohol, compulsive thoughts about alcohol, and

464:

One study published in 1996 found that only 25 percent of physicians believed that alcoholism is a disease. The majority believed alcoholism to be a social or psychological problem instead of a disease.

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Rösner, Susanne; Hackl-Herrwerth, Andrea; Leucht, Stefan; Vecchi, Simona; Srisurapanont, Manit; Soyka, Michael (2010-12-08). Srisurapanont, Manit (ed.). "Opioid antagonists for alcohol dependence".

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had published a book on the “brandy plague” stating that the “infection” with spirits makes it “inevitably necessary to drink ever more.” Later he wrote an enthusiastic preface to the book

477:

disease theory of alcoholism has a strong basis in the biomedical model underpinning most of their training" and that "medical research on alcoholism does not support the disease model."

682:

Andreas J. Bartsch; György Homola; Armin Biller; Stephen M. Smith; Heinz-Gerd Weijers; Gerhard A. Wiesbeck; Mark Jenkinson; Nicola De Stefano; László Solymosi; Martin Bendszus (2007).

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categorized as a disease. The policies of the AMA, formed through consensus of the federation of state and specialty medical societies within their House of Delegates, state, in part:

480:"Many doctors have been loath to prescribe drugs to treat alcoholism, sometimes because of the belief that alcoholism is a moral disorder rather than a disease," according to Dr. 1404:

Pattison, E. M.; Sobell, M. B.; Sobell, L. C. (1977). "Emerging concepts of alcohol dependence. New York: Springer; Schaefer, H. H. (1971). A cultural delusion of alcoholics".

2019: 1971:

She poured a measured amount of wine into each cup: maximum seven ounces at 7.30am for the first pour of the day, and five ounces each hour after that. Last call is 9.30pm.

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level of dependence, the higher the likelihood of relapse for nonproblem drinkers. The second RAND study findings have been strengthened by subsequent research by Dawson

234:, which classified alcohol as a stimulant of the vital force. As Perkins-McVey argues, this "understanding of the disease of habitual drunkenness as a phenomena [ 805:

McLellan, AT; Lewis, DC; O'Brien, CP; Kleber, HD (2000). "Drug dependence, a chronic medical illness: implications for treatment, insurance, and outcomes evaluation".

449:

Some physicians, scientists and others have rejected the disease theory of alcoholism on logical, empirical and other grounds. Indeed, some addiction experts such as

521:

Morris, James; Boness, Cassandra L.; Burton, Robyn (1 December 2023). "(Mis)understanding alcohol use disorder: Making the case for a public health first approach".

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In 1991, the AMA further endorsed the dual classification of alcoholism by the International Classification of Diseases under both psychiatric and medical sections.

3506: 2111:

Using control drugs implicated in both ΔFosB induction and addiction (ethanol and nicotine), similar ΔFosB expression was apparent when propofol was given ...

267:"The AMA endorses the proposition that drug dependencies, including alcoholism, are diseases and that their treatment is a legitimate part of medical practice." 1189:

Matthew Perkins-McVey, "Were the scale of excitability a circle: Tracing the roots of the disease theory of alcoholism through Brunonian stimulus dependence",

1172:

Matthew Perkins-McVey, "Were the scale of excitability a circle: Tracing the roots of the disease theory of alcoholism through Brunonian stimulus dependence",

1113:

Matthew Perkins-McVey, "Were the scale of excitability a circle: Tracing the roots of the disease theory of alcoholism through Brunonian stimulus dependence",

2759: 1956:"The shelter that gives wine to alcoholics Giving free booze to homeless alcoholics sounds crazy. But it may be the key to helping them live a stable life" 1076:

An Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind: With an Account of the Means of Preventing, and of the Remedies for Curing Them

1680: 649: 3430: 1642:

Nordström, G.; Berglund, M. (1987). "A prospective study of successful long-term adjustment in alcohol dependence: Social drinking versus abstinence".

431: 289: 1307:

Caddy, G. R.; Lovibond, S. H. (1976). "Self-regulation and discriminated aversive conditioning in the modification of alcoholics' drinking behavior".

3435: 2840: 560: 3817: 3379: 2049: 186:

Historians debate who has primacy in arguing that habitual drinking carried the characteristics of a disease. Some note that Scottish physician

76:, characterized by altered brain structure and function. Today, alcohol use disorder (AUD) is used as a more scientific and suitable approach to 582: 1681:"2001-2002 Survey Finds that Many Recover from Alcoholism: Researchers Identify Factors Associated with Abstinent and Non-Abstinent Recovery" 1224:

do with physical debility, and James Nicholls who draws it together and argues that the idea emerged at different times in different places.

2721: 1509:

Sobell, M. B.; Sobell, L. C. (1976). "Second year treatment outcome of alcoholics treated by individualized behavior therapy: Results".

91:(AMA) – declared that alcoholism was an illness in 1956. In 1991, the AMA further endorsed the dual classification of alcoholism by the 4020: 3590: 2210: 3572: 2922: 198: 2558: 2963: 1955: 92: 3560: 3079: 2587:

Esser, Marissa B.; Hedden, Sarra L.; Kanny, Dafna; Brewer, Robert D.; Gfroerer, Joseph C.; Naimi, Timothy S. (20 November 2014).

