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Cambridge, and I discussed. This piece of apparently routine work proved very fruitful â it led to the discovery that all the stars of very faint absolute magnitude were of spectral class M. In conversation on this subject (as I recall it), I asked
Pickering about certain other faint stars, not on my list, mentioning in particular 40 Eridani B. Characteristically, he sent a note to the Observatory office and before long the answer came (I think from Mrs. Fleming) that the spectrum of this star was A. I knew enough about it, even in these paleozoic days, to realize at once that there was an extreme inconsistency between what we would then have called "possible" values of the surface brightness and density. I must have shown that I was not only puzzled but crestfallen, at this exception to what looked like a very pretty rule of stellar characteristics; but Pickering smiled upon me, and said: "It is just these exceptions that lead to an advance in our knowledge", and so the white dwarfs entered the realm of study!
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the single-degenerate scenario, the accretion rate onto the white dwarf needs to be within a narrow range dependent on its mass so that the hydrogen burning on the surface of the white dwarf is stable. If the accretion rate is too low, novae on the surface of the white dwarf will blow away accreted material. If itâs too high, the white dwarf will expand and the white dwarf and companion star will be in a common envelope. This stops the growth of the white dwarf thus preventing it from reaching the
Chandrasekhar limit and exploding. For the single-degenerate model its companion is expected to survive, but there is no strong evidence of such a star near Type Ia supernovae sites. In the double-degenerate scenario, white dwarfs need to be in very close binaries, otherwise their inspiral time is longer than the
3555:
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3058:, it is slowed down in the denser environment. This slowed orbital speed is compensated with a decrease of the orbital distance between the red dwarf and the core of the red giant. The red dwarf spirals inwards towards the core and might merge with the core. If this does not happen and instead the common envelope is ejected, then the binary ends up in a close orbit, consisting of a white dwarf and a red dwarf. This type of binary is called a post-common envelope binary. The evolution of the PCEB continues as the two dwarf stars orbit closer and closer due to
2758:-Gaia proper motion. For GD 140 it is suspected to be a planet several times more massive than Jupiter and for LAWD 37 it is suspected to be a planet less massive than Jupiter. Additionally, WD 0141-675 was suspected to have a super-Jupiter with an orbital period of 33.65 days based on Gaia astrometry. This is remarkable because WD 0141-675 is polluted with metals and metal polluted white dwarfs have long be suspected to host giant planets that disturb the orbits of minor planets, causing the pollution. Both GD 140 and WD 0141 will be observed with
2585:, which is stronger for less massive white dwarfs. The PoyntingâRobertson drag will also cause the dust to orbit closer and closer towards the white dwarf, until it will eventually sublimate and the disk will disappear. A debris disk will have a lifetime of around a few million years for white dwarfs hotter than 10,000 K. Colder white dwarfs can have disk-lifetimes of a few 10 million years, which is enough time to tidally disrupt a second rocky body and forming a second disk around a white dwarf, such as the two rings around
1941:
atmospheres. Those classified as DB, DC, DO, DZ, and cool DQ have helium-dominated atmospheres. Assuming that carbon and metals are not present, which spectral classification is seen depends on the effective temperature. Between approximately 100,000 K to 45,000 K, the spectrum will be classified DO, dominated by singly ionized helium. From 30,000 K to 12,000 K, the spectrum will be DB, showing neutral helium lines, and below about 12,000 K, the spectrum will be featureless and classified DC.
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1963:
49:
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2041: gauss (0.2 T to 100 kT). The large number of presently known magnetic white dwarfs is due to the fact that most white dwarfs are identified by low-resolution spectroscopy, which is able to reveal the presence of a magnetic field of 1 megagauss or more. Thus the basic identification process also sometimes results in discovery of magnetic fields. It has been estimated that at least 10% of white dwarfs have fields in excess of 1 million gauss (100 T).
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437:
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1910:, Jesse L. Greenstein and their coauthors in 1983 and has been subsequently revised several times. It classifies a spectrum by a symbol which consists of an initial D, a letter describing the primary feature of the spectrum followed by an optional sequence of letters describing secondary features of the spectrum (as shown in the adjacent table), and a temperature index number, computed by dividing 50,400 K by the
715:. If the star's distance is known, its absolute luminosity can also be estimated. From the absolute luminosity and distance, the star's surface area and its radius can be calculated. Reasoning of this sort led to the realization, puzzling to astronomers at the time, that due to their relatively high temperature and relatively low absolute luminosity, Sirius B and 40 Eridani B must be very dense. When
1520:. As a result, the interior of the white dwarf maintains an almost uniform temperature as it cools down, starting at approximately 10 K shortly after the formation of the white dwarf and reaching less than 10 K for the coolest known white dwarfs. An outer shell of non-degenerate matter sits on top of the degenerate core. The outermost layers, which have temperatures below 10 K, radiate roughly as a
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created by the process of accretion onto white dwarfs. The significance of this finding is that there could be two types of supernovae, which could mean that the
Chandrasekhar limit might not always apply in determining when a white dwarf goes supernova, given that two colliding white dwarfs could have a range of masses. This in turn would confuse efforts to use exploding white dwarfs as
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661:; this is comparable to the Earth's radius of approximately 0.9% solar radius. A white dwarf, then, packs mass comparable to the Sun's into a volume that is typically a million times smaller than the Sun's; the average density of matter in a white dwarf must therefore be, very roughly, 1,000,000 times greater than the average density of the Sun, or approximately 10
2297:. Near the end of the period in which it undergoes fusion reactions, such a star will have a carbonâoxygen core which does not undergo fusion reactions, surrounded by an inner helium-burning shell and an outer hydrogen-burning shell. On the HertzsprungâRussell diagram, it will be found on the asymptotic giant branch. It will then expel most of its outer material, creating a
2376:, that involve helium accretion by a white dwarf, have been proposed to be a channel for transformation of this type of stellar remnant. In this scenario, the carbon detonation produced in a Type Ia supernova is too weak to destroy the white dwarf, expelling just a small part of its mass as ejecta, but produces an asymmetric explosion that kicks the star, often known as a
1721:), often referred to as extremely low-mass white dwarfs (ELM WDs), are formed in binary systems. As a result of their hydrogen-rich envelopes, residual hydrogen burning via the CNO cycle may keep these white dwarfs hot on a long timescale. In addition, they remain in a bloated proto-white dwarf stage for up to 2 Gyr before they reach the cooling track.
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1971:
accreted rocky planetesimals. The bulk composition of the accreted object can be measured from the strengths of the metal lines. For example, a 2015 study of the white dwarf Ton 345 concluded that its metal abundances were consistent with those of a differentiated, rocky planet whose mantle had been eroded by the host star's wind during its
1516:, because any absorption of a photon requires that an electron must transition to a higher empty state, which may not be possible as the energy of the photon may not be a match for the possible quantum states available to that electron, hence radiative heat transfer within a white dwarf is low; it does, however, have a high
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1464:â at which the white dwarf can no longer be supported by electron degeneracy pressure. The graph on the right shows the result of such a computation. It shows how radius varies with mass for non-relativistic (blue curve) and relativistic (green curve) models of a white dwarf. Both models treat the white dwarf as a cold
423:. Despite these suspicions, the first non-classical white dwarf was not definitely identified until the 1930s. 18 white dwarfs had been discovered by 1939. Luyten and others continued to search for white dwarfs in the 1940s. By 1950, over a hundred were known, and by 1999, over 2,000 were known. Since then the
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262:. Because the length of time it takes for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the known universe (approximately 13.8 billion years), it is thought that no black dwarfs yet exist. The oldest known white dwarfs still radiate at temperatures of a few thousand
1644:(CIA) of hydrogen molecules colliding with helium atoms. This affects the optical red and infrared brightness of white dwarfs with a hydrogen or mixed hydrogen-helium atmosphere. This makes old white dwarfs with this kind of atmosphere bluer than the main cooling sequence. Hence these white dwarfs are called
2703:
is the first white dwarf observed with a disintegrating minor planet which transits the star. The disintegration of the planetesimal generates a debris cloud which passes in front of the star every 4.5 hours, causing a 5-minute-long fade in the star's optical brightness. The depth of the transit
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If a star is massive enough, its core will eventually become sufficiently hot to fuse carbon to neon, and then to fuse neon to iron. Such a star will not become a white dwarf, because the mass of its central, non-fusing core, initially supported by electron degeneracy pressure, will eventually exceed
1612:
Most observed white dwarfs have relatively high surface temperatures, between 8,000 K and 40,000 K. A white dwarf, though, spends more of its lifetime at cooler temperatures than at hotter temperatures, so we should expect that there are more cool white dwarfs than hot white dwarfs. Once we
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We learn about the stars by receiving and interpreting the messages which their light brings to us. The message of the companion of Sirius when it was decoded ran: "I am composed of material 3,000 times denser than anything you have ever come across; a ton of my material would be a little nugget
375:
as double stars, the change of their motions would not surprise us; we should acknowledge them as necessary, and have only to investigate their amount by observation. But light is no real property of mass. The existence of numberless visible stars can prove nothing against the existence of numberless
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Observations have failed to note signs of accretion leading up to Type Ia supernovae, and this is now thought to be because the star is first loaded up to above the
Chandrasekhar limit while also being spun up to a very high rate by the same process. Once the accretion stops, the star gradually
1940:
White dwarfs whose primary spectral classification is DA have hydrogen-dominated atmospheres. They make up the majority, approximately 80%, of all observed white dwarfs. The next class in number is of DBs, approximately 16%. The hot, above 15,000 K, DQ class (roughly 0.1%) have carbon-dominated
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is thought to be the more likely scenario. Predicted rates of white dwarf-white dwarf mergers are comparable to the rate of Type Ia supernovae and would explain the lack of hydrogen in the spectra of Type Ia supernovae. However, the main mechanism for Type Ia supernovae remains an open question. In
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supports a white dwarf against gravitational collapse. The pressure depends only on density and not on temperature. Degenerate matter is relatively compressible; this means that the density of a high-mass white dwarf is much greater than that of a low-mass white dwarf and that the radius of a white
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dwarfs older than ~1 billion years or >7000 K with dusty infrared excess were not detected until the discovery of LSPM J0207+3331 in 2018, which has a cooling age of ~3 billion years. The white dwarf shows two dusty components that are being explained with two rings with different temperatures.
1617:
that hotter, more luminous white dwarfs are easier to observe, we do find that decreasing the temperature range examined results in finding more white dwarfs. This trend stops when we reach extremely cool white dwarfs; few white dwarfs are observed with surface temperatures below 4,000 K, and
1608:
atmosphere. After initially taking approximately 1.5 billion years to cool to a surface temperature of 7,140 K, cooling approximately 500 more kelvins to 6,590 K takes around 0.3 billion years, but the next two steps of around 500 kelvins (to 6,030 K and 5,550 K)
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together with the equation of state can then be solved to find the structure of the white dwarf at equilibrium. In the non-relativistic case, we will still find that the radius is inversely proportional to the cube root of the mass. Relativistic corrections will alter the result so that the radius
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of the white dwarf. The mechanism behind the pollution of white dwarfs in binaries was also explored as these systems are more likely to lack a major planet, but this idea cannot explain the presence of dust around single white dwarfs. While old white dwarfs show evidence of dust accretion, white
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suggest the presence of a dust cloud, which may be caused by cometary collisions. It is possible that infalling material from this may cause X-ray emission from the central star. Similarly, observations made in 2004 indicated the presence of a dust cloud around the young (estimated to have formed
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is released which provides a source of thermal energy that delays its cooling. Another possible mechanism that was suggested to explain the seeming delay in the cooling of some types of white dwarves is a solidâliquid distillation process: the crystals formed in the core are buoyant and float up,
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produced by those galaxies are 30 to 50 times less than what is expected to be produced by type Ia supernovas of that galaxy as matter accretes on the white dwarf from its encircling companion. It has been concluded that no more than 5 percent of the supernovae in such galaxies could be
2009:
that existed in its progenitor star phase. A surface magnetic field of c. 100 gauss (0.01 T) in the progenitor star would thus become a surface magnetic field of c. 100·100 = 1 million gauss (100 T) once the star's radius had shrunk by a factor of 100. The first magnetic
1075:
New research indicates that many white dwarfs â at least in certain types of galaxies â may not approach that limit by way of accretion. It has been postulated that at least some of the white dwarfs that become supernovae attain the necessary mass by colliding with one another. It may be that in
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surrounding the white dwarf, there are two ways a planet could end in a close orbit around stars of this kind: by surviving being engulfed by the star during its red giant phase, and then spiralling inward, or inward migration after the white dwarf has formed. The former case is implausible for
342:
I was visiting my friend and generous benefactor, Prof. Edward C. Pickering. With characteristic kindness, he had volunteered to have the spectra observed for all the stars â including comparison stars â which had been observed in the observations for stellar parallax which Hinks and I made at
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as the mass approaches the
Chandrasekhar limit. Because the white dwarf is supported against gravity by quantum degeneracy pressure instead of by thermal pressure, adding heat to the star's interior increases its temperature but not its pressure, so the white dwarf does not expand and cool in
1970:
Around 25â33% of white dwarfs have metal lines in their spectra, which is notable because any heavy elements in a white dwarf should sink into the star's interior in just a small fraction of the star's lifetime. The prevailing explanation for metal-rich white dwarfs is that they have recently
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matter from a companion star or other source, its radiation comes from its stored heat, which is not replenished. White dwarfs have an extremely small surface area to radiate this heat from, so they cool gradually, remaining hot for a long time. As a white dwarf cools, its surface temperature
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if it is able to take material from its companion fast enough to sustain fusion on its surface. On the other hand, phenomena in binary systems such as tidal interaction and starâdisc interaction, moderated by magnetic fields or not, act on the rotation of accreting white dwarfs. In fact, the
1527:
The visible radiation emitted by white dwarfs varies over a wide color range, from the whitish-blue color of an O, B or A-type main sequence star to the yellow-orange of a late K or early M-type star. White dwarf effective surface temperatures extend from over 150,000 K to barely under
1794:), and it is also hot: a white dwarf with surface temperature between 8,000 K and 16,000 K will have a core temperature between approximately 5,000,000 K and 20,000,000 K. The white dwarf is kept from cooling very quickly only by its outer layers' opacity to radiation.
11438:
Wang, Ting-Gui; Jiang, Ning; Ge, Jian; Cutri, Roc M.; Jiang, Peng; Sheng, Zhengfeng; Zhou, Hongyan; Bauer, James; Mainzer, Amy; Wright, Edward L. (9 October 2019). "An On-going Mid-infrared
Outburst in the White Dwarf 0145+234: Catching in Action of Tidal Disruption of an Exoasteroid?".
2631:
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is thought to cause this purity by gravitationally separating the atmosphere so that heavy elements are below and the lighter above. This atmosphere, the only part of the white dwarf visible to us, is thought to be the top of an envelope which is a residue of the star's envelope in the
2635:
2463:; in these cases, the lifetime is estimated to be no more than 10 years. If protons do decay, the mass of a white dwarf will decrease very slowly with time as its nuclei decay, until it loses enough mass to become a nondegenerate lump of matter, and finally disappears completely.