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Polich, J. M.; Armor, D. J.; Braiker, H. B. (1981). "The course of alcoholism: Four years after treatment. New York: Wiley".

1017:, Routledge, (London), 1988. (This a facsimile of the first (1804) London edition. The book itself was based on the thesis " 3056: 2448:

Miller WR, Westerberg VS, Harris RJ, Tonigan JS (1996). "What predicts relapse? Prospective testing of antecedent models".

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Sobell, M. B.; Sobell, L. C. (1973). "Alcoholics treated by individualized behavior therapy: One year treatment outcomes".

17: 1730:

Dawson, Deborah A.; Grant, Bridget F.; Stinson, Frederick S.; Chou, Patricia S.; Huang, Boji; Ruan, W. June (March 2005).

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controllably. Subsequent studies also reported evidence of return to controlled drinking. Similarly, according to a 2002

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C. von Brühl-Cramer, Ueber die Trunksucht und eine rationelle Heilmethode derselben, Berlin 1819 (also publ. in Moscow).

3675: 3501: 3113: 2775: 2351: 408: 4060: 4040: 3800: 3483: 2312:

Diseasing of America: How we allowed recovery zealots and the treatment industry to convince us we are out of control

2276: 659: 488:. Dr Johnson's own pioneering work has made important contributions to the understanding of alcoholism as a disease. 201:, who understood drunkenness to be what we would now call a "loss of control", as possibly the first to use the term 3494: 3290: 2714: 400: 1219:

Along with Levine, see Roy Porter ("Drinking Man's Disease: the 'Pre-History' of Alcoholism in Georgian Britain,"

3670: 3150: 3103: 1544:

Vogler, R. E.; Compton, J. V.; Weissbach, J. A. (1975). "Integrated behavior change techniques for alcoholism".

3315: 3133: 2937: 2485: 1369:

Miller, W. R.; Caddy, G. R. (1977). "Abstinence and controlled drinking in the treatment of problem drinkers".

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Edwards, G (1994). "D.L. Davies and 'Normal drinking in recovered alcohol addicts': the genesis of a paper".

427: 404: 4129: 4124: 3756: 3723: 3511: 2985: 2927: 2830: 2820: 2542: 396: 317:

strategy, provision of small amounts of alcoholic beverages to homeless alcoholics at homeless shelters in

231: 88: 4098: 3450: 2764: 2707: 338: 3966: 3929: 3707: 2958: 2850: 2193: 501: 453:

are outspoken in their rejection of the disease model, and other prominent alcohol researchers such as

222: 187: 2527:

Appleton, Lynn M. (1995). "Rethinking medicalization. Alcoholism and anomalies". In Best, Joel (ed.).

178:

The convergent evidence from these studies present a strong case for the genetic basis of alcoholism.

3865: 3531: 3420: 2973: 2882: 2825: 2001: 1133:, "Transsubstantiations of the Mystery: Two Remarks on the Shifts in the Knowledge about Addiction." 1039:

Levine, H.G., "The Discovery of Addiction: Changing Conceptions of Habitual Drunkenness in America",

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Armor, D. J., Polich, J. M., & Stambul, H. B. (1976). Alcoholism and treatment. Rand Corporation

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Ruffle JK (November 2014). "Molecular neurobiology of addiction: what's all the (Δ)FosB about?".

1904:"Shelter-based managed alcohol administration to chronically homeless people addicted to alcohol" 215:

Levine, H.G., The Discovery of Addiction: Changing Conceptions of Habitual Drunkenness in America

2483:

Mignon, S.I. (1996). "Physicians' Perceptions of Alcoholics: The Disease Concept Reconsidered".

1015:

An Essay, Medical, Philosophical, and Chemical, on Drunkenness and Its Effects on the Human Body

305:

identified as strong influences for success in a book on Controlled Drinking published in 1981.

4119: 3618: 3565: 3521: 3406: 3374: 3165: 3138: 856: 850: 485: 230:

developed their own disease theories of alcoholism as a result of their shared interest in the

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Robertson, I. H.; Heather, N. (1982). "A survey of controlled drinking treatment in Britain".

916: 910: 906: 3411: 2995: 2990: 2894: 2856: 2749: 73: 2214: 3971: 3958: 3902: 3717: 3335: 3128: 3047: 2980: 2877: 1334:

Goodwin, D. W.; Crane, J. B.; Guze, S. B. (1971). "Felons who drink: An 8-year follow-up".

1022: 681: 373: 3680: 2383:

Vaillant, George Eman (March 1990). "We should retain the disease concept of alcoholism".

42: 8: 4050: 3924: 3665: 3650: 3600: 3305: 3295: 3074: 3004: 2792: 2682: 2566: 1984:"Traynor v. Turnage :: 485 U.S. 535 (1988) :: Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center" 1247: 362: 130: 190:

was the first to characterize excessive drinking as a mental disease or medical defect.

3882: 3825: 3741: 3640: 3633: 3595: 3555: 3361: 3262: 3177: 3155: 3009: 2968: 2730: 2613: 2588: 2166: 2157: 2141: 2102: 1928: 1903: 1761: 1429: 966: 941: 787: 627: 126: 77: 2639: 1320: 3912: 3782: 3645: 3623: 3526: 3401: 3345: 3123: 3062: 3052: 3024: 3000: 2618: 2465: 2407: 2330: 2272: 2249: 2241: 2171: 2094: 1933: 1874: 1868: 1831: 1827: 1796: 1792: 1753: 1748: 1731: 1659: 1561: 1526: 1522: 1491: 1487: 1456: 1447:

Schuckit, M. A.; Winokur, G. A. (1972). "A short-term followup of women alcoholics".

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recognizes the existence of alcoholism as the equivalent of alcohol dependence. The

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According to the theory, genes play a strong role in the development of alcoholism.

3895: 3845: 3489: 3425: 3391: 3384: 3267: 3234: 3224: 2608: 2600: 2494: 2457: 2237: 2233: 2161: 2153: 2086: 1923: 1915: 1823: 1788: 1743: 1651: 1553: 1518: 1483: 1413: 1378: 1343: 1316: 1281: 961: 953: 814: 771: 736: 695: 684:"Manifestations of early brain recovery associated with abstinence from alcoholism" 623: 538: 530: 334: 4065: 3746: 3731: 3712: 3217: 3212: 3086: 2090: 1983: 1683:(Press release). National Institute on Alcohol Abuse Alcoholism. January 18, 2005 1138: 1054: 481: 164: 2427: 349:"affirms the principle that dependence on alcohol or other drugs is a disease." 4080: 3890: 3870: 3832: 3697: 3118: 3108: 3098: 2906: 2872: 2738: 849:

Carlson, Neil R.; Buskist, William; Enzle, Michael E.; Heth, C. Donald (2005).

314: 81: 1853: 1417: 1347: 1285: 1194: 1177: 1118: 1048: 990: 905:

Lumeng, Lawrence; Murphy, James M.; McBride, William J.; Li, Ting-Kai (1995).

775: 4113: 4055: 3936: 3840: 3736: 3325: 3257: 3207: 3202: 3187: 3182: 3160: 3069: 3036: 2901: 2770: 2324: 2245: 1852:

Polich, J. Michael; Armor, David J.; Braiker, Harriet B. (7 September 1980).

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Heather, N., & Robertson, I. (1981). Controlled drinking. London: Methuen

1382: 818: 450: 194: 2671: 2366: 1655: 4015: 4005: 3795: 3091: 2622: 2253: 2175: 2098: 1937: 1835: 1757: 1293: 975: 826: 783: 709: 700: 683: 635: 546: 454: 156: 121: 2498: 2469: 1800: 1663: 1565: 1495: 1460: 1425: 1355: 748: 3946: 3941: 3812: 3692: 3582: 3475: 3247: 3192: 2797: 2604: 1919: 1888: 1530: 1390: 1130: 244: 96: 2654: 957: 4075: 3907: 3855: 3655: 3628: 3538: 3320: 3300: 3229: 2812: 2802: 2559:"Butler Center for Research – Bankole Johnson, Ph.D., 2001 -- Hazelden" 1233:

See, for example, books with such telling titles as John Edwards Todd,

438: 129:. Alcoholism can also lead indirectly, through excess consumption, to 112: 60: 2352:"The Rebirth of the Disease Concept of Alcoholism in the 20th Century" 614:

Koob, George F. (February 2003). "Alcoholism: Allostasis and Beyond".

380:; when this overexpression occurs, ΔFosB induces the addictive state. 4010: 3917: 3751: 3550: 3516: 3369: 3340: 3310: 3242: 3197: 3170: 3018: 2953: 2787: 2782: 2699: 2589:"Prevalence of Alcohol Dependence Among US Adult Drinkers, 2009–2011" 1557: 1272:

Davies, D.L. (1962). "Normal drinking in recovered alcohol addicts".

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Vaillant GE (August 2003). "A 60-year follow-up of alcoholic men".

1732:"Recovery from DSM-IV alcohol dependence: United States, 2001-2002" 762:

Dick, DM; Bierut, LJ (2006). "The Genetics of Alcohol Dependency".

881:"Differences in drinking among male and female students: Dr. Engs" 366: 3772: 3330: 2889: 2227: 755: 420: 370: 318: 100: 2325:

Heather, Nick; Peters, Timothy J.; Stockwell, Tim, eds. (2001).

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have been shown to be effective in the treatment of alcoholism.

2666: 322: 804: 4070: 3978: 3143: 2447: 588:. National Council of State Boards of Nursing. Archived from 457:

have authored books intending to disprove the disease model.

2002:"Alcoholics lose some VA benefits – Veterans Administration" 991:"Born To Do Drugs: Overcoming A Family History Of Addiction" 844: 842: 840: 838: 836: 2292: 1902:

Podymow T, Turnbull J, Coyle D, Yetisir E, Wells G (2006).