2180:; in 1965 and 1966, and was observed to vary with a period of approximately 12.5 minutes. The reason for this period being longer than predicted is that the variability of HL Tau 76, like that of the other pulsating variable white dwarfs known, arises from non-radial
952:
The existence of a limiting mass that no white dwarf can exceed without collapsing to a neutron star is another consequence of being supported by electron degeneracy pressure. Such limiting masses were calculated for cases of an idealized, constant density star in 1929 by
11682:
During validation of epoch astrometry for Gaia DR4, an error was discovered, that had already had an impact on the Gaia DR3 non-single star results. We can conclude that the solutions for WD 0141-675 are false-positives as far as Gaia non-single star processing is
1503:
Rotating white dwarfs and the estimates of their diameter in terms of the angular velocity of rotation has been treated in the rigorous mathematical literature. The fine structure of the free boundary of white dwarfs has also been analysed mathematically rigorously.
2571:
A less common observable evidence is infrared excess due to a flat and optically thick debris disk, which is found in around 1â4% of white dwarfs. The first white dwarf with infrared excess was discovered by
Zuckerman and Becklin in 1987 in the near-infrared around
2883:
low-mass bodies, as they are unlikely to survive being absorbed by their stars. In the latter case, the planets would have to expel so much orbital energy as heat, through tidal interactions with the white dwarf, that they would likely end as uninhabitable embers.
1706:
between the ionic species in the plasma mixture can release a similar or even greater amount of energy. This energy release was first confirmed in 2019 after the identification of a pile up in the cooling sequence of more than 15,000 white dwarfs observed with the
2592:
The least common observable evidence of planetary systems are detected major or minor planets. Only a handful of giant planets and a handful of minor planets are known around white dwarfs. It is a growing list with discoveries of around 6 exoplanets expected with
2257:, it will never become hot enough to ignite and fuse helium in its core. It is thought that, over a lifespan that considerably exceeds the age of the universe (c. 13.8 billion years), such a star will eventually burn all its hydrogen, for a while becoming a
258:, will lessen and redden with time. Over a very long time, a white dwarf will cool and its material will begin to crystallize, starting with the core. The star's low temperature means it will no longer emit significant heat or light, and it will become a cold
2576:
and later confirmed as a debris disk. White dwarfs hotter than 27,000 K sublimate all the dust formed by tidally disrupting a rocky body, preventing the formation of a debris disk. In colder white dwarfs, a rocky body might be tidally disrupted near the
3009:. It is also likely that instead of a Type Ia supernova, the merger of two white dwarfs will lead to core-collapse. As a white dwarf accretes material quickly, the core can ignite off-center which leads to gravitational instabilities which could create a
2404:
2405:
2265:
nuclei. Due to the very long time this process takes, it is not thought to be the origin of the observed helium white dwarfs. Rather, they are thought to be the product of mass loss in binary systems or mass loss due to a large planetary companion.
10620:
Mullally, Susan
Elizabeth; Mullally, Fergal; Albert, Loic; Barclay, Thomas; Debes, John Henry; Kilic, Mukremin; Kuchner, Marc Jason; Quintana, Elisa V.; Reach, William (2021). "A Search for the Giant Planets that Drive White Dwarf Accretion".
3117:(or giant) and a white dwarf. The binary Sirius AB is probably the most famous example. White dwarfs can also exist as binaries or multiple star systems that only consist of white dwarfs. An example of a resolved triple white dwarf system is
2523:
absorption lines. 27â50% of white dwarfs show a spectrum polluted with metals, but these heavy elements settle out in the atmosphere of white dwarfs colder than 20,000 K. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that this pollution comes from
11339:
Vanderburg, Andrew; Johnson, John Asher; Rappaport, Saul; Bieryla, Allyson; Irwin, Jonathan; Lewis, John Arban; Kipping, David; Brown, Warren R.; Dufour, Patrick (22 October 2015). "A disintegrating minor planet transiting a white dwarf".
4734:
Eisenstein, Daniel J.; Liebert, James; Harris, Hugh C.; Kleinman, S. J.; Nitta, Atsuko; Silvestri, Nicole; et al. (2006). "A catalog of spectroscopically confirmed white dwarfs from the Sloan
Digital Sky Survey, data release 4".
2911:(securely known) fastest-spinning white dwarfs are members of binary systems (the fastest one being the white dwarf in CTCV J2056-3014). A close binary system of two white dwarfs can lose angular momentum and radiate energy in the form of
1452:
which describes the relationship between density and pressure in the white dwarf material. If the density and pressure are both set equal to functions of the radius from the center of the star, the system of equations consisting of the
3540:
1789:
Although thin, these outer layers determine the thermal evolution of the white dwarf. The degenerate electrons in the bulk of a white dwarf conduct heat well. Most of a white dwarf's mass is therefore at almost the same temperature
1593:
decreases, the radiation which it emits reddens, and its luminosity decreases. Since the white dwarf has no energy sink other than radiation, it follows that its cooling slows with time. The rate of cooling has been estimated for a
12260:
11695:
Mullally, Susan E.; Debes, John; Cracraft, Misty; Mullally, Fergal; Poulsen, Sabrina; Albert, Loic; Thibault, Katherine; Reach, William T.; Hermes, J. J.; Barclay, Thomas; Kilic, Mukremin; Quintana, Elisa V. (24 January 2024).
1424:
2407:
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Gates, Evalyn; Gyuk, Geza; Harris, Hugh C.; Subbarao, Mark; Anderson, Scott; Kleinman, S. J.; Liebert, James; Brewington, Howard; et al. (2004). "Discovery of New
Ultracool White Dwarfs in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey".
7120:
Kanaan, A.; Nitta, A.; Winget, D. E.; Kepler, S. O.; Montgomery, M. H.; Metcalfe, T. S.; et al. (2005). "Whole Earth Telescope observations of BPM 37093: A seismological test of crystallization theory in white dwarfs".
11790:
Cheng, Sihao; Schlaufman, Kevin C.; Caiazzo, Ilaria (1 August 2024). "A Candidate Giant Planet Companion to the Massive, Young White Dwarf GALEX J071816.4+373139 Informs the Occurrence of Giant Planets Orbiting B Stars".
9634:
Jordan, George C. IV.; Perets, Hagai B.; Fisher, Robert T.; van Rossum, Daniel R. (2012). "Failed-detonation Supernovae: Subluminous Low-velocity Ia Supernovae and their Kicked Remnant White Dwarfs with Iron-rich Cores".
941:
Compression of a white dwarf will increase the number of electrons in a given volume. Applying the Pauli exclusion principle, this will increase the kinetic energy of the electrons, thereby increasing the pressure. This
11590:
Gaia Collaboration; Arenou, F.; Babusiaux, C.; Barstow, M. A.; Faigler, S.; Jorissen, A.; Kervella, P.; Mazeh, T.; Mowlavi, N.; Panuzzo, P.; Sahlmann, J.; Shahaf, S.; Sozzetti, A.; Bauchet, N.; Damerdji, Y. (2023).
2940:
systems can accrete material from a companion star, increasing both their mass and their density. As their mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit, this could theoretically lead to either the explosive ignition of
354:
The white dwarf companion of Sirius, Sirius B, was next to be discovered. During the nineteenth century, positional measurements of some stars became precise enough to measure small changes in their location.
2784:(LAWD 83). If confirmed they would be the first directly imaged planets that likely formed from circumstellar disk material, representing a new population of directly imaged giant planets that are more similar to
1229:
1015:. (Near the beginning of the 20th century, there was reason to believe that stars were composed chiefly of heavy elements, so, in his 1931 paper, Chandrasekhar set the average molecular weight per electron,
692:
system, as is the case for Sirius B or 40 Eridani B, it is possible to estimate its mass from observations of the binary orbit. This was done for Sirius B by 1910, yielding a mass estimate of
2630:
2222:. These variables all exhibit small (1â30%) variations in light output, arising from a superposition of vibrational modes with periods of hundreds to thousands of seconds. Observation of these variations gives
920:, also introduced in 1926 to determine the statistical distribution of particles which satisfy the Pauli exclusion principle. At zero temperature, therefore, electrons can not all occupy the lowest-energy, or
3081:. These surface explosions can be repeated as long as the white dwarf's core remains intact. This weaker kind of repetitive cataclysmic phenomenon is called a (classical) nova. Astronomers have also observed
3076:
Before accretion of material pushes a white dwarf close to the Chandrasekhar limit, accreted hydrogen-rich material on the surface may ignite in a less destructive type of thermonuclear explosion powered by
12200:
Blinnikov, S. I.; Röpke, F. K.; Sorokina, E. I.; Gieseler, M.; Reinecke, M.; Travaglio, C.; Hillebrandt, W.; Stritzinger, M. (2006). "Theoretical light curves for deflagration models of type Ia supernova".
7538:
8755:
Lawrence, G. M.; Ostriker, J. P.; Hesser, J. E. (1967). "Ultrashort-Period Stellar Oscillations. I. Results from White Dwarfs, Old Novae, Central Stars of Planetary Nebulae, 3c 273, and Scorpius XR-1".
2005:, was never generally accepted, and by the 1950s even Blackett felt it had been refuted. In the 1960s, it was proposed that white dwarfs might have magnetic fields due to conservation of total surface
1622:, has a surface temperature of approximately 3,050 K. The reason for this is that the Universe's age is finite; there has not been enough time for white dwarfs to cool below this temperature. The
239:â beyond which it cannot be supported by electron degeneracy pressure. A carbonâoxygen white dwarf that approaches this mass limit, typically by mass transfer from a companion star, may explode as a
3062:
and by releasing gravitational waves. The binary might evolve at some point into a cataclysmic variable, and therefore post-common envelope binaries are sometimes called pre-cataclysmic variables.
2691:
from their host planet could cause white dwarf pollution with dust. Either the liberation could cause asteroids to be scattered towards the white dwarf or the exomoon could be scattered into the
2245:. The composition of the white dwarf produced will depend on the initial mass of the star. Current galactic models suggest the Milky Way galaxy currently contains about ten billion white dwarfs.
254:
A white dwarf is very hot when it forms, but because it has no source of energy, it will gradually cool as it radiates its energy away. This means that its radiation, which initially has a high
10699:
Su, K. Y. L.; Chu, Y.-H.; Rieke, G. H.; Huggins, P. J.; Gruendl, R.; Napiwotzki, R.; Rauch, T.; Latter, W. B.; Volk, K. (2007). "A Debris Disk around the Central Star of the Helix Nebula?".
3992:
Spergel, D.N.; Bean, R.; Doré, O.; Nolta, M.R.; Bennett, C.L.; Dunkley, J.; et al. (2007). "Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) three year results: Implications for cosmology".
3554:
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of hypothetical Earth-like planets that could have migrated inward or formed there. As a white dwarf has a size similar to that of a planet, these kinds of transits would produce strong
2985:
flame consumes much of the white dwarf in a few seconds, causing a Type Ia supernova explosion that obliterates the star. In another possible mechanism for Type Ia supernovae, the
669:
per cubic centimetre. A typical white dwarf has a density of between 10 and 10 g/cm. White dwarfs are composed of one of the densest forms of matter known, surpassed only by other
9332:
8416:
Kepler, S.O.; Pelisoli, I.; Jordan, S.; Kleinman, S.J.; Koester, D.; Kuelebi, B.; Pecanha, V.; Castanhiera, B.G.; Nitta, A.; Costa, J.E.S.; Winget, D.E.; Kanaan, A.; Fraga, L. (2013).
12452:
GonzĂĄlez HernĂĄndez, J.I.; Ruiz-Lapuente, P.; Tabernero, H. M.; Montes, D.; Canal, R.; MĂ©ndez, J.; Bedin, L. R. (2012). "No surviving evolved companions of the progenitor of SN 1006".
2365:
exhibit abundances of neon, magnesium, and other intermediate-mass elements which appear to be only explicable by the accretion of material onto an oxygenâneonâmagnesium white dwarf.
900:
limited by normal matter. Eddington wondered what would happen when this plasma cooled and the energy to keep the atoms ionized was no longer sufficient. This paradox was resolved by
218:
The material in a white dwarf no longer undergoes fusion reactions, so the star has no source of energy. As a result, it cannot support itself by the heat generated by fusion against
11991:
Di Stefano, R.; Nelson, L. A.; Lee, W.; Wood, T. H.; Rappaport, S. (1997). "Luminous Supersoft X-ray Sources as Type Ia Progenitors". In P. Ruiz-Lapuente; R. Canal; J. Isern (eds.).
11747:
Casewell, S. L.; Debes, J.; Dupuy, T. J.; Dufour, P.; Bonsor, A.; Rebassa-Mansergas, A.; Murillo-Ojeda, R.; French, J. R.; Xu, Siyi (èźžćČèș); Martin, E.; Manjavacas, E. (8 April 2024).
7315:
Althaus, L. G.; GarcĂa-Berro, E.; Isern, J.; CĂłrsico, A. H.; Miller Bertolami, M. M. (January 2012). "New phase diagrams for dense carbon-oxygen mixtures and white dwarf evolution".
1922:
lines in its spectrum and an effective temperature of 15,000 K could be given the classification of DB3, or, if warranted by the precision of the temperature measurement, DB3.5.
1480:
These computations all assume that the white dwarf is non-rotating. If the white dwarf is rotating, the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium must be modified to take into account the
2671:
passing close to the white dwarf. Some estimations based on the metal content of the atmospheres of the white dwarfs consider that at least 15% of them may be orbited by planets or
6735:
Elms, Abbigail K.; Tremblay, Pier-Emmanuel; GĂ€nsicke, Boris T.; Koester, Detlev; Hollands, Mark A.; Gentile Fusillo, Nicola Pietro; Cunningham, Tim; Apps, Kevin (1 December 2022).
111:. There are currently thought to be eight white dwarfs among the hundred star systems nearest the Sun. The unusual faintness of white dwarfs was first recognized in 1910. The name
3093:
collapses onto the star, rather than through a release of energy due to fusion. In general, binary systems with a white dwarf accreting matter from a stellar companion are called
2762:
in cycle 2 with the aim to detect infrared excess caused by the planets. However, the planet candidate at WD 0141-675 was found to be a false positive caused by a software error.
15625:
10752:
Sion, Edward M.; Holberg, J.B.; Oswalt, Terry D.; McCook, George P.; Wasatonic, Richard (2009). "The White Dwarfs Within 20 Parsecs of the Sun: Kinematics and Statistics".
7427:
Blouin, Simon; Daligault, JĂ©rĂŽme; Saumon, Didier; BĂ©dard, Antoine; Brassard, Pierre (August 2020). "Toward precision cosmochronology: A new C/O phase diagram for white dwarfs".
12930:
Post-common-envelope binaries from SDSS â I. 101 white dwarf main-sequence binaries with multiple Sloan Digital Sky Survey spectroscopy: Post-common-envelope binaries from SDSS
6679:
Gates, E.; Gyuk, G.; Harris, H. C.; Subbarao, M.; Anderson, S.; Kleinman, S. J.; et al. (2004). "Discovery of New Ultracool White Dwarfs in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey".