1901: 399:

both maintain extensive policy regarding alcoholism. The

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International Handbook of Alcohol Dependence and Problems

1089:

Diseases of the Will: Alcohol and the Dilemmas of Freedom

852:

Psychology: The Science of Behaviour 3rd Canadian Edition

833: 437:

Certain medications including opioid antagonists such as

236: 3507:

Ban on caffeinated alcoholic drinks in the United States

2529:

Images of Issues. Typifying Contemporary Social Problems

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Hobbs, T.R. (1998). "Managing Alcoholism as a Disease".

848: 325:

reduced government costs and improved health outcomes.

2586: 1854:"The Course of Alcoholism: Four Years After Treatment" 1729: 1543: 1043:, Vol.39, No.1, (January 1978), pp.143-174. (Reprint: 940:

Mayfield, R D; Harris, R A; Schuckit, M A (May 2008).

939: 72:

states that problem drinking is sometimes caused by a

2047: 907:"Genetic Influences on Alcohol Preference in Animals" 904: 807:

JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association

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Alcohol-related traffic crashes in the United States

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A 1904 advertisement labeling alcoholism a "disease"

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On the addiction to drink and a rational cure of it

2072: 2070: 2050:"Alcoholism – Homo sapiens (human) + Disease/drug" 1851: 1587: 1019:De ebrietate, ejusque effectibus in corpus humanum 520: 484:, Chairman of the Department of Psychiatry at the 432:National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism 290:National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism 3436:Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States 2841:Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism 2135: 2133: 1641: 4111: 2401: 2036: 1866: 1675: 1673: 1607: 1333: 1091:, Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge), 1998. 942:"Genetic factors influencing alcohol dependence" 909:. In Begleiter, Henri; Kissin, Benjamin (eds.). 3818:Foundation for Advancing Alcohol Responsibility 2420: 2067: 1446: 1047:, Vol.2, No.1, (1985), pp.43-57.) Available at 729:The Journal of the American Medical Association 651:Evaluating the brain disease model of addiction 27:Classification of problem drinking as a disease 2640:Is Alcoholism a Disease & Can It Be Cured? 2130: 1976: 1953: 1626: 1139:http://hist-soz.de/publika/SPODE-SHAD20-05.pdf 616:Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 563:. American Medical Association. 16 August 2019 2715: 2314:. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books/Jossey-Bass. 1947: 1670: 1546:Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1306: 1248:"'Dangerous data': drinking after dependence" 3380:International Women's Collaboration Brew Day 2531:(2nd ed.). New York: Aldine De Gruyter. 2376: 2271:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1895: 1807: 1508: 1473: 1191:Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 1174:Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 1115:Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 87:The largest association of physicians – the 2511: 2385:Harvard Medical School Mentul Health Letter 2230:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1813: 1368: 1195:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2023.03.001 1178:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2023.03.001 1119:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2023.03.001 725: 721: 719: 148: 4021:Medicinal Liquor Prescriptions Act of 1933 3591:List of countries with alcohol prohibition 2722: 2708: 2266: 2139: 761: 41: 2923:Short-term effects of alcohol consumption 2612: 2580: 2309: 2165: 2076: 2048:Kanehisa Laboratories (29 October 2014). 1927: 1747: 1629:The Diagnosis and Treatment of Alcoholism 1610:British Journal on Alcohol and Alcoholism 965: 699: 199:United States Declaration of Independence 2526: 2382: 2142:"Cellular basis of memory for addiction" 1035: 1033: 1031: 716: 583:"Understanding the Disease of Addiction" 93:International Classification of Diseases 3561:Legal drinking age in the United States 1847: 1845: 1778: 1725: 1723: 1336:Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol 1274:Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol 328: 14: 4112: 2729: 2482: 2428:"Alcoholism: A disease of speculation" 2402:Heather, Nick; Robertson, Ian (1997). 1867:Heather, Nick; Robertson, Ian (1981). 1631:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. 1271: 1265: 1078:, Thomas Dobson, (Philadelphia), 1808. 988: 413:National Association of Social Workers 393:American Society of Addiction Medicine 274: 3544:List of dry communities by U.S. state 2703: 2349: 1703:"Alcoholism Isn't What It Used To Be" 1627:Mendelson, J.H.; Mello, N.K. (1985). 1028: 694:(1). Oxford University Press: 36–47. 357:Alcoholism is a disease with a known 352: 3057:List of methanol poisoning incidents 2543:Headache pill eases alcohol cravings 1842: 1720: 1045:Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 915:. Oxford University Press. pp. 613: 115:, alcohol use disorder is viewed as 3778:Alcohol consumption recommendations 3703:Temperance and Good Citizenship Day 1135:Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 308: 193:Others point to American physician 24: 3502:Alcohol packaging warning messages 3114:Alcohol use among college students 2776:Drunk driving in the United States 1235:Drunkenness, a Vice--not a Disease 628:10.1097/01.ALC.0000057122.36127.C2 409:American Public Health Association 25: 4141: 4061:Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease 4041:Index of alcohol-related articles 3484:Administrative License Suspension 2633: 2430:. Baldwinresearch.com. 2002-04-14 1954:Tina Rosenberg (April 26, 2016). 133:on alcohol, and diseases such as 4094: 4093: 3495:Alcoholic beverage control state 3291:Andrew Johnson alcoholism debate 2158:10.31887/DCNS.2013.15.4/enestler 2113:ΔFosB as a therapeutic biomarker 2025:. August 8, 2019. Archived from 1828:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00422.x 1749:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00964.x 1021:" that Trotter had presented to 741:10.1001/jama.1992.03490080086030 535:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2023.111019 401:American Psychiatric Association 361:and an established biomolecular 337:upheld a regulation whereby the 197:(1745–1813), a signatory to the 3104:Alcohol in association football 2551: 2535: 2520: 2505: 2476: 2462:10.1046/j.1360-0443.91.12s1.7.x 2441: 2406:. Oxford Medical Publications. 2395: 2343: 2318: 2303: 2285: 2260: 2221: 2203: 2186: 2012: 1994: 1860: 1772: 1695: 1635: 1620: 1601: 1592: 1581: 1572: 1537: 1502: 1467: 1440: 1397: 1362: 1327: 1300: 1240: 1227: 1213: 1200: 1183: 1166: 1153: 1144: 1124: 1107: 1094: 1081: 1068: 1059: 1013:Trotter, T. (Porter, R., ed.), 1007: 982: 946:British Journal of Pharmacology 933: 898: 873: 3316:List of deaths through alcohol 3134:Epidemiology of binge drinking 2938:Subjective response to alcohol 2486:Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 2238:10.1002/14651858.CD001867.pub2 1511:Behaviour Research and Therapy 1476:Behaviour Research and Therapy 1449:Diseases of the Nervous System 798: 675: 642: 607: 575: 553: 514: 430:has a specific institute, the 417:American College of Physicians 280:disease theory of alcoholism. 13: 1: 3801:Sweat alcohol content monitor 2836:Alcoholism in rural Australia 2211:"FAQs for the General Public" 1644:Journal of Studies on Alcohol 1371:Journal of Studies on Alcohol 1321:10.1016/S0005-7894(76)80279-1 1041:Journal of Studies on Alcohol 883:. Indiana.edu. Archived from 507: 428:National Institutes of Health 405:American Hospital Association 3724:Adult Children of Alcoholics 3512:Drunk driving law by country 2928:Long-term effects of alcohol 2846:Disease theory of alcoholism 2831:Alcoholism in family systems 2821:Alcohol and Native Americans 2267:Fingarette, Herbert (1998). 2140:Nestler EJ (December 2013). 2091:10.3109/00952990.2014.933840 1793:10.1016/0376-8716(94)90082-5 1523:10.1016/0005-7967(76)90013-9 1488:10.1016/0005-7967(73)90118-6 1221:British Journal of Addiction 989:Elkins, Chris (2016-06-22). 444: 397:American Medical Association 365:pathway which culminates in 232:Brunonian system of medicine 89:American Medical Association 70:disease theory of alcoholism 7: 3451:International whisk(e)y day 2765:Driving under the influence 1781:Drug and Alcohol Dependence 654:. London: Routledge. 2022. 523:Drug and Alcohol Dependence 495: 243:In 1849, Swedish physician 10: 4146: 3967:Christian views on alcohol 3573:List of alcohol laws of US 2851:High-functioning alcoholic 2593:Preventing Chronic Disease 2365:(2): 62–66. Archived from 1210:, Opladen 1993, pp. 127ff. 1163:, Opladen 1993, pp. 127ff. 1104:, Opladen 1993, pp. 124ff. 912:The Genetics of Alcoholism 764:Current Psychiatry Reports 502:Disease model of addiction 369:overexpression within the 223:Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland 181: 4089: 4033: 3987: 3957: 3881: 3866:Alcoholic spirits measure 3851:Low-alcoholic malt drinks 3765: 3609: 3581: 3532:Ignition interlock device 3474: 3465: 3421:Drunken monkey hypothesis 3354: 3283: 3254:Routes of administration 3035: 2946: 2915: 2883:Alcohol congener analysis 2865: 2826:Alcoholism in adolescence 2811: 2748: 2737: 2648: 2456:(Supplement): S151–S171. 