8581:
Buckley, D.A.H.; Meintjes, P.J.; Potter, S.B.; Marsh, T.R.; GĂ€nsicke, B.T. (23 January 2017). "Polarimetric evidence of a white dwarf pulsar in the binary system AR Scorpii".
7036:
Metcalfe, T. S.; Montgomery, M. H.; Kanaan, A. (20 April 2004). "Testing White Dwarf Crystallization Theory with Asteroseismology of the Massive Pulsating DA Star BPM 37093".
10414:
Reach, William T.; Kuchner, Marc J.; Von Hippel, Ted; Burrows, Adam; Mullally, Fergal; Kilic, Mukremin; Winget, D. E. (2005). "The Dust Cloud around the White Dwarf G29-38".
2516:
is inherited from its progenitor star and may interact with the white dwarf in various ways. There are several indications that a white dwarf has a remnant planetary system.
2406:
1100:, a graph of stellar luminosity versus color or temperature. They should not be confused with low-luminosity objects at the low-mass end of the main sequence, such as the
11304:
2487:
2419:
Internal structures of white dwarfs. To the left is a newly formed white dwarf, in the center is a cooling and crystallizing white dwarf, and the right is a black dwarf.
12434:
8475:
Landstreet, J.D.; Bagnulo, S.; Valyavin, G.G.; Fossati, L.; Jordan, S.; Monin, D.; Wade, G.A. (2012). "On the incidence of weak magnetic fields in DA white dwarfs".
4108:
2815:
2643:
2214:
stars, with atmospheres dominated by helium, carbon, and oxygen. GW Vir stars are not, strictly speaking, white dwarfs, but are stars which are in a position on the
1274:
961:. This value was corrected by considering hydrostatic equilibrium for the density profile, and the presently known value of the limit was first published in 1931 by
2435:
escape into intergalactic space. White dwarfs should generally survive galactic dispersion, although an occasional collision between white dwarfs may produce a new
10846:
Debes, John H.; Walsh, Kevin J.; Stark, Christopher (24 February 2012). "The Link Between Planetary Systems, Dusty White Dwarfs, and Metal-Polluted White Dwarfs".
2301:, until only the carbonâoxygen core is left. This process is responsible for the carbonâoxygen white dwarfs which form the vast majority of observed white dwarfs.
2870:. Newer research casts some doubts on this idea, given that the close orbits of those hypothetical planets around their parent stars would subject them to strong
14156:
13720:
4554:
4511:
4421:
4375:
4329:
4202:
3785:
3635:
2715:
by the strong ultraviolet radiation of the hot white dwarf. Part of the evaporated material is being accreted in a gaseous disk around the white dwarf. The weak
2687:. Other suggested ideas of how white dwarfs are polluted with dust involve the scattering of asteroids by planets or via planet-planet scattering. Liberation of
1645:
7481:
3511:
3901:
Liebert, James; Bergeron, P.; Eisenstein, D.; Harris, H. C.; Kleinman, S. J.; Nitta, A.; Krzesinski, J. (2004). "A helium white dwarf of extremely low mass".
1995:
in 1947 as a consequence of a physical law he had proposed which stated that an uncharged, rotating body should generate a magnetic field proportional to its
11413:
1697:
had crystallized. Other work gives a crystallized mass fraction of between 32% and 82%. As a white dwarf core undergoes crystallization into a solid phase,
991:
is the average molecular weight per electron of the star. As the carbon-12 and oxygen-16 which predominantly compose a carbonâoxygen white dwarf both have
732:
that you could put in a matchbox." What reply can one make to such a message? The reply which most of us made in 1914 was â "Shut up. Don't talk nonsense."
12641:
1496:
in 1947, there is no limit to the mass for which it is possible for a model white dwarf to be in static equilibrium. Not all of these model stars will be
1334:
9420:
1546:
that of the Sun's. Hot white dwarfs, with surface temperatures in excess of 30,000 K, have been observed to be sources of soft (i.e., lower-energy)
9393:
3105:, both of which feature highly magnetic white dwarfs. Both fusion- and accretion-powered cataclysmic variables have been observed to be X-ray sources.
2679:, that would have survived the red giant phase of their star but losing their outer layers and, given those planetary remnants would likely be made of
4855:
4251:
3682:
2777:
1640:. No black dwarfs are thought to exist yet. At very low temperatures (<4000 K) white dwarfs with hydrogen in their atmosphere will be affected by
3133:
and brown dwarfs that orbit them, the white dwarfs are faint. This allows astronomers to study these brown dwarfs or exoplanets in more detail. The
3046:
A post-common envelope binary (PCEB) is a binary consisting of a white dwarf and a closely tidally-locked red dwarf (in other cases this might be a
11242:
Becklin, E. E.; Zuckerman, B.; Farihi, J. (10 February 2008). "Spitzer IRAC Observations of White Dwarfs. I. Warm Dust at Metal-Rich Degenerates".
10209:
Klein, Beth L.; Doyle, Alexandra E.; Zuckerman, B.; Dufour, P.; Blouin, Simon; Melis, Carl; Weinberger, Alycia J.; Young, Edward D. (1 June 2021).
2781:
719:
estimated the density of a number of visual binary stars in 1916, he found that 40 Eridani B had a density of over 25,000 times the
215:) white dwarf may form. Stars of very low mass will be unable to fuse helium; hence, a helium white dwarf may form by mass loss in binary systems.
2353:. Although a few white dwarfs have been identified which may be of this type, most evidence for the existence of such comes from the novae called
13710:
8657:
3623:
3118:
1524:. A white dwarf remains visible for a long time, as its tenuous outer atmosphere slowly radiates the thermal content of the degenerate interior.
10467:
Steckloff, Jordan K.; Debes, John; Steele, Amy; Johnson, Brandon; Adams, Elisabeth R.; Jacobson, Seth A.; Springmann, Alessondra (1 June 2021).
3840:
12696:
Giammichele, N.; Bergeron, P.; Dufour, P. (April 2012). "Know Your Neighborhood: A Detailed Model Atmosphere Analysis of Nearby White Dwarfs".
9322:
3028:
of 1572 was also a type Ia supernova, and its remnant has been detected. A close candidate to being a survivor of a type Ia supernova is
2964:, a carbonâoxygen white dwarf accretes mass and compresses its core by pulling mass from a companion non-degenerate star. It is believed that
5834:
9859:
9285:
Nelemans, G.; Tauris, T. M. (1998). "Formation of undermassive single white dwarfs and the influence of planets on late stellar evolution".
5280:
1693:
yielded a potential test of the crystallization theory, and in 2004, observations were made that suggested approximately 90% of the mass of
1648:. White dwarfs with hydrogen-poor atmospheres, such as WD J2147â4035, are less affected by CIA and therefore have a yellow to orange color.
5476:
1138:
9209:
Sarna, M. J.; Ergma, E.; GerĆĄkevitĆĄ, J. (2001). "Helium core white dwarf evolution â including white dwarf companions to neutron stars".
3963:
2466:
A white dwarf can also be cannibalized or evaporated by a companion star, causing the white dwarf to lose so much mass that it becomes a
2423:
A white dwarf is stable once formed and will continue to cool almost indefinitely, eventually to become a black dwarf. Assuming that the
12674:
5677:
4961:
8832:
Nagel, T.; Werner, K. (2004). "Detection of non-radial g-mode pulsations in the newly discovered PG 1159 star HE 1429-1209".
4910:
Shipman, H.L. (1979). "Masses and radii of white-dwarf stars. III â Results for 110 hydrogen-rich and 28 helium-rich stars".
1776:
of the star's total mass, which, if the atmosphere is hydrogen-dominated, is overlain by a hydrogen-rich layer with mass approximately
5977:
1630:
found in this way is 8 billion years. A white dwarf will eventually, in many trillions of years, cool and become a non-radiating
1580:
B (center), its A-class companion IK Pegasi A (left) and the Sun (right). This white dwarf has a surface temperature of 35,500 K.
1488:. For a uniformly rotating white dwarf, the limiting mass increases only slightly. If the star is allowed to rotate nonuniformly, and
13224:
8275:
Ginzburg, V. L.; Zheleznyakov, V. V.; Zaitsev, V. V. (1969). "Coherent mechanisms of radio emission and magnetic models of pulsars".
1641:
9501:"Evolution of 8â10 solar mass stars toward electron capture supernovae. I â Formation of electron-degenerate O + NE + MG cores"
2902:
If a white dwarf is in a binary star system and is accreting matter from its companion, a variety of phenomena may occur, including
60:. Sirius B, which is a white dwarf, can be seen as a faint point of light to the lower left of the much brighter Sirius A.
13996:
11640:
9540:
Werner, K.; Rauch, T.; Barstow, M. A.; Kruk, J. W. (2004). "Chandra and FUSE spectroscopy of the hot bare stellar core H?1504+65".
9230:
7090:
2747:
2455:
between 10 and 10 years. If these theories are not valid, the proton might still decay by complicated nuclear reactions or through
7563:
Istrate, A. G.; Tauris, T. M.; Langer, N.; Antoniadis, J. (2014). "The timescale of low-mass proto-helium white dwarf evolution".
6181:
Saumon, Didier; Blouin, Simon; Tremblay, Pier-Emmanuel (November 2022). "Current challenges in the physics of white dwarf stars".
5023:
Liebert, James; Young, P. A.; Arnett, D.; Holberg, J. B.; Williams, K. A. (2005). "The age and progenitor mass of Sirius B".
2349:, provided that its core does not collapse, and provided that fusion does not proceed so violently as to blow apart the star in a
1906:
in 1941, and various classification schemes have been proposed and used since then. The system currently in use was introduced by
12513:
Krause, Oliver; et al. (2008). "Tycho Brahe's 1572 supernova as a standard type Ia as revealed by its light-echo spectrum".
7870:
Kepler, S. O.; Kleinman, S. J.; Nitta, A.; Koester, D.; Castanheira, B. G.; Giovannini, O.; Costa, A. F. M.; Althaus, L. (2007).
3590:
1120:
12125:
12098:
11401:
GĂ€nsicke, Boris T.; Schreiber, Matthias R.; Toloza, Odette; Gentile Fusillo, Nicola P.; Koester, Detlev; Manser, Christopher J.
10078:
Debes, John H.; Thévenot, Melina; Kuchner, Marc J.; Burgasser, Adam J.; Schneider, Adam C.; Meisner, Aaron M.; Gagné, Jonathan;
3967:
3085:, which have smaller, more frequent luminosity peaks than the classical novae. These are thought to be caused by the release of
13781:
9183:
6794:
Winget, D. E.; Hansen, C. J.; Liebert, James; Van Horn, H. M.; Fontaine, G.; Nather, R. E.; Kepler, S. O.; Lamb, D. Q. (1987).
3716:
2803:, which was discovered in 2009. This is seen as perhaps the first case of linking white dwarf pollution with the presence of a
2176:
with a period of around 10 seconds, but searches in the 1960s failed to observe this. The first variable white dwarf found was
363:(α Canis Minoris) were changing their positions periodically. In 1844 he predicted that both stars had unseen companions:
11312:
9929:
7990:
Xu, S.; Jura, M.; Koester, D.; Klein, B.; Zuckerman, B. (2013). "Discovery of Molecular Hydrogen in White Dwarf Atmospheres".
15657:
14220:
13420:
12866:
12018:
10669:
9899:
7739:
6858:
6537:
6351:
5737:
5451:
5323:
3756:
3525:
1677:â that is initially in a fluid state. It was theoretically predicted in the 1960s that at a late stage of cooling, it should
2394:
white dwarfs would be smaller than the carbonâoxygen kind of similar mass and would cool and crystallize faster than those.
1749:
dominated. The dominant element is usually at least 1,000 times more abundant than all other elements. As explained by
12438:
9805:
Seager, S.; Kuchner, M.; Hier-Majumder, C.; Militzer, B. (19 July 2007). "Mass-Radius Relationships for Solid Exoplanets".
5948:
2993:
in which carbon fusion is then ignited. In both cases, the white dwarfs are not expected to survive the Type Ia supernova.
10360:
Zuckerman, B.; Becklin, E. E. (1 November 1987). "Excess infrared radiation from a white dwarfâan orbiting brown dwarf?".
8679:
5914:
182:, it will leave behind a core, which is the remnant white dwarf. Usually, white dwarfs are composed of carbon and oxygen (
12575:
9752:
Adams, Fred C.; Laughlin, Gregory (1997). "A dying universe: The long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects".
3712:
1448:
For a more accurate computation of the mass-radius relationship and limiting mass of a white dwarf, one must compute the
178:
K), an inert mass of carbon and oxygen will build up at its center. After such a star sheds its outer layers and forms a
8984:
Heger, A.; Fryer, C. L.; Woosley, S. E.; Langer, N.; Hartmann, D. H. (2003). "How Massive Single Stars End Their Life".
226:, causing it to be extremely dense. The physics of degeneracy yields a maximum mass for a non-rotating white dwarf, the
15632:
14951:
14230:
9951:
Koester, D.; GĂ€nsicke, B. T.; Farihi, J. (1 June 2014). "The frequency of planetary debris around young white dwarfs".
7480:
Tremblay, P.-E.; Fontaine, G.; Fusillo, N. P. G.; Dunlap, B. H.; GĂ€nsicke, B. T.; Hollands, M. H.; et al. (2019).
4993:
2766:
926:, state; some of them would have to occupy higher-energy states, forming a band of lowest-available energy states, the
9595:"On the interpretation and implications of nova abundances: An abundance of riches or an overabundance of enrichments"
7624:
12958:
4046:
Heger, A.; Fryer, C.L.; Woosley, S.E.; Langer, N.; Hartmann, D.H. (2003). "How massive single stars end their life".
3836:
2519:
The most common observable evidence of a remnant planetary system is pollution of the spectrum of a white dwarf with
2386:. The matter processed in the failed detonation is re-accreted by the white dwarf with the heaviest elements such as
2106:
786:
381:
17:
4957:
965:
in his paper "The Maximum Mass of Ideal White Dwarfs". For a non-rotating white dwarf, it is equal to approximately
8197:
Lovell, B. (1975). "Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett, Baron Blackett, of Chelsea. 18 November 1897 â 13 July 1974".
7617:"First Giant Planet around White Dwarf Found â ESO observations indicate the Neptune-like exoplanet is evaporating"
6968:
Barrat, J. L.; Hansen, J. P.; Mochkovitch, R. (1988). "Crystallization of carbon-oxygen mixtures in white dwarfs".
15811:
11402:
5385:
Hoddeson, L. H.; Baym, G. (1980). "The Development of the Quantum Mechanical Electron Theory of Metals: 1900â28".
2675:, or at least their debris. Another suggested idea is that white dwarfs could be orbited by the stripped cores of
2492:
707:. Since hotter bodies radiate more energy than colder ones, a star's surface brightness can be estimated from its
15344:
14179:
13715:
13458:
11527:"Stellar and substellar companions from Gaia EDR3. Proper-motion anomaly and resolved common proper-motion pairs"
8528:
Liebert, James; Bergeron, P.; Holberg, J. B. (2003). "The True Incidence of Magnetism Among Field White Dwarfs".