1716:(1): 1–2. September 2009. 1418:10.2466/pr0.1971.29.2.587 1348:10.15288/qjsa.1971.32.136 1286:10.15288/qjsa.1962.23.094 1208:Die Macht der Trunkenheit 1161:Die Macht der Trunkenheit 1102:Die Macht der Trunkenheit 776:10.1007/s11920-006-0015-1 419:classify alcoholism as a 385:World Health Organization 205:in this sort of meaning. 106: 54: 49: 40: 35: 2146:Dialogues Clin. Neurosci 1383:10.15288/jsa.1977.38.986 819:10.1001/jama.284.13.1689 347:American Bar Association 339:Veterans' Administration 149:Genetics and environment 4046:Alcohol and spaceflight 3788:Alcohol server training 3661:Managed alcohol program 3239:Binge drinking devices 2933:Pharmacology of ethanol 2514:Physician's News Digest 2079:Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 1873:. Methuen young books. 1656:10.15288/jsa.1987.48.95 1137:, Vol. 20 (2005): 126 ( 1053:April 15, 2008, at the 3651:Alcohol rehabilitation 3619:Alcohol detoxification 3522:Field sobriety testing 3407:Health effects of wine 3375:International Beer Day 3139:Holiday heart syndrome 1942:Harm_reduction#Alcohol 1193:, Vol. 99 (2023): 52 ( 1176:, Vol. 99 (2023): 52 ( 1117:, Vol. 99 (2023): 48 ( 486:University of Virginia 269: 253:Alcoholismus chronicus 218: 3903:Disulfiram-like drugs 3443:Ritual use of alcohol 3412:Wine and food pairing 3397:Apéritif and digestif 3048:Adulterated moonshine 2895:Blood alcohol content 2857:Seeing pink elephants 2499:10.1300/j020v14n04_02 1406:Psychological Reports 1065:Valverde (1998, p.2) 265: 207: 3972:Alcohol in the Bible 3959:Religion and alcohol 3925:General anaesthetics 3718:Alcoholics Anonymous 3676:List of mixed drinks 3129:Alcohol intoxication 3044:Adulterated alcohol 2605:10.5888/pcd11.140329 1920:10.1503/cmaj.1041350 1023:Edinburgh University 855:. Pearson. pp. 701:10.1093/brain/awl303 374:medium spiny neurons 329:Legal considerations 84:-related problems. 74:disease of the brain 18:Alcoholism (disease) 4130:Scientific theories 4125:Medical terminology 4051:Gateway drug effect 3837:Low-alcohol drinks 3666:Non-alcoholic drink 3601:Temperance movement 3583:Alcohol prohibition 3306:Gilbert Paul Jordan 3296:Dionysian Mysteries 3080:on college campuses 3075:Alcohol advertising 2793:Public intoxication 1870:Controlled Drinking 958:10.1038/bjp.2008.88 363:signal transduction 275:Controlled drinking 131:physical dependence 122:damage to the brain 111:Under the model of 3883:Addiction medicine 3826:Get Your Sexy Back 3766:Alcohol limitation 3742:Sober living house 3708:Twelve-step groups 3641:Brief intervention 3634:Open-container law 3596:Neo-prohibitionism 3556:Legal drinking age 3362:Alcoholic beverage 3263:Alcohol inhalation 3178:Drinking in public 3156:Blackout Wednesday 3014:Beverage-specific 2731:Alcohol and health 2548:, October 10, 2007 2541:Hathaway, William 2350:White, W. (2000). 2310:Peele, S. (1995). 595:on 18 October 2020 353:Current acceptance 127:distorted thinking 78:alcohol dependence 36:Alcohol dependence 4107: 4106: 4029: 4028: 3979:Islam and alcohol 3913:Calcium carbimide 3783:Alcohol education 3671:List of cocktails 3646:Designated driver 3624:Alcohol-free zone 3527:Hip flask defence 3461: 3460: 3402:Hangover remedies 3346:Whiskey Rebellion 3336:Six o'clock swill 3124:Austrian syndrome 3063:Surrogate alcohol 3053:Denatured alcohol 3025:Red wine headache 2697: 2696: 2413:978-0-19-262861-9 2336:978-0-471-98375-0 1880:978-0-416-71970-3 926:978-0-19-508877-9 866:978-0-205-45769-4 378:nucleus accumbens 161:monozygotic twins 66: 65: 30:Medical condition 16:(Redirected from 4137: 4097: 4096: 3896:Chlordiazepoxide 3846:Low-alcohol beer 3490:Alcohol monopoly 3472: 3471: 3392:Drinking culture 3385:Women in brewing 3268:Vodka eyeballing 3235:Passive drinking 2746: 2745: 2724: 2717: 2710: 2701: 2700: 2646: 2645: 2627: 2626: 2616: 2584: 2578: 2577: 2575: 2574: 2565:. 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Archived from 2207: 2201: 2200: 2198: 2190: 2184: 2183: 2169: 2137: 2128: 2127: 2123:molecular switch 2074: 2065: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2045: 2034: 2033: 2031: 2024: 2020:"RECOMMENDATION" 2016: 2010: 2009: 1998: 1992: 1991: 1980: 1974: 1973: 1968: 1966: 1951: 1945: 1944: 1931: 1899: 1893: 1892: 1864: 1858: 1857: 1849: 1840: 1839: 1811: 1805: 1804: 1776: 1770: 1769: 1751: 1727: 1718: 1717: 1707: 1699: 1693: 1692: 1690: 1688: 1677: 1668: 1667: 1639: 1633: 1632: 1624: 1618: 1617: 1605: 1599: 1596: 1590: 1589: 1585: 1579: 1576: 1570: 1569: 1558:10.1037/h0076533 1541: 1535: 1534: 1506: 1500: 1499: 1471: 1465: 1464: 1444: 1438: 1437: 1401: 1395: 1394: 1366: 1360: 1359: 1331: 1325: 1324: 1309:Behavior Therapy 1304: 1298: 1297: 1269: 1263: 1262: 1260: 1259: 1244: 1238: 1231: 1225: 1217: 1211: 1204: 1198: 1187: 1181: 1170: 1164: 1157: 1151: 1148: 1142: 1128: 1122: 1111: 1105: 1098: 1092: 1085: 1079: 1072: 1066: 1063: 1057: 1037: 1026: 1011: 1005: 1004: 1002: 1001: 986: 980: 979: 969: 937: 931: 930: 902: 896: 895: 893: 892: 877: 871: 870: 846: 831: 830: 802: 796: 795: 759: 753: 752: 723: 714: 713: 703: 679: 673: 672: 670: 668: 646: 640: 639: 611: 605: 604: 602: 600: 594: 587: 579: 573: 572: 570: 568: 561:"Neuropathology" 557: 551: 550: 541: 11061885. 