2215:
2065:
1623:
1129:
The relationship between the mass and radius of low-mass white dwarfs can be estimated using the nonrelativistic
1097:
441:
411:, indicating that they could be suspected to be low-luminosity stars close to the Earth, and hence white dwarfs.
10644:
8087:
Wilson, D.J.; GĂ€nsicke, B.T.; Koester, D.; Toloza, O.; Pala, A. F.; Breedt, E.; Parsons, S.G. (11 August 2015).
4849:; Kleinman, S.J.; Nitta, A.; Koester, D.; Castanheira, B.G.; Giovannini, O.; Costa, A.F.M.; Althaus, L. (2007).
174:. If a red giant has insufficient mass to generate the core temperatures required to fuse carbon (around 1
15637:
15274:
15258:
14293:
14260:
12645:
10567:
Sanderson, Hannah; Bonsor, Amy; Mustill, Alexander J (1 June 2022). "The galactic population of white dwarfs".
3086:
2833:, has a temperature of about 400 Kelvin (127 °C; 260 °F) and is unresolved. The white dwarf has a mass of 1.29
12928:
Rebassa-Mansergas, A.; GĂ€nsicke, B. T.; RodrĂguez-Gil, P.; Schreiber, M. R.; Koester, D. (28 November 2007). "
9424:
1626:
can therefore be used to find the time when stars started to form in a region; an estimate for the age of our
15684:
15551:
14205:
14184:
12989:â Discusses how to find mass-radius relations and mass limits for white dwarfs using simple energy arguments.
9397:
9093:
Brown, J. M.; Kilic, M.; Brown, W. R.; Kenyon, S. J. (2011). "The binary fraction of low-mass white dwarfs".
4171:
2878:. Another suggested constraint to this idea is the origin of those planets. Leaving aside formation from the
1745:
typically shows that their emitted light comes from an atmosphere which is observed to be either hydrogen or
2443:. The subsequent lifetime of white dwarfs is thought to be on the order of the hypothetical lifetime of the
1305:
for the kinetic energy, it is non-relativistic. When the electron velocity in a white dwarf is close to the
15667:
15618:
15593:
14886:
13617:
13489:
13305:
12937:
12929:
8716:"Mapping the Instability Domains of GW Vir Stars in the Effective TemperatureâSurface Gravity Diagram"
5212:
Celotti, A.; Miller, J.C.; Sciama, D.W. (1999). "Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes".
3059:
2850:
It has been proposed that white dwarfs with surface temperatures of less than 10,000 K could harbor a
2258:
1729:
944:
223:
39:
13244:
Dufour, P.; Liebert, James; Fontaine, G.; Behara, N. (2007). "White dwarf stars with carbon atmospheres".
7929:
Dufour, P.; Liebert, James; Fontaine, G.; Behara, N. (2007). "White dwarf stars with carbon atmospheres".
6874:
Bergeron, P.; Kilic, Mukremin; Blouin, Simon; BĂ©dard, A.; Leggett, S. K.; Brown, Warren R. (1 July 2022).
3867:
On possible oxygen / neon white dwarfs: H1504+65 and the white dwarf donors in ultracompact X-ray binaries
3674:
15608:
15588:
14174:
14017:
13682:
13677:
12580:
10084:"A 3 Gyr White Dwarf with Warm Dust Discovered via the Backyard Worlds: Planet 9 Citizen Science Project"
7840:
6239:
Sion, E. M.; Greenstein, J. L.; Landstreet, J. D.; Liebert, James; Shipman, H. L.; Wegner, G. A. (1983).
3041:
3024:
is thought to have been a type Ia supernova from a white dwarf, possibly the merger of two white dwarfs.
2989:, two carbonâoxygen white dwarfs in a binary system merge, creating an object with mass greater than the
2614:
2582:
1702:
thereby displacing heavier liquid downward, thus causing a net release of gravitational energy. Chemical
1637:
1477:, has been set equal to 2. Radius is measured in standard solar radii and mass in standard solar masses.
1124:
14971:
14125:
12377:
11997:. NATO Science Series C: Mathematical and physical sciences. Vol. 486. Springer. pp. 148â149.
15914:
15909:
15802:
15672:
15603:
15573:
13971:
13774:
12749:
Delfosse, Xavier; et al. (April 1999). "New neighbours. I. 13 new companions to nearby M dwarfs".
2759:
2598:
2076:, resulting in what has been initially described as "magnetized matter" in research published in 2012.
962:
917:
73:
12320:
11462:"Stellar and substellar companions of nearby stars from Gaia DR2. Binarity from proper motion anomaly"
8637:
6514:. The Hubble Deep Field: Proceedings of the Space Telescope Science Institute Symposium. p. 252.
2891:
2858:
that would last upwards of 3 billion years. This is so close that any habitable planets would be
2310:
the largest possible mass supportable by degeneracy pressure. At this point the core of the star will
15679:
15556:
15533:
15115:
14564:
14559:
14554:
14549:
14544:
14539:
14189:
13703:
13607:
13413:
12036:"CTCV J2056-3014: An X-Ray-faint Intermediate Polar Harboring an Extremely Fast-spinning White Dwarf"
11041:
Bonsor, Amy; GĂ€nsicke, Boris T.; Veras, Dimitri; Villaver, Eva; Mustill, Alexander J. (21 May 2018).
8324:
8240:
Landstreet, John D. (1967). "Synchrotron radiation of neutrinos and its astrophysical significance".
5084:
5025:
4912:
4790:
3903:
3832:
3071:
2719:
as well as other lines in the spectrum of the white dwarf revealed the presence of the giant planet.
2528:
rocky bodies. The first observation of a metal-polluted white dwarf was by van Maanen in 1917 at the
1536:); this surface temperature range corresponds to a luminosity from over 100 times the Sun's to under
909:
662:
4788:
Kilic, M.; Allende Prieto, C.; Brown, Warren R.; Koester, D. (2007). "The lowest mass white dwarf".
2929:
The mass of an isolated, nonrotating white dwarf cannot exceed the Chandrasekhar limit of ~1.4
14822:
14696:
14331:
13986:
13956:
13845:
13804:
12857:
Kawaler, S. D. (1997). "White Dwarf Stars". In Kawaler, S. D.; Novikov, I.; Srinivasan, G. (eds.).
7730:
Kawaler, S. D. (1997). "White Dwarf Stars". In Kawaler, S. D.; Novikov, I.; Srinivasan, G. (eds.).
5826:
5276:
5121:
4846:
4646:
4242:
2936:. This limit may increase if the white dwarf is rotating rapidly and nonuniformly. White dwarfs in
2683:, to attempt to detect them looking for the signatures of their interaction with the white dwarf's
2529:
2026:
light. It is thought to have a surface field of approximately 300 million gauss (30 kT).
1589:
1529:
1481:
1065:
736:
As Eddington pointed out in 1924, densities of this order implied that, according to the theory of
424:
392:
announced in 1915 that he had found the spectrum of Sirius B to be similar to that of Sirius.
356:
327:
12147:
Yoon, S.-C.; Langer, N. (2004). "Presupernova evolution of accreting white dwarfs with rotation".
6847:
The Moment of Creation: Big Bang Physics from Before the First Millisecond to the Present Universe
6001:"Stars, Distribution and Motions of, Note on equilibrium configurations for rotating white dwarfs"
3097:. As well as novae and dwarf novae, several other classes of these variables are known, including
2029:
Since 1970, magnetic fields have been discovered in well over 200 white dwarfs, ranging from
1080:
such collisions are the major source of supernovae. This hypothesis is based on the fact that the
15598:
15349:
15148:
15058:
15018:
15000:
14926:
14497:
14423:
13903:
13634:
12829:"Citizen Scientist Leads Discovery of 34 Ultracool Dwarf Binaries Using Archive at NSF's NOIRLab"
9869:
9357:
Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A.; Weaver, T. A. (2002). "The evolution and explosion of massive stars".
6343:
6128:
Chanillo, Sagun; Weiss, Georg S. (2012). "A remark on the geometry of uniformly rotating stars".
5266:
2907:
2823:
2655:
2315:
1972:
1759:
1326:
1277:
147:
10012:
Jura, M. (1 May 2008). "Pollution of Single White Dwarfs by Accretion of Many Small Asteroids".
5487:
1458:
becomes zero at a finite value of the mass. This is the limiting value of the mass â called the
388:
observed a previously unseen star close to Sirius, later identified as the predicted companion.
15924:
15759:
15739:
15511:
15506:
15404:
15299:
15248:
15053:
15043:
14716:
14514:
14482:
14373:
14356:
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13835:
5563:
3629:
2973:
2965:
2334:
2311:
1930:
1919:
1285:
1036:
741:
448:
335:
219:
57:
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response. Rather, the increased temperature accelerates the rate of the fusion reaction, in a
2373:
15919:
15613:
15583:
15578:
15568:
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15284:
14450:
14225:
13881:
13767:
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13667:
13511:
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10751:
8363:
5669:
4948:
4293:
3678:
2467:
2085:
1911:
1032:
708:
403:, an isolated white dwarf. These three white dwarfs, the first discovered, are the so-called
14731:
12772:
12603:
12403:
12224:
12170:
11934:"On the orbits of low-mass companions to white dwarfs and the fates of the known exoplanets"
11552:
11526:
11487:
11461:
11177:"The critical binary star separation for a planetary system origin of white dwarf pollution"
9974:
9563:
9308:
8855:
8498:
8288:
7586:
7450:
7338:
7228:
7144:
6981:
5879:
5795:
2192:, stars, including HL Tau 76, with hydrogen-dominated atmospheres and the spectral type DA;
1259:
688:
White dwarfs were found to be extremely dense soon after their discovery. If a star is in a
15754:
15652:
15642:
15491:
15459:
15253:
15048:
15033:
14346:
14103:
14091:
13898:
13738:
13523:
13406:
13263:
13195:
13153:
13057:
13009:
12899:
12768:
12715:
12599:
12532:
12471:
12399:
12342:
12282:
12220:
12166:
12057:
11998:
11955:
11888:
11831:
11719:
11548:
11483:
11359:
11261:
11198:
11131:
11108:
GĂ€nsicke, Boris T.; Holman, Matthew J.; Veras, Dimitri; Payne, Matthew J. (21 March 2016).
11064:
10997:
10930:
10865:
10818:
10771:
10718:
10626:
10586:
10549:
10490:
10433:
10369:
10318:
10281:
10232:
10162:
10105:
10031:
9970:
9824:
9771:
9711:
9654:
9606:
9559:
9512:
9465:
9366:
9304:
9257:
9218:
9151:
9112:
9056:
9003:
8947:
8904:
8851:
8804:
8765:
8727:
8602:
8547:
8494:
8439:
8382:
8333:
8284:
8249:
8155:
8110:
8059:
8009:
7948:
7893:
7844:
7805:
7768:
7693:
7655:
7582:
7506:
7446:
7391:
7334:
7273:
7236:
7224:
7187:
7140:
7055:
7008:
6977:
6942:
6897:
6807:
6758:
6698:
6651:
6607:
6566:
6525:
6482:
6433:
6376:
6293:
6252:
6200:
6147:
6094:
6053:
6012:
5973:
5875:
5791:
5717:
5673:
5641:
5595:
5524:
5394:
5357:
5311:
5231:
5166:
5093:
5044:
4997:
4921:
4874:
4809:
4754:
4703:
4655:
4609:
4563:
4520:
4474:
4430:
4384:
4338:
4302:
4260:
4211:
4175:
4117:
4065:
4011:
3922:
3880:
3794:
3601:
3094:
3025:
2788:
in age and probably also in their atmosphere. Confirmation will be possible via the common
2448:
2338:
2290:
2023:
1517:
1497:
1454:
400:
380:
Bessel roughly estimated the period of the companion of Sirius to be about half a century;
323:
279:
171:
13228:
12034:
Lopes de Oliveira, R.; Bruch, A.; Rodrigues, C. V.; de Oliveira, A. S.; Mukai, K. (2020).
11698:"JWST Directly Images Giant Planet Candidates Around Two Metal-Polluted White Dwarf Stars"
11460:
Kervella, Pierre; Arenou, Frédéric; Mignard, François; Thévenin, Frédéric (1 March 2019).
10469:"How Sublimation Delays the Onset of Dusty Debris Disk Formation around White Dwarf Stars"
7251:
4417:"The mean parallax of early-type stars of determined proper motion and apparent magnitude"
1072:
explosion in which the white dwarf may be destroyed, before it reaches the limiting mass.
8:
15904:
15876:
15214:
15197:
14868:
14770:
14593:
14076:
14054:
13936:
13830:
13547:
13443:
10598:
9068:
8361:
Ferrario, Lilia; de Martino, Domtilla; Gaensicke, Boris (2015). "Magnetic white dwarfs".
4320:
4193:
3006:
2990:
2863:
2557:
1763:
1682:
1460:
1068:
mass from a neighboring star undergo a runaway nuclear fusion reaction, which leads to a
1041:
938:, meant that a white dwarf could cool to zero temperature and still possess high energy.
389:
359:
used position measurements to determine that the stars Sirius (α Canis Majoris) and
348:
267:
227:
116:
15354:
13267:
13199:
13157:
13061:
13013:
12903:
12719:
12536:
12475:
12411:
12346:
12286:
12061:
12002:
11959:
11892:
11835:
11812:
Agol, Eric (2011). "Transit Surveys for Earths in the Habitable Zones of White Dwarfs".
11723:
11363:
11265:
11202:
11135:
11068:
11001:
10934:
10869:
10822:
10775:
10722:
10630:
10590:
10553:
10494:
10437:
10373:
10322:
10285:
10236:
10166:
10109:
10035:
9828:
9775:
9715:
9658:
9610:
9516:
9469:
9370:
9261:
9222:
9155:
9116:
9060:
9007:
8951:
8908:
8885:
O'Brien, M. S. (2000). "The Extent and Cause of the PreâWhite Dwarf Instability Strip".
8808:
8769:
8731:
8606:
8551:
8443:
8386:
8337:
8253:
8159:
8114:
8072:
8063:
8047:
8013:
7952:
7897:
7848:
7809:
7772:
7697:
7659:
7510:
7395:
7277:
7191:
7098:
7059:
7012:
6946:
6901:
6811:
6762:
6702:
6655:
6611:
6570:
6529:
6486:
6437:
6380:
6297:
6256:
6204:
6151:
6098:
6057:
6016:
5721:
5645:
5599:
5528:
5398:
5361:
5315:
5235:
5170:
5097:
5048:
5001:
4987:
4925:
4878:
4813:
4758:
4707:
4659:
4613:
4567:
4524:
4478:
4434:
4388:
4342:
4306:
4264:
4215:
4179:
4121:
4069:
4015:
3926:
3884:
3798:
3000:
was the favored mechanism for Type Ia supernovae, but now, because of observations, the
1550:. This enables the composition and structure of their atmospheres to be studied by soft
15864:
15852:
15749:
15710:
15662:
15647:
15561:
15501:
15424:
15334:
15304:
15294:
15238:
15160:
14851:
14487:
14286:
14120:
14098:
13946:
13888:
13622:
13518:
13287:
13253:
13211:
13185:
13121:
13095:
13025:
12889:
12758:
12731:
12705:
12623:
12589:
12556:
12522:
12495:
12461:
12389:
12332:
12272:
12236:
12210:
12182:
12156:
12075:
12047:
11973:
11945:
11909:
11878:
11866:
11847:
11821:
11792:
11760:
11709:
11665:
11622:
11604:
11572:
11538:
11507:
11473:
11440:
11383:
11349:
11285:
11251:
11224:
11188:
11157:
11121:
11090:
11054:
11023:
10987:
10956:
10920:
10889:
10855:
10787:
10783:
10761:
10734:
10708:
10602:
10576:
10521:
10480:
10468:
10449:
10423:
10393:
10342:
10308:
10258:
10222:
10188:
10131:
10095:
10055:
10043:
10021:
9994:
9960:
9840:
9814:
9787:
9761:
9729:
9701:
9670:
9644:
9575:
9549:
9481:
9455:
9446:
Schaffner-Bielich, JĂŒrgen (2005). "Strange quark matter in stars: A general overview".
9294:
9102:
9072:
9046:
9019:
8993:
8963:
8920:
8894:
8867:
8841:
8618:
8592:
8563:
8537:
8510:
8484:
8457:
8429:
8398:
8372:
8300:
8222:
8214:
8179:
8128:
8100:
8025:
7999:
7972:
7938:
7911:
7883:
7833:
7709:
7598:
7572:
7530:
7496:
7462:
7436:
7409:
7381:
7350:
7324:
7263:
7156:
7130:
7071:
7045:
6887:
6850:
6748:
6714:
6688:
6515:
6451:
6423:
6392:
6216:
6190:
6163:
6137:
6110:
5891:
5865:
5807:
5781:
5743:
5707:
5540:
5483:
5418:
5410:
5247:
5243:
5221:
5189:
5154:
5125:
5060:
5034:
4892:
4864:
4825:
4799:
4770:
4744:
4366:
4143:
4135:
4081:
4055:
4027:
4001:
3938:
3912:
3870:
3171:
3114:
3102:
2937:
2912:
2896:
2460:
2383:
1948:
1944:
1107:, whose cores are supported in part by thermal pressure, or the even lower-temperature
737:
611:
396:
385:
331:
285:
13021:
12966:
11843:
10877:
10299:
Farihi, J. (1 April 2016). "Circumstellar debris and pollution at white dwarf stars".
9666:
8959:
8021:
7370:"22 Ne Phase Separation as a Solution to the Ultramassive White Dwarf Cooling Anomaly"
1325:
is the speed of light, and it can be shown that there is no stable equilibrium in the
48:
15700:
15125:
15098:
15078:
14878:
14662:
14650:
14477:
14457:
14411:
14393:
14361:
14210:
14049:
13976:
13651:
13484:
13453:
13279:
13113:
13029:
12972:
12954:
12917:
12862:
12735:
12727:
12627:
12615:
12548:
12487:
12415:
12358:
12298:
12121:
12094:
12079:
12014:
11977:
11914:
11851:
11626:
11576:
11564:
11511:
11499:
11375:
11277:
11216:
11149:
11082:
11027:
11015:
10960:
10948:
10893:
10881:
10791:
10606:
10526:
10508:
10453:
10385:
10346:
10334:
10262:
10250:
10192:
10180:
10135:
10123:
10047:
9998:
9986:
9724:
9689:
9674:
9485:
9477:
9270:
9245:
9124:
8967:
8924:
8402:
8304:
8171:
8089:"The composition of a disrupted extrasolar planetesimal at SDSS J0845+2257 (Ton 345)"
8029:
7964:
7906:
7871:
7852:
7735:
7713:
7705:
7522:
7466:
7413:
7354:
7297:
7289:
7075:
6915:
6854:
6776:
6533:
6446:
6411:
6396:
6347:
6220:
5856:
Chabrier, G.; Baraffe, I. (2000). "Theory of low-Mass stars and substellar objects".
5733:
5702:
Canal, R.; Gutierrez, J. (1997). "The Possible White Dwarf-Neutron Star Connection".
5544:
5422:
5319:
5194:
5135:
5005:
4887:
4850:
4147:
3942:
3752:
3595:
2969:
2949:
2924:
2875:
2855:
2819:
2804:
2799:
system is polluted with calcium from rocky material. The white dwarf is orbited by a
2594:
2440:
2235:
1992:
1937:
The symbols "?" and ":" may also be used if the correct classification is uncertain.
1681:
into a solid state, starting at its center. The crystal structure is thought to be a
1656:
1619:
1449:
1077:
1069:
934:
905:
255:
244:
240:
123:
93:
15185:
13125:
12240:
11289:
11228:
11161:
10738:
10059:
9791:
9733:
9187:
9076:
9023:
8622:
8514:
8461:
8226:
8132:
7915:
7602:
7534:
6555:"The Chemical Evolution of Cool White Dwarfs and the Age of the Local Galactic Disk"
6455:
5895:
5811:
5251:
4896:
4829:
4774:
4085:
3959:
3708:
1983:
Magnetic fields in white dwarfs with a strength at the surface of c. 1 million
1766:. The envelope is believed to consist of a helium-rich layer with mass no more than
1419:{\displaystyle M_{\rm {limit}}\approx N^{2}\left({\frac {\hbar c}{G}}\right)^{3/2}.}
15828:
15528:
15481:
15431:
15419:
15397:
15392:
15319:
15279:
15226:
15008:
14931:
14906:
14800:
14721:
14445:
14406:
14022:
13924:
13698:
13291:
13271:
13215:
13203:
13161:
13109:
13105:
13065:
13017:
12907:
12723:
12607:
12560:
12540:
12499:
12479:
12407:
12350:
12290:
12228:
12186:
12174:
12065:
12006:
11963:
11904:
11896:
11839:
11770:
11727:
11614:
11556:
11491:
11387:
11367:
11269:
11206:
11139:
11094:
11072:
11005:
10938:
10873:
10826:
10779:
10726:
10594:
10516:
10498:
10441:
10397:
10377:
10326:
10240:
10170:
10113:
10039:
9978:
9921:
9844:
9832:
9779:
9719:
9662:
9614:
9579:
9567:
9520:
9473:
9374:
9265:
9226:
9159:
9120:
9064:
9011:
8955:
8912:
8871:
8859:
8812:
8773:
8735:
8647:
8642:
8610:
8583:
8567:
8555:
8502:
8447:
8390:
8341:
8292:
8257:
8206:
8183:
8163:
8118:
8067:
8017:
7976:
7956:
7901:
7813:
7776:
7701:
7590:
7514:
7482:"Core crystallization and pile-up in the cooling sequence of evolving white dwarfs"
7454:
7399:
7342:
7281:
7232:
7195:
7160:
7148:
7063:
7016:
6950:
6905:
6825:
6815:
6766:
6718:
6706:
6659:
6615:
6574:
6490:
6441:
6384:
6301:
6260:
6208:
6155:
6114:
6102:
6061:
6020:
5887:
5883:
5803:
5799:
5747:
5725:
5649:
5603:
5532:
5512:
5402:
5365:
5239:
5184:
5174:
5101:
5064:
5052:
4929:
4882:
4817:
4762:
4711:
4663:
4617:
4571:
4528:
4482:
4438:
4392:
4346:
4268:
4219:
4125:
4099:
4073:
4031:
4019:
3930:
3802:
3617:
3547:
Artist's impression of an evolving white dwarf and millisecond pulsar binary system
3195:
3050:
instead of a red dwarf). These binaries form when the red dwarf is engulfed in the
2712:
2586:
2549:
2513:
2298:
2223:
2218:
between the asymptotic giant branch and the white dwarf region. They may be called
1996:
1686:
1666:
1614:
1513:
1049:
958:
954:
896:. There is therefore no obstacle to placing nuclei closer than normally allowed by
885:
802:
724:
712:
420:
319:
179:
12980:
12611:
11867:"Habitable Planets Around White and Brown Dwarfs: The Perils of a Cooling Primary"
11618:
11560:
11495:
10677:
9982:
9891:
8863:
8506:
7594:
7458:
7346:
6212:
6167:
5443:
2811:
are being disrupted by the brown dwarf, causing the pollution of the white dwarf.
2060:
The magnetic fields in a white dwarf may allow for the existence of a new type of
1933:
lines which also had hydrogen features could be given the classification of DBAP3.
1329:. In particular, this analysis yields the maximum mass of a white dwarf, which is
15715:
15518:
15387:
15231:
15202:
15143:
15138:
15013:
14741:
14706:
14640:
14586:
14581:
14526:
14336:
13941:
13931:
13893:
13552:
12232:
12178:
12010:
10278:
Recognition of the First Observational Evidence of an Extrasolar Planetary System
9864:
9571:
7152:
6082:
5970:
5131:
3746:
3562:
3138:
3134:
3055:
2978:
2744:
is the first and only transiting major planet around a white dwarf (as of 2022).
2561:
2544:
and magnesium in its atmosphere, but van Maanen misclassified it as the faintest
2500:
2470:. The resultant object, orbiting the former companion, now host star, could be a
2456:
2121:
2001:
1754:
1551:
1101:
1086:
590:
32:
12354:
11749:"PHL 5038AB: Is the brown dwarf causing pollution of its white dwarf host star?"
10330:
5936:
5729:
419:
when he examined this class of stars in 1922; the term was later popularized by
15888:
15816:
15777:
15543:
15382:
15209:
15180:
15155:
15088:
14777:
14645:
14531:
14433:
14323:
14313:
13961:
13951:
13602:
12828:
12807:
12786:
12070:
12035:
11732:
11697:
10503:
10245:
10210:
10118:
10083:
10079:
9378:
8687:
7404:
7369:
7285:
7176:"Asteroseismology of the Crystallized ZZ Ceti Star BPM 37093: A Different View"
6910:
6875:
6339:
5910:
5772:
Hillebrandt, W.; Niemeyer, J. C. (2000). "Type IA supernova explosion models".
3090:
3078:
2942:
2879:
2859:
2851:
2708:
2684:
2509:
2436:
2172:
Early calculations suggested that there might be white dwarfs whose luminosity
1926:
1907:
1750:
1734:
1670:
1485:
1306:
897:
889:
597:
13991:
12451:
11175:
Rebassa-Mansergas, Alberto; Xu (èźžćČèș), Siyi; Veras, Dimitri (21 January 2018).
10804:
9783:
8652:
8394:
7518:
6495:
6470:
6159:
6025:
6000:
5155:"The Relativity Displacement of the Spectral Lines in the Companion of Sirius"
4273:
4246:
1962:
15898:
15729:
15523:
15486:
15454:
15329:
15038:
14861:
14832:
14810:
14428:
14401:
14378:
14279:
14151:
14146:
14115:
13876:
13861:
13641:
13585:
13557:
13463:
12921:
12619:
12419:
12362:
12302:
11990:
11568:
11503:
11281:
11220:
11153:
11086:
11019:
10976:"Eccentric planets and stellar evolution as a cause of polluted white dwarfs"
10952:
10885:
10512:
10389:
10338:
10254:
10184:
10127:
10051:
9990:
9327:
8261:
7293:
6919:
6780:
6771:
6736:
5654:
5629:
5370:
5345:
4637:
4622:
4597:
4502:
4458:
4412:
3704:
2982:
2789:
2475:
2471:
2173:
2073:
2061:
2006:
1703:
1627:
1512:
The degenerate matter that makes up the bulk of a white dwarf has a very low
1253:
1008:
equal to 2 for such a star, leading to the commonly quoted value of 1.4
996:
992:
913:
881:
831:
546:
412:
408:
384:
computed an orbit for it in 1851. It was not until 31 January 1862 that
309:
293:
151:
12951:
Black holes, white dwarfs, and neutron stars: the physics of compact objects
12912:
12877:
11775:
11748:
11211:
11176:
11144:
11109:
10943:
10908:
8686:. Association Française des Observateurs d'Etoiles Variables. Archived from
8614:
8146:
Blackett, P. M. S. (1947). "The Magnetic Field of Massive Rotating Bodies".
8123:
8088:
7021:
6997:"The Status of White Dwarf Asteroseismology and a Glimpse of the Road Ahead"
6996:
1741:
Although most white dwarfs are thought to be composed of carbon and oxygen,
1532:, luminosity increases with increasing surface temperature (proportional to
876:
Such densities are possible because white dwarf material is not composed of
716:
15840:
15789:
15464:
15414:
15409:
15309:
15192:
15175:
15133:
15103:
15093:
15028:
14911:
14856:
14837:
14817:
14795:
14787:
14630:
14623:
14462:
14383:
14366:
14027:
14001:
13871:
13866:
13790:
13672:
13646:
13629:
13580:
13530:
13496:
13448:
13283:
13117:
12552:
12491:
11968:
11933:
11918:
11379:
11077:
11042:
11010:
10975:
10530:
10211:"Discovery of Beryllium in White Dwarfs Polluted by Planetesimal Accretion"
8452:
8417:
8210:
8175:
7968:
7616:
7526:
7301:
6737:"Spectral analysis of ultra-cool white dwarfs polluted by planetary debris"
6640:"The Cool White Dwarf Luminosity Function and the Age of the Galactic Disk"
6471:"On the theory of white dwarf stars. I. The energy sources of white dwarfs"
5406:
5271:
5198:
4130:
4103:
4045:
3612:
3606:
3439:
3282:
3098:
3010:
2808:
2785:
2741:
2723:
2700:
2692:
2676:
2659:
2578:
2537:
2452:
2323:
2202:
2181:
1988:
1984:
1966:
Elements discovered in the atmosphere of white dwarfs colder than 25,000 K.
1903:
1742:
1566:
1555:
1061:
922:
901:
674:
670:
658:
583:
511:
504:
497:
490:
483:
476:
469:
462:
455:
315:
305:
297:
131:
100:; no fusion takes place in a white dwarf. The nearest known white dwarf is
69:
13381:
13367:
13353:
13339:
13325:
13311:
12576:"Deep and fast Solar System flybys: The controversial case of WD 0810-353"
12033:
11900:
5179:
1902:
The first attempt to classify white dwarf spectra appears to have been by
1428:
1245:
is the number of electrons per unit mass (dependent only on composition),
629:
Although white dwarfs are known with estimated masses as low as 0.17
15705:
15377:
15369:
15359:
15339:
15314:
15243:
15165:
14921:
14896:
14891:
14765:
14726:
14674:
14669:
14341:
14071:
14037:
13966:
13612:
13540:
13479:
13190:
13100:
12763:
12215:
12161:
11525:
Kervella, Pierre; Arenou, Frédéric; Thévenin, Frédéric (1 January 2022).