518: 335:US Supreme Court 309:Managed drinking 247:coined the term 216: 45: 33: 32: 21: 4145: 4144: 4140: 4139: 4138: 4136: 4135: 4134: 4110: 4109: 4108: 4103: 4085: 4066:Self-medication 4025: 3983: 3953: 3891:Benzodiazepines 3877: 3761: 3747:Sobering center 3732:Sober companion 3713:Al-Anon/Alateen 3605: 3577: 3467: 3457: 3350: 3279: 3219:In vino veritas 3213:Hair of the dog 3031: 2947:Adverse effects 2942: 2911: 2861: 2807: 2751: 2750:Alcohol-related 2741: 2733: 2728: 2698: 2693: 2692: 2657: 2636: 2631: 2630: 2585: 2581: 2572: 2570: 2557: 2556: 2552: 2540: 2536: 2525: 2521: 2510: 2506: 2481: 2477: 2446: 2442: 2433: 2431: 2426: 2425: 2421: 2414: 2400: 2396: 2381: 2377: 2369: 2354: 2348: 2344: 2337: 2323: 2319: 2308: 2304: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2279: 2265: 2261: 2226: 2222: 2217:on May 9, 2008. 2209: 2208: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2191: 2187: 2138: 2131: 2120: 2118: 2117: 2114: 2112: 2075: 2068: 2058: 2056: 2046: 2037: 2029: 2022: 2018: 2017: 2013: 2000: 1999: 1995: 1982: 1981: 1977: 1964: 1962: 1952: 1948: 1900: 1896: 1881: 1865: 1861: 1850: 1843: 1812: 1808: 1777: 1773: 1728: 1721: 1705: 1701: 1700: 1696: 1686: 1684: 1679: 1678: 1671: 1640: 1636: 1625: 1621: 1606: 1602: 1597: 1593: 1586: 1582: 1577: 1573: 1542: 1538: 1507: 1503: 1472: 1468: 1455:(10): 672–678. 1445: 1441: 1402: 1398: 1377:(5): 986–1003. 1367: 1363: 1332: 1328: 1305: 1301: 1270: 1266: 1257: 1255: 1252:findings.org.uk 1246: 1245: 1241: 1232: 1228: 1218: 1214: 1205: 1201: 1188: 1184: 1171: 1167: 1158: 1154: 1149: 1145: 1129: 1125: 1112: 1108: 1099: 1095: 1086: 1082: 1073: 1069: 1064: 1060: 1055:Wayback Machine 1038: 1029: 1012: 1008: 999: 997: 987: 983: 938: 934: 927: 903: 899: 890: 888: 879: 878: 874: 867: 847: 834: 813:(13): 1689–95. 803: 799: 760: 756: 724: 717: 680: 676: 666: 664: 662: 648: 647: 643: 612: 608: 598: 596: 592: 585: 581: 580: 576: 566: 564: 559: 558: 554: 519: 515: 510: 498: 482:Bankole Johnson 447: 426:In the US, the 355: 331: 311: 277: 217: 214: 184: 165:dizygotic twins 151: 109: 31: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4143: 4133: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4105: 4104: 4102: 4101: 4090: 4087: 4086: 4084: 4083: 4081:French paradox 4078: 4073: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4037: 4035: 4031: 4030: 4027: 4026: 4024: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4003: 3991: 3989: 3985: 3984: 3982: 3981: 3976: 3975: 3974: 3963: 3961: 3955: 3954: 3952: 3951: 3950: 3949: 3944: 3937:Sulfonic acids 3934: 3933: 3932: 3922: 3921: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3900: 3899: 3898: 3887: 3885: 3879: 3878: 3876: 3875: 3874: 3873: 3871:Standard drink 3868: 3860: 3859: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3835: 3833:Liquor license 3830: 3829: 3828: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3804: 3803: 3798: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3769: 3767: 3763: 3762: 3760: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3728: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3705: 3700: 3698:Temperance bar 3695: 3690: 3689: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3648: 3643: 3638: 3637: 3636: 3631: 3621: 3615: 3613: 3607: 3606: 3604: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3587: 3585: 3579: 3578: 3576: 3575: 3570: 3569: 3568: 3563: 3553: 3548: 3547: 3546: 3536: 3535: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3519: 3509: 3504: 3499: 3498: 3497: 3487: 3480: 3478: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3459: 3458: 3456: 3455: 3454: 3453: 3445: 3440: 3439: 3438: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3417: 3416: 3415: 3414: 3404: 3399: 3389: 3388: 3387: 3382: 3377: 3372: 3364: 3358: 3356: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3323: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3293: 3287: 3285: 3281: 3280: 3278: 3277: 3272: 3271: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3252: 3251: 3250: 3245: 3237: 3232: 3227: 3222: 3215: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3185: 3180: 3175: 3174: 3173: 3168: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3147: 3146: 3141: 3136: 3131: 3126: 3119:Binge drinking 3116: 3111: 3109:Alcohol powder 3106: 3101: 3099:Alcohol myopia 3096: 3095: 3094: 3084: 3083: 3082: 3072: 3067: 3066: 3065: 3060: 