11043:"Unstable low-mass planetary systems as drivers of white dwarf pollution"
10713:
10428:
9766:
9706:
9554:
9460:
9299:
8998:
8899:
8846:
8542:
7888:
7135:
7050:
6693:
6520:
6428:
5870:
5786:
5712:
5706:. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 214. pp. 49â55.
5473:
5226:
5039:
4869:
4804:
4749:
4060:
4006:
3917:
3875:
3584:
3578:
3470:
3047:
3029:
2871:
2800:
2735:
2731:
2545:
2525:
2520:
2378:
2200:, stars, with helium-dominated atmospheres and the spectral type DB; and
2019:
2018:) which was identified by James Kemp, John Swedlund, John Landstreet and
1929:, an effective temperature of 17,000 K, and a spectrum dominated by
1698:
1678:
1632:
1585:
1108:
689:
518:
334:
discovered that, despite being a dim star, 40 Eridani B was of
301:
259:
108:
13275:
12544:
12483:
11589:
11371:
10909:"Detectable close-in planets around white dwarfs through late unpacking"
9231:
10.1002/1521-3994(200112)322:5/6<405::AID-ASNA405>3.0.CO;2-6
7960:
7646:
Schatzman, E. (1945). "Théorie du débit d'énergie des naines blanches".
6830:
6334:
Fontaine, G.; Wesemael, F. (2001). "White dwarfs". In Murdin, P. (ed.).
4989:
Preliminary General Catalogue of 6188 stars for the epoch 1900
2730:
data. The brightening is not seen before 2018. It is interpreted as the
2052:
in which the compact object is a white dwarf instead of a neutron star.
1954:) has been detected in spectra of the atmospheres of some white dwarfs.
657:. The estimated radii of observed white dwarfs are typically 0.8â2% the
15289:
14986:
14959:
14936:
14916:
14901:
14753:
14657:
14635:
14613:
14608:
14472:
14215:
14130:
14110:
14081:
14032:
13981:
13592:
13535:
12878:"New white dwarf stars in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 10"
8296:
6388:
6106:
5536:
5414:
3376:
3344:
3313:
3181:
3162:
3082:
2915:, causing their mutual orbit to steadily shrink until the stars merge.
2834:
2796:
2751:
2439:
star or a super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarf which will explode in a
2415:
2319:
2254:
2253:
If the mass of a main-sequence star is lower than approximately half a
2069:
2045:
1791:
1663:
1521:
1493:
1468:
in hydrostatic equilibrium. The average molecular weight per electron,
1093:
682:
678:
604:
576:
562:
289:
231:
191:
187:
135:
89:
15883:
12573:
10280:. 19Th European Workshop on White Dwarfs. Vol. 493. p. 291.
8218:
7796:
Luyten, W. J. (1952). "The Spectra and Luminosities of White Dwarfs".
5630:"The highly collapsed configurations of a stellar mass (Second paper)"
4139:
3869:. 14th European Workshop on White Dwarfs. Vol. 334. p. 165.
2663:
from its AGB progenitor about 500 million years ago) white dwarf
1636:
in approximate thermal equilibrium with its surroundings and with the
347:
The spectral type of 40 Eridani B was officially described in 1914 by
15476:
15324:
15108:
15073:
15068:
15063:
15023:
14976:
14966:
14760:
14736:
14711:
14618:
14569:
14502:
14492:
14467:
14440:
14416:
14351:
14061:
14044:
13597:
12695:
10381:
9423:. lecture notes, Physics 213. University of Sheffield. Archived from
9396:. lecture notes, Physics 213. University of Sheffield. Archived from
8167:
5307:
4507:"Additional note on faint early-type stars with large proper motions"
3865:
Werner, K.; Hammer, N.J.; Nagel, T.; Rauch, T.; Dreizler, S. (2005).
3130:
3051:
2755:
2533:
2350:
2346:
2177:
1694:
1577:
1489:
1465:
1224:{\displaystyle R\approx {\frac {N^{5/3}\hbar ^{2}}{2m_{e}GM^{1/3}}},}
1130:
1104:
1039:
for this and other work in 1983. The limiting mass is now called the
928:
569:
532:
312:
204:
155:
139:
27:
Type of stellar remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter
12294:
11992:
9037:
Napiwotzki, Ralf (2009). "The galactic population of white dwarfs".
8318:
Kemp, J.C.; Swedlund, J.B.; Landstreet, J.D.; Angel, J.R.P. (1970).
5974:"The Structure, Stability, and Dynamics of Self-Gravitating Systems"
3113:
Other non-pre-supernova binaries include binaries that consist of a
2814:
In 2024 a planet candidate was found around the massive white dwarf
2261:, and end its evolution as a helium white dwarf composed chiefly of
436:
15469:
15170:
14844:
14603:
14576:
14066:
13825:
13506:
13207:
13166:
13141:
13070:
13045:
12594:
12119:
12092:
12052:
11797:
11765:
11714:
11609:
11543:
11478:
11445:
11354:
11273:
11193:
11126:
11059:
10831:
10806:
10730:
10485:
10445:
10313:
10227:
10175:
10150:
10100:
9836:
9619:
9594:
9525:
9500:
9246:"The formation of helium white dwarfs in close binary systems â II"
9164:
9139:
9015:
8916:
8817:
8792:
8777:
8740:
8715:
8597:
8559:
8377:
8346:
8319:
8105:
7817:
7781:
7756:
7684:
Koester, D.; Chanmugam, G. (1990). "Physics of white dwarf stars".
7501:
7441:
7386:
7268:
7200:
7175:
7067:
6954:
6933:
van Horn, H. M. (January 1968). "Crystallization of White Dwarfs".
6892:
6820:
6795:
6753:
6710:
6664:
6639:
6620:
6595:
6579:
6554:
6367:
Heise, J. (1985). "X-ray emission from isolated hot white dwarfs".
6306:
6281:
6265:
6240:
6195:
6066:
6041:
5608:
5583:
5106:
5079:
5056:
4933:
4821:
4766:
4716:
4691:
4668:
4641:
4576:
4549:
4533:
4506:
4487:
4462:
4443:
4416:
4397:
4370:
4351:
4324:
4224:
4197:
4077:
4023:
3934:
3807:
3780:
3638: â Chronological list of developments in knowledge and records
3532:
3408:
3129:
around white dwarfs. While stars are bright and often outshine the
3122:
3017:
slows until the spin is no longer enough to prevent the explosion.
2672:
2556:
in white dwarfs is thought to come from nitrogen-ice of extrasolar
2553:
2424:
2262:
1674:
1605:
1569:. This process has more effect on hotter and younger white dwarfs.
1562:
1053:
893:
555:
539:
266:, which establishes an observational limit on the maximum possible
143:
102:
13258:
12953:, Stuart L. Shapiro and Saul A. Teukolsky, New York: Wiley, 1983.
12894:
12710:
12527:
12466:
12394:
12337:
12277:
11950:
11883:
11826:
11400:
11256:
10992:
10925:
10860:
10766:
10581:
10026:
9965:
9819:
9804:
9649:
9107:
9051:
8489:
8434:
8004:
7943:
7577:
7329:
6142:
4598:"On the relation between the masses and luminosities of the stars"
2948:
There are two models that might explain the progenitor systems of
2341:. Such a star may leave a remnant white dwarf composed chiefly of
338: A, or white. In 1939, Russell looked back on the discovery:
199:), the core temperature will be sufficient to fuse carbon but not
15744:
15219:
14981:
14748:
14701:
14684:
14679:
14598:
13919:
12644:. fact sheet. Imagine the Universe!. NASA Goddard. Archived from
11338:
7368:
Blouin, Simon; Daligault, JĂ©rĂŽme; Saumon, Didier (1 April 2021).
3250:
3021:
2867:
2727:
2716:
2688:
2573:
2565:
2541:
1057:
753:
360:
248:
175:
77:
13140:
Provencal, J. L.; Shipman, H. L.; Hog, Erik; Thejll, P. (1998).
13086:
Gibson, B. K.; Flynn, C (2001). "White Dwarfs and Dark Matter".
8474:
6876:"On the Nature of Ultracool White Dwarfs: Not so Cool after All"
5139:
5009:
2293:, but it will never become sufficiently hot to fuse carbon into
1651:
744:. This was confirmed when Adams measured this redshift in 1925.
15734:
15722:
14941:
14827:
13809:
13759:
13501:
12574:
de la Fuente Marcos, RaĂșl; de la Fuente Marcos, Carlos (2022).
12376:
Maoz, Dan; Mannucci, Filippo; Nelemans, Gijs (18 August 2014).
8938:
Winget, D. E. (1998). "Asteroseismology of white dwarf stars".
7856:
7314:
6796:"An independent method for determining the age of the universe"
6282:"WD 0346+246: A Very Low Luminosity, Cool Degenerate in Taurus"
6238:
5944:
4787:
4733:
4463:"Note on some faint early-type stars with large proper motions"
4247:"On the variations of the proper motions of Procyon and Sirius"
3900:
3218:
2664:
2444:
2428:
2427:
continues to expand, it is thought that in 10 to 10 years, the
2342:
2286:
2282:
2238:
for main-sequence stars with masses from about 0.07 to 10
2140:
2049:
2011:
1746:
1594:
793:
700:, which compares well with a more modern estimate of 1.00
407:. Eventually, many faint white stars were found which had high
263:
167:
163:
159:
53:
13398:
13000:
Winget, D.E. (1998). "Asteroseismology of white dwarf stars".
12378:"Observational Clues to the Progenitors of Type Ia Supernovae"
12261:"Type-Ia Supernova Rates and the Progenitor Problem: A Review"
12199:
12095:"Astronomers Discover Merging Star Systems that Might Explode"
11174:
7215:
Hansen, B. M. S.; Liebert, James (2003). "Cool White Dwarfs".
2274:
If the mass of a main-sequence star is between 0.5 and 8
1572:
13142:"Testing the White Dwarf Mass-Radius Relation with Hipparcos"
11694:
11459:
10645:"The MIRI survey for Exoplanets Orbiting White-dwarfs (MEOW)"
10619:
10413:
10077:
7562:
7479:
2754:
are suspected to have giant exoplanets due to anomaly in the
2680:
2668:
2184:
pulsations. Known types of pulsating white dwarf include the
1547:
1081:
1048:
If a white dwarf were to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit, and
666:
107:
at 8.6 light years, the smaller component of the Sirius
85:
12875:
9633:
8418:"Magnetic white dwarf stars in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey"
8415:
8320:"Discovery of circularly polarized light from a white dwarf"
5515:(1929). "Ăber die Grenzdichte der Materie und der Energie".
3632: â Classification of stars based on spectral properties
2895:
The merger process of two co-orbiting white dwarfs produces
2765:
A JWST survey of four metal polluted white dwarfs found two
2281:, its core will become sufficiently hot to fuse helium into
15083:
14302:
13575:
13243:
12808:"Cosmic 'Spider' Found to Be Source of Powerful Gamma-Rays"
12748:
11040:
10805:
Li, Jianke; Ferrario, Lilia; Wickramasinghe, Dayal (1998).
10466:
8360:
8317:
8274:
8086:
7928:
7426:
6793:
6734:
6241:"A proposed new white dwarf spectral classification system"
3620: â Type of emission nebula created by dying red giants
2903:
2488:
List of exoplanets and planetary debris around white dwarfs
2432:
2387:
2362:
2294:
877:
200:
127:
97:
31:"Degenerate dwarf" redirects here. Not to be confused with
15835:
15784:
12093:
Aguilar, David A.; Pulliam, Christine (16 November 2010).
9892:"Hubble finds dead stars "polluted" with planetary debris"
8580:
7869:
6596:"A Catalogue of Spectroscopically Identified White Dwarfs"
5827:"From the Clash of White Dwarfs, the Birth of a Supernova"
4845:
15449:
13139:
12981:"Estimating Stellar Parameters from Energy Equipartition"
11669:
10208:
6873:
6409:
5444:"Estimating Stellar Parameters from Energy Equipartition"
5022:
4109:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
3207:
723:'s, which was so high that he called it "impossible". As
720:
186:). If the mass of the progenitor is between 7 and 9
154:
of low or medium mass ends, such a star will expand to a
81:
14271:
11746:
11107:
9137:
7252:"Buoyant crystals halt the cooling of white dwarf stars"
7035:
6412:"A two-stream formalism for the convective Urca process"
4692:"A catalog of spectroscopically identified white dwarfs"
3778:
2945:
in the white dwarf or its collapse into a neutron star.
14157:
Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae
13721:
Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae
13174:
13050:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
10907:
Veras, Dimitri; GĂ€nsicke, Boris T. (21 February 2015).
10155:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
9688:
Panei, J. A.; Althaus, L. G.; Benvenuto, O. G. (2000).
8983:
8713:
7761:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
7119:
6967:
6678:
4555:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
4512:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
4467:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
4422:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
4376:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
4330:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
4291:
Flammarion, Camille (1877). "The companion of Sirius".
4203:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
4168:
How degenerate stars came to be known as 'white dwarfs'
3786:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
3636:
Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae
2667:, which may have been created by tidal disruption of a
2234:
White dwarfs are thought to represent the end point of
2044:
The highly magnetized white dwarf in the binary system
643:, the mass distribution is strongly peaked at 0.6
13043:
12120:
Aguilar, David A.; Pulliam, Christine (13 July 2011).
11789:
11524:
11241:
11110:"Liberating exomoons in white dwarf planetary systems"
10566:
9922:"Comet falling into white dwarf (artist's impression)"
9539:
9138:
Laughlin, G.; Bodenheimer, P.; Adams, Fred C. (1997).
8754:
8527:
6410:
Lesaffre, P.; Podsiadlowski, Ph.; Tout, C. A. (2005).
3864:
3587: â Type of substellar object larger than a planet
2795:
In 2024 it was discovered that the white dwarf in the
1762:
phase and may also contain material accreted from the
1291:
Since this analysis uses the non-relativistic formula
1060:, and it would collapse into a denser object called a
15800:
12845:
12265:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia
11984:
9950:
9687:
9092:
7367:
7250:
Antoine, BĂ©dard; Simon, Blouin; Sihao, Cheng (2024).
6280:
Hambly, N. C.; Smartt, S. J.; Hodgkin, S. T. (1997).
5561:
Stoner, C. (1930). "The Equilibrium of Dense Stars".
2874:
that could render them uninhabitable by triggering a
1880:
Magnetic white dwarf without detectable polarization
1337:
1262:
1141:
12787:"Rocky Exoplanets Are Even Stranger Than We Thought"
12375:
10974:
Frewen, S. F. N.; Hansen, B. M. S. (11 April 2014).
9798:
9323:"Planet diet helps white dwarfs stay young and trim"
9208:
8199:
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
6180:
3991:
2504:
Comet falling into white dwarf (artist's impression)
2326:. Some main-sequence stars, of perhaps 8 to 10
2022:
in 1970 to host a magnetic field by its emission of
427:
has found over 9,000 white dwarfs, mostly new.
8714:Quirion, P.-O.; Fontaine, G.; Brassard, P. (2007).
6637:
6552:
6279:
6039:
5771:
5211:
4038:
3108:
2654:Infrared spectroscopic observations made by NASA's
2564:material and the beryllium is thought to come from
2158:Atmosphere mostly C, He and O; may be divided into
13222:
9860:"Scientists Discover a Diamond as Big as a Planet"
9448:Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics
9356:
7989:
7832:
6638:Leggett, S. K.; Ruiz, M. T.; Bergeron, P. (1998).
6553:Bergeron, P.; Ruiz, M. T.; Leggett, S. K. (1997).
6042:"Rapidly Rotating Stars. II. Massive White Dwarfs"
5941:Standards for Astronomical Catalogues, Version 2.0
2738:, the first time such an event has been observed.
2496:Artist's impression of debris around a white dwarf
1872:Magnetic white dwarf with detectable polarization
1714:Low-mass helium white dwarfs (mass < 0.20
1418:
1268:
1223:
1096:and therefore occupy a strip at the bottom of the
12934:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
12882:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
11938:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
11181:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
11114:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
11047:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
10980:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
10913:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
10698:
9694:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
9445:
9250:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
8422:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
8093:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
7876:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
7249:
6741:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
6475:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
6416:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
6005:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
5634:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
5350:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
5304:Relativity: an introduction to space-time physics
4856:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
4602:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
4252:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3960:"Cosmic weight loss: The lowest mass white dwarf"
3779:Fontaine, G.; Brassard, P.; Bergeron, P. (2001).
3774:
3772:
3770:
3768:
3744:
3675:"Extreme stars: White dwarfs & neutron stars"
3518:Illustration of rocky debris around a white dwarf
2304:
1125:Neutron star § Gravity and equation of state
15896:
12435:"Don't slow down white dwarf, you might explode"
12432:
11437:
11403:"Accretion of a giant planet onto a white dwarf"
10359:
9851:
9243:
7683:
7173:
6333:
2390:falling to its core where it accumulates. These
2318:which will leave behind a remnant neutron star,
2269:
1609:take first 0.4 and then 1.1 billion years.
650:, and the majority lie between 0.5 and 0.7
13046:"Magnetism in Isolated and Binary White Dwarfs"
13044:Wickramasinghe, D. T.; Ferrario, Lilia (2000).
12437:. Discovery Communications, LLC. Archived from
12124:. Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
12097:. Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
11931:
10845:
9352:
9350:
5855:
5159:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4174:meeting 207. Vol. 207. p. 1503.
3624:Robust associations of massive baryonic objects
2726:shows brightening in the mid-infrared, seen in
2560:, the lithium is thought to come from accreted
2532:and is now recognized as the first evidence of
1655:The white dwarf cooling sequence seen by ESA's
1432:Radiusâmass relations for a model white dwarf.
904:in 1926 by an application of the newly devised
415:appears to have been the first to use the term
12445:
12113:
12086:
9284:
6234:
6232:
6230:
5701:
4685:
4683:
4681:
4679:
3781:"The potential of white dwarf cosmochronology"
3765:
3598: â Type of dense exotic matter in physics
3035:
2226:evidence about the interiors of white dwarfs.
870:Critical density of an Earth-mass black hole.
14287:
13775:
13414:
12968:White dwarf stars and the Chandrasekhar limit
12671:"Introduction to Cataclysmic Variables (CVs)"
10906:
9751:
9088:
9086:
8052:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
7214:
6127:
5767:
5765:
5763:
5761:
5759:
5757:
5627:
5581:
4286:
4284:
3896:
3894:
3833:"Late stages of evolution for low-mass stars"
3531:Cocoon of a new white dwarf in the centre of
3126:
138:. This includes over 97% of the stars in the
12876:Kepler, S. O.; et al. (February 2015).
12258:
11864:
10973:
10204:
10202:
9347:
8684:Centre deDonnées astronomiques de Strasbourg
6867:
5384:
4591:
4589:
4587:
3125:data. One interesting field is the study of
2854:at a distance of c. 0.005 to 0.02
2842:and is probably an oxygen-neon white dwarf.
1835:He II lines, accompanied by He I or H lines
1052:did not take place, the pressure exerted by
1024:, equal to 2.5, giving a limit of 0.91
841:Does not depend strongly on size of nucleus
430:
318:. The pair 40 Eridani B/C was discovered by
284:The first white dwarf discovered was in the
13085:
12506:
12382:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
9592:
8884:
8831:
8720:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
8709:
8707:
8705:
7872:"White dwarf mass distribution in the SDSS"
7217:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
6730:
6728:
6600:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
6559:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
6512:White Dwarf Stars and the Hubble Deep Field
6227:
5858:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
5774:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
5697:
5695:
5623:
5621:
5619:
4851:"White dwarf mass distribution in the SDSS"
4737:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
4696:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
4690:McCook, George P.; Sion, Edward M. (1999).
4676:
4237:
4235:
3994:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
3964:Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
3740:
3738:
3736:
3734:
2481:
2248:
2117:
1114:
770:Critical density of a black hole of around
14294:
14280:
13782:
13768:
13734:
13421:
13407:
13341:The Helix Nebula from La Silla Observatory
12259:Maoz, D.; Mannucci, F. (18 January 2012).
12146:
12122:"Evolved Stars Locked in Fatalistic Dance"
11305:"Zombie Star Caught Feasting on Asteroids"
10151:"Two Faint Stars with Large Proper Motion"
10148:
9813:(2) (published November 2007): 1279â1297.
9681:
9181:
9083:
9036:
8239:
7830:
7725:
7723:
7679:
7677:
7675:
7673:
7671:
7669:
7088:
6593:
6336:Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics
6083:"On diameters of uniformly rotating stars"
6080:
5754:
5438:
5436:
5434:
5432:
5387:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
4689:
4371:"Two faint stars with large proper motion"
4365:
4290:
4281:
4161:
4159:
4157:
3891:
3054:phase. As the red dwarf orbits inside the
2091:
1999:. This putative law, sometimes called the
1957:
1662:White dwarf core material is a completely
1492:is neglected, then, as was pointed out by
13257:
13189:
13165:
13099:
13069:
12911:
12893:
12762:
12709:
12665:
12663:
12593:
12567:
12526:
12465:
12393:
12336:
12276:
12214:
12160:
12069:
12051:
11967:
11949:
11908:
11882:
11825:
11796:
11774:
11764:
11731:
11713:
11608:
11542:
11477:
11444:
11394:
11353:
11255:
11210:
11192:
11143:
11125:
11076:
11058:
11009:
10991:
10942:
10924:
10859:
10830:
10765:
10712:
10580:
10520:
10502:
10484:
10427:
10312:
10275:
10244:
10226:
10199:
10174:
10117:
10099:
10025:
9964:
9818:
9765:
9723:
9705:
9690:"The evolution of iron-core white dwarfs"
9648:
9627:
9618:
9553:
9524:
9459:
9298:
9269:
9244:Benvenuto, O. G.; De Vito, M. A. (2005).
9163:
9106:
9050:
8997:
8898:
8845:
8816:
8739:
8651:
8596:
8541:
8488:
8451:
8433:
8376:
8345:
8122:
8104:
8071:
8045:
8003:
7942:
7905:
7887:
7780:
7645:
7576:
7500:
7440:
7403:
7385:
7328:
7267:
7199:
7134:
7049:
7020:
6909:
6891:
6829:
6819:
6770:
6752:
6692:
6663:
6633:
6631:
6619:
6578:
6519:
6494:
6445:
6427:
6305:
6264:
6194:
6141:
6065:
6040:Ostriker, J. P.; Bodenheimer, P. (1968).
6024:
5869:
5785:
5711:
5653:
5607:
5556:
5554:
5369:
5339:
5337:
5335:
5295:
5225:
5188:
5178:
5120:
5105:
5038:
4886:
4868:
4841:
4839:
4803:
4748:
4729:
4727:
4715:
4667:
4621:
4595:
4584:
4575:
4532:
4486:
4442:
4396:
4350:
4325:"The spectrum of the companion of Sirius"
4272:
4223:
4129:
4059:
4005:
3916:
3874:
3806:
2906:and Type Ia supernovae. It may also be a
2886:
2826:. The candidate has a mass of around 3.6
2447:, known to be at least 10â10 years. Some
1724:
740:, the light from Sirius B should be
122:White dwarfs are thought to be the final
13369:A Nearby Supernova in Spiral Galaxy M100
11303:Lemonick, Michael D. (21 October 2015).
11302:
9857:
9747:
9745:
9743:
9418:
9391:
8702:
8145:
8046:Jura, M.; Young, E.D. (1 January 2014).
7167:
6932:
6725:
5692:
5616:
5584:"The Maximum Mass of Ideal White Dwarfs"
5575:
5511:
4950:Exotic Phases of Matter in Compact Stars
4232:
4098:
3731:
3609: â Collapsed core of a massive star
3065:
2890:
2581:and forced into a circular orbit by the
2499:
2491:
2414:
2401:
1961:
1728:
1650:
1571:
1507:
1427:
1309:, the kinetic energy formula approaches
47:
12964:
12856:
12318:
9593:Livio, Mario; Truran, James W. (1994).
8979:
8977:
8790:
7729:
7720:
7666:
6509:
6329:
6327:
6325:
6323:
6321:
6319:
6317:
5824:
5429:
5205:
5016:
4909:
4198:"An A-type star of very low luminosity"
4165:
4154:
3672:
1685:lattice. In 1995 it was suggested that
1056:would no longer be able to balance the
949:dwarf decreases as its mass increases.
912:, no two electrons can occupy the same
292:, which contains the relatively bright
56: A and Sirius B taken by the
14:
15897:
13227:. Villanova University. Archived from
12999:
12660:
12634:
12512:
12319:Wang, Bo; Han, Zhanwen (1 June 2012).
12314:
12312:
12254:
12252:
12250:
11334:
11332:
11330:
10409:
10407:
10298:
10073:
10071:
10069:
9498:
9177:
9175:
8937:
8635:
8196:
7795:
7754:
7237:10.1146/annurev.astro.41.081401.155117
7089:Whitehouse, David (16 February 2004).
6994:
6844:
6628:
6468:
6087:Communications in Mathematical Physics
5911:"The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram"
5560:
5551:
5343:
5332:
5080:"The densities of visual binary stars"
4946:
4836:
4724:
4636:
4547:
4501:
4457:
4411:
4241:
3860:
3858:
3709:"The one hundred nearest star systems"
3668:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3654:
3652:
932:. This state of the electrons, called
300:, orbited at a distance by the closer
84:'s, while its volume is comparable to
14275:
13763:
13402:
13334:(photograph). NASA. 31 December 2009.
13320:(photograph). NASA. 21 February 2010.
13313:NGC 2440: Cocoon of a New White Dwarf
10569:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
10546:Planetary Systems Around White Dwarfs
10543:
9932:from the original on 15 February 2017
9740:
8041:
8039:
7983:
6366:
6081:Chanillo, Sagun; Li, Yan Yan (1994).
5998:
5837:from the original on 25 February 2010
5301:
5152:
4319:
4192:
3987:
3985:
3954:
3952:
3843:from the original on 4 September 2017
3826:
3824:
3822:
3820:
3818:
3719:from the original on 12 November 2007
3703:
3677:(Lecture notes). Astronomy 162.
3626: â Proposed type of star cluster
2918:
2411:Artist's concept of white dwarf aging
2368:
1576:A comparison between the white dwarf
1528:4,000 K. In accordance with the
14256:
13002:Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter
12938:doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12288.x
12698:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement
12677:from the original on 6 February 2012
11932:Nordhaus, J.; Spiegel, D.S. (2013).
11811:
11419:from the original on 4 December 2019
10011:
9858:Lemonick, Michael (26 August 2011).
9412:
9385:
8974:
8940:Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter
7627:from the original on 4 December 2019
7082:
6314:
6273:
5929:
5077:
4985:
3830:
3751:. North-Holland Publishing Company.
3591:Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation
2322:, or possibly a more exotic form of
2048:was identified in 2016 as the first
1618:one of the coolest so far observed,
1121:Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation
12412:10.1146/annurev-astro-082812-141031
12321:"Progenitors of type Ia supernovae"
12309:
12247:
11865:Barnes, Rory; Heller, René (2011).
11431:
11327:
10537:
10404:
10082:; Rees, Jon M. (19 February 2019).
10066:
9172:
8073:10.1146/annurev-earth-060313-054740
7174:Brassard, P.; Fontaine, G. (2005).
6594:McCook, G. P.; Sion, E. M. (1999).
5969:
5917:from the original on 31 August 2009
4967:from the original on 15 August 2011
3855:
3835:. Lecture notes, Physics 230.
3713:Research Consortium on Nearby Stars
3649:
3581: â Theoretical stellar remnant
3150:White Dwarfs within 25 Light Years
2807:. It is thought that the orbits of
2769:candidates with masses of 1â7
2337:, may be insufficiently massive to
2333:, although sufficiently massive to
1859:Unclear or unclassifiable spectrum
251:is thought to be a famous example.
24:
13355:IC 4406: A Seemingly Square Nebula
12846:External links and further reading
10676:. 13 February 2007. Archived from
10149:van Maanen, A. (1 December 1917).
9421:"The evolution of high-mass stars"
9335:from the original on 20 April 2010
9331:. No. 2639. 18 January 2008.
8793:"A New Short-Period Blue Variable"
8638:"Stars draw atoms closer together"
8036:
7091:"Diamond star thrills astronomers"
5477:"Lecture 12 â Degeneracy pressure"
4994:Carnegie Institution of Washington
3982:
3970:from the original on 22 April 2007
3949:
3815:
3685:from the original on 31 March 2012
2981:process that feeds on itself. The
2066:perpendicular paramagnetic bonding
1356:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
25:
15936:
13376:(photograph). NASA. 7 March 2006.
13362:(photograph). NASA. 27 July 2008.
13348:(photograph). NASA. 3 March 2009.
13223:McCook, G.P.; Sion, E.M. (eds.).
12433:O'Neill, Ian (6 September 2011).
12128:from the original on 15 July 2011
12101:from the original on 9 April 2011
12040:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
11814:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
11702:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
10670:"Comet clash kicks up dusty haze"
10544:Veras, Dimitri (1 October 2021).
9637:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
9394:"The evolution of low-mass stars"
8660:from the original on 20 July 2012
7544:from the original on 23 July 2019
7374:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
6130:Journal of Differential Equations
5980:from the original on 27 June 2010
5908:
5670:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1983"
3837:Rochester Institute of Technology
2780:(LP 852-7) and the other around
2601:are expected to be <4 and 4â8.
2335:fuse carbon to neon and magnesium
2143:absorption lines in its spectrum
2055:
2010:white dwarf to be discovered was
1978:
15882:
15870:
15858:
15846:
15834:
15822:
15810:
15783:
15773:
15772:
14255:
14246:
14245:
13997:TolmanâOppenheimerâVolkoff limit
13789:
13744:
13743:
13733:
13390:(photograph). NASA. 1 June 2005.