3050: 3041: 3039: 3033: 3032: 3030: 3029: 3028: 3027: 3021: 3012: 3007: 2998: 2993: 2988: 2983: 2978: 2977: 2976: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2950: 2948: 2944: 2943: 2941: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2919: 2917: 2913: 2912: 2910: 2909: 2907:Wine chemistry 2904: 2899: 2898: 2897: 2887: 2886: 2885: 2875: 2873:Beer chemistry 2869: 2867: 2863: 2862: 2860: 2859: 2854: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2817: 2815: 2809: 2808: 2806: 2805: 2800: 2795: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2779: 2778: 2768: 2762: 2756: 2754: 2743: 2735: 2734: 2727: 2726: 2719: 2712: 2704: 2695: 2694: 2691: 2690: 2675: 2658: 2653: 2652: 2650: 2649:Classification 2643: 2642: 2635: 2634:External links 2632: 2629: 2628: 2579: 2550: 2534: 2519: 2504: 2475: 2440: 2419: 2412: 2394: 2375: 2372:on 2011-07-19. 2342: 2335: 2317: 2302: 2284: 2277: 2269:Heavy Drinking 2259: 2220: 2202: 2185: 2152:(4): 431–443. 2129: 2085:(6): 428–437. 2066: 2035: 2032:on 2019-08-08. 2011: 1993: 1975: 1946: 1894: 1879: 1859: 1841: 1822:(8): 1043–51. 1806: 1771: 1742:(3): 281–292. 1719: 1710:NIAAA Spectrum 1694: 1669: 1634: 1619: 1600: 1591: 1580: 1571: 1552:(2): 233–243. 1536: 1517:(3): 195–215. 1501: 1482:(4): 599–618. 1466: 1439: 1412:(2): 587–589. 1396: 1361: 1342:(1): 136–147. 1326: 1315:(2): 223–230. 1299: 1264: 1239: 1226: 1212: 1199: 1182: 1165: 1152: 1143: 1123: 1106: 1093: 1087:Valverde, M., 1080: 1067: 1058: 1027: 1006: 981: 952:(2): 275–287. 932: 925: 897: 872: 865: 832: 797: 754: 715: 674: 660: 641: 622:(2): 232–243. 606: 574: 552: 512: 511: 509: 506: 505: 504: 497: 494: 446: 443: 354: 351: 330: 327: 315:harm reduction 310: 307: 276: 273: 212: 188:Thomas Trotter 183: 180: 150: 147: 137:of the liver. 108: 105: 64: 63: 58: 52: 51: 47: 46: 38: 37: 29: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4142: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4120:Alcohol abuse 4118: 4117: 4115: 4100: 4092: 4091: 4088: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4057: 4056:Mood disorder 4054: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4032: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3992: 3990: 3986: 3980: 3977: 3973: 3970: 3969: 3968: 3965: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3956: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3939: 3938: 3935: 3931: 3930:Nitrous oxide 3928: 3927: 3926: 3923: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3905: 3904: 3901: 3897: 3894: 3893: 3892: 3889: 3888: 3886: 3884: 3880: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3863: 3861: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3841:Fermented tea 3839: 3838: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3827: 3824: 3823: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3802: 3799: 3797: 3794: 3793: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3771: 3770: 3768: 3764: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3750: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3740: 3738: 3737:Sober curious 3735: 3733: 3730: 3725: 3722: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3710: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3691: 3687: 3684: 3682: 3679: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3668: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3654: 3652: 3649: 3647: 3644: 3642: 3639: 3635: 3632: 3630: 3627: 3626: 3625: 3622: 3620: 3617: 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drink 3206: 3204: 3203:Dutch courage 3201: 3199: 3196: 3194: 3191: 3189: 3188:Drunk walking 3186: 3184: 3183:Drunk dialing 3181: 3179: 3176: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3163: 3162: 3161:Drinking game 3159: 3157: 3154: 3152: 3149: 3145: 3142: 3140: 3137: 3135: 3132: 3130: 3127: 3125: 3122: 3121: 3120: 3117: 3115: 3112: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3100: 3097: 3093: 3090: 3089: 3088: 3085: 3081: 3078: 3077: 3076: 3073: 3071: 3070:Alcohol abuse 3068: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3045: 3043: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3037:Social issues 3034: 3026: 3022: 3020: 3016: 3015: 3013: 3011: 3008: 3006: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2987: 2984: 2982: 2979: 2975: 2974:breast cancer 2972: 2971: 2970: 2967: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2951: 2949: 2945: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2929: 2926: 2924: 2921: 2920: 2918: 2914: 2908: 2905: 2903: 2902:Fusel alcohol 2900: 2896: 2893: 2892: 2891: 2888: 2884: 2881: 2880: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2871: 2870: 2868: 2864: 2858: 2855: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2842: 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