12821:
12800:
12779:
12742:
12689:
12426:
12369:
12193:
12140:
12027:
11925:
11858:
11805:
11783:
11740:
11688:
11658:
11633:
11583:
11518:
11453:
11296:
11235:
11168:
11101:
11034:
10967:
10900:
10839:
10798:
10745:
10692:
10662:
10637:
10613:
10560:
10460:
10353:
10292:
10269:
10142:
10005:
9944:
9914:
9902:from the original on 9 June 2013
9884:
9725:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03236.x
9586:
9533:
9492:
9439:
9315:
9278:
9271:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09315.x
9237:
9202:
9131:
9030:
8931:
8878:
8825:
8784:
8748:
8672:
8629:
8574:
8521:
8468:
8409:
8354:
8311:
8268:
8233:
8190:
8139:
7907:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11388.x
6447:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08428.x
5825:Overbye, D. (22 February 2010).
5482:. Lecture notes, Astronomy 211.
5472:
5454:from the original on 22 May 2012
5283:from the original on 6 July 2009
5264:
4888:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11388.x
3553:
3539:
3524:
3510:
3109:Other non-pre-supernova binaries
2624:
2613:
1690:
1588:in 1952, unless the white dwarf
1556:extreme ultraviolet observations
435:
230:â approximately 1.44 times
80:: its mass is comparable to the
14180:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope
13716:White dwarf luminosity function
13428:
8080:
7922:
7863:
7824:
7789:
7748:
7639:
7609:
7556:
7473:
7420:
7361:
7308:
7243:
7208:
7113:
7029:
6988:
6961:
6926:
6838:
6787:
6672:
6587:
6546:
6503:
6462:
6403:
6360:
6174:
6121:
6074:
6033:
5992:
5963:
5951:from the original on 8 May 2017
5902:
5849:
5818:
5680:from the original on 6 May 2007
5662:
5505:
5466:
5378:
5258:
5146:
5114:
5071:
4979:
4940:
4903:
4781:
4630:
4541:
4495:
4451:
4405:
4359:
4313:
4186:
4092:
2845:
2097:Types of pulsating white dwarf
1925:A white dwarf with a polarized
1803:Primary and secondary features
1624:white dwarf luminosity function
1241:is the total mass of the star,
1133:equation of state, which gives
203:, in which case an oxygenâneonâ
130:is not high enough to become a
13110:10.1126/science.292.5525.2211a
10599:10.1088/1742-6596/172/1/012004
9140:"The End of the Main Sequence"
9069:10.1088/1742-6596/172/1/012004
8636:Merali, Zeeya (19 July 2012).
8277:Astrophysics and Space Science
7686:Reports on Progress in Physics
5888:10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.337
5804:10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.191
4958:LuleÄ University of Technology
3697:
3087:gravitational potential energy
2536:in astronomy. The white dwarf
2305:Stars with medium to high mass
2139:DB spectral type, having only
2079:
1827:Continuous spectrum; no lines
13:
1:
15685:Timeline of stellar astronomy
14206:X-ray pulsar-based navigation
14185:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
10811:Astrophysical Journal Letters
10807:"Planets around White Dwarfs"
10276:Zuckerman, B. (1 June 2015).
8640:. Nature News & Comment.
6213:10.1016/j.physrep.2022.09.001
4642:"The search for white dwarfs"
4172:American Astronomical Society
3643:
2968:heating of the core leads to
2641:
2270:Stars with low to medium mass
1064:. Carbonâoxygen white dwarfs
1035:, Chandrasekhar received the
709:effective surface temperature
322:on 31 January 1783. In 1910,
13388:Astronomy Picture of the Day
13374:Astronomy Picture of the Day
13360:Astronomy Picture of the Day
13346:Astronomy Picture of the Day
13332:Astronomy Picture of the Day
13318:Astronomy Picture of the Day
13306:Astronomy Picture of the Day
12673:. fact sheet. NASA Goddard.
12581:Astronomy & Astrophysics
12011:10.1007/978-94-011-5710-0_10
11597:Astronomy & Astrophysics
10784:10.1088/0004-6256/138/6/1681
10044:10.1088/0004-6256/135/5/1785
7757:"List of Known White Dwarfs"
7429:Astronomy & Astrophysics
7317:Astronomy & Astrophysics
5244:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301
3565:with a companion white dwarf
2862:. The goal is to search for
2607:Exoplanet orbits WD 1856+534
2361:novae. The spectra of these
2229:
2206:, sometimes subdivided into
945:electron degeneracy pressure
273:
224:electron degeneracy pressure
40:White dwarf (disambiguation)
7:
15345:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
14175:Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer
14018:Gamma-ray burst progenitors
13683:Quasi-periodic oscillations
13459:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
13022:10.1088/0953-8984/10/49/014
12612:10.1051/0004-6361/202245020
12355:10.1016/j.newar.2012.04.001
11844:10.1088/2041-8205/731/2/L31
11619:10.1051/0004-6361/202243782
11561:10.1051/0004-6361/202142146
11496:10.1051/0004-6361/201834371
10878:10.1088/0004-637X/747/2/148
10331:10.1016/j.newar.2016.03.001
9983:10.1051/0004-6361/201423691
9667:10.1088/2041-8205/761/2/L23
8960:10.1088/0953-8984/10/49/014
8864:10.1051/0004-6361:200400079
8507:10.1051/0004-6361/201219829
8048:"Extrasolar Cosmochemistry"
8022:10.1088/2041-8205/766/2/L18
7841:University of Chicago Press
7595:10.1051/0004-6361/201424681
7459:10.1051/0004-6361/202038879
7347:10.1051/0004-6361/201117902
5730:10.1007/978-94-011-5542-7_7
4104:"Catalogue of Double Stars"
3571:
3042:Post common envelope binary
3036:Post-common envelope binary
2699:The metal-rich white dwarf
2658:of the central star of the
2216:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
1798:White dwarf spectral types
1733:Artist's impression of the
1642:collision induced absoption
1638:cosmic background radiation
1098:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
908:. Since electrons obey the
884:, but rather consists of a
443:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
222:, but is supported only by
10:
15941:
15259:KelvinâHelmholtz mechanism
14231:Most massive neutron stars
13972:Quasi-periodic oscillation
13678:Electron-degenerate matter
13225:"White Dwarf Catalogue WD"
12751:Astronomy and Astrophysics
12728:10.1088/0067-0049/199/2/29
12233:10.1051/0004-6361:20054594
12203:Astronomy and Astrophysics
12179:10.1051/0004-6361:20035822
12149:Astronomy and Astrophysics
11531:Astronomy and Astrophysics
11466:Astronomy and Astrophysics
9953:Astronomy and Astrophysics
9572:10.1051/0004-6361:20047154
9542:Astronomy and Astrophysics
9478:10.1088/0954-3899/31/6/004
9379:10.1103/RevModPhys.74.1015
9287:Astronomy and Astrophysics
9125:10.1088/0004-637X/730/2/67
8834:Astronomy and Astrophysics
8477:Astronomy and Astrophysics
7831:Greenstein, J. L. (1960).
7706:10.1088/0034-4885/53/7/001
7565:Astronomy and Astrophysics
7286:10.1038/s41586-024-07102-y
7153:10.1051/0004-6361:20041125
7123:Astronomy and Astrophysics
6970:Astronomy and Astrophysics
5628:Chandrasekhar, S. (1935).
5582:Chandrasekhar, S. (1931).
5267:"Nuclear Size and Density"
3745:Evry L. Schatzman (1958).
3503:
3144:
3069:
3039:
2922:
2485:
2089:
2083:
1786:of the star's total mass.
1561:White dwarfs also radiate
1484:arising from working in a
1118:
1089:in determining distances.
963:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
742:gravitationally redshifted
277:
74:electron-degenerate matter
29:
15768:
15693:
15542:
15440:
15368:
15267:
15124:
14999:
14877:
14786:
14522:
14513:
14392:
14322:
14309:
14301:
14241:
14198:
14190:Chandra X-ray Observatory
14165:
14139:
14010:
13912:
13854:
13818:
13797:
13729:
13691:
13660:
13608:Cataclysmic variable star
13566:
13472:
13436:
13327:Dust and the Helix Nebula
13178:The Astrophysical Journal
13146:The Astrophysical Journal
11244:The Astrophysical Journal
10848:The Astrophysical Journal
10701:The Astrophysical Journal
10473:The Astrophysical Journal
10416:The Astrophysical Journal
10215:The Astrophysical Journal
10088:The Astrophysical Journal
9807:The Astrophysical Journal
9784:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337
9754:Reviews of Modern Physics
9599:The Astrophysical Journal
9505:The Astrophysical Journal
9359:Reviews of Modern Physics
9211:Astronomische Nachrichten
9144:The Astrophysical Journal
9095:The Astrophysical Journal
8986:The Astrophysical Journal
8887:The Astrophysical Journal
8797:The Astrophysical Journal
8758:The Astrophysical Journal
8653:10.1038/nature.2012.11045
8395:10.1007/s11214-015-0152-0
8325:The Astrophysical Journal
7992:The Astrophysical Journal
7798:The Astrophysical Journal
7519:10.1038/s41586-018-0791-x
7180:The Astrophysical Journal
7038:The Astrophysical Journal
6935:The Astrophysical Journal
6880:The Astrophysical Journal
6800:The Astrophysical Journal
6681:The Astrophysical Journal
6644:The Astrophysical Journal
6286:The Astrophysical Journal
6245:The Astrophysical Journal
6160:10.1016/j.jde.2012.04.011
6046:The Astrophysical Journal
5588:The Astrophysical Journal
5085:The Astrophysical Journal
5026:The Astrophysical Journal
4913:The Astrophysical Journal
4791:The Astrophysical Journal
4596:Eddington, A. S. (1924).
3904:The Astrophysical Journal
3127:remnant planetary systems
3072:Cataclysmic variable star
2767:directly imaged exoplanet
2314:and it will explode in a
1863:
1802:
910:Pauli exclusion principle
636:and as high as 1.33
434:
431:Composition and structure
15638:With multiple exoplanets
13957:Neutron-star oscillation
13846:Rotating radio transient
12071:10.3847/2041-8213/aba618
11994:Thermonuclear Supernovae
11733:10.3847/2041-8213/ad2348
11309:National Geographic News
10754:The Astronomical Journal
10504:10.3847/2041-8213/abfd39
10246:10.3847/1538-4357/abe40b
10119:10.3847/2041-8213/ab0426
10014:The Astronomical Journal
9896:ESA/Hubble Press Release
8530:The Astronomical Journal
8262:10.1103/PhysRev.153.1372
7405:10.3847/2041-8213/abf14b
6911:10.3847/1538-4357/ac76c7
5277:Georgia State University
5012:– via Archive.org.
4647:The Astronomical Journal
2530:Mount Wilson Observatory
2482:Debris disks and planets
2431:will evaporate as their
2249:Stars with very low mass
1918:A white dwarf with only
1864:Secondary features only
1482:centrifugal pseudo-force
1115:Massâradius relationship
425:Sloan Digital Sky Survey
328:Edward Charles Pickering
88:'s. A white dwarf's low
76:. A white dwarf is very
14424:Asymptotic giant branch
13635:Super soft X-ray source
13383:White Dwarf Star Spiral
12773:1999A&A...344..897D
12642:"Cataclysmic Variables"
12604:2022A&A...668A..14D
12404:2014ARA&A..52..107M
12225:2006A&A...453..229B
12171:2004A&A...419..623Y
11666:"Gaia DR3 known issues"
11553:2022A&A...657A...7K
11488:2019A&A...623A..72K
9975:2014A&A...566A..34K
9564:2004A&A...421.1169W
9309:1998A&A...335L..85N
9184:"Stars Beyond Maturity"
8856:2004A&A...426L..45N
8791:Landolt, A. U. (1968).
8615:10.1038/s41550-016-0029
8499:2012A&A...545A..30L
8289:1969Ap&SS...4..464G
7648:Annales d'Astrophysique
7587:2014A&A...571L...3I
7451:2020A&A...640L..11B
7339:2012A&A...537A..33A
7229:2003ARA&A..41..465H
7145:2005A&A...432..219K
7022:10.1515/astro-1995-0209
6982:1988A&A...199L..15B
6510:Kawaler, S. D. (1998).
6496:10.1093/mnras/112.6.583
6344:Nature Publishing Group
6026:10.1093/mnras/107.2.231
5880:2000ARA&A..38..337C
5796:2000ARA&A..38..191H
4274:10.1093/mnras/6.11.136a
4166:Holberg, J. B. (2005).
3137:around the white dwarf
3002:double-degenerate model
2998:single-degenerate model
2987:double-degenerate model
2962:single-degenerate model
2958:double-degenerate model
2954:single-degenerate model
2908:super-soft x-ray source
2656:Spitzer Space Telescope
2583:PoyntingâRobertson drag
2397:
2316:core-collapse supernova
2120:, having only hydrogen
1973:asymptotic giant branch
1958:Metal-rich white dwarfs
1888:Emission lines present
1753:in the 1940s, the high
1327:ultrarelativistic limit
1278:reduced Planck constant
764:Supermassive black hole
727:put it later, in 1927:
243:via a process known as
15760:Tidal disruption event
15249:Circumstellar envelope
14483:Luminous blue variable
14211:Tempo software program
12965:Gentile, Dave (1995).
12936:. 382 (4): 1377â1393.
10623:JWST Proposal. Cycle 1
10080:Faherty, Jacqueline K.
9926:www.spacetelescope.org
8211:10.1098/rsbm.1975.0001
7755:Kuiper, G. P. (1941).
6995:Winget, D. E. (1995).
6845:Trefil, J. S. (2004).
6772:10.1093/mnras/stac2908
5655:10.1093/mnras/95.3.207
5564:Philosophical Magazine
5517:Zeitschrift fĂŒr Physik
5407:10.1098/rspa.1980.0051
5371:10.1093/mnras/87.2.114
5344:Fowler, R. H. (1926).
4623:10.1093/mnras/84.5.308
4550:"Comet c 1922 (Baade)"
4131:10.1098/rstl.1785.0006
3630:Stellar classification
3020:The historical bright
2899:
2887:Binary stars and novae
2816:GALEX J071816.4+373139
2505:
2497:
2449:grand unified theories
2420:
2412:
2382:, to high speeds of a
1967:
1738:
1725:Atmosphere and spectra
1691:pulsating white dwarfs
1659:
1581:
1445:
1420:
1286:gravitational constant
1270:
1269:{\displaystyle \hbar }
1225:
1092:White dwarfs have low
918:FermiâDirac statistics
734:
405:classical white dwarfs
378:
345:
220:gravitational collapse
158:during which it fuses
61:
58:Hubble Space Telescope
15285:Effective temperature
14226:List of neutron stars
14221:The Magnificent Seven
12913:10.1093/mnras/stu2388
12325:New Astronomy Reviews
11901:10.1089/ast.2012.0867
11776:10.1093/mnras/stae974
11212:10.1093/mnras/stx2141
11145:10.1093/mnras/stv2966
10944:10.1093/mnras/stu2475
10301:New Astronomy Reviews
9041:. Conference Series.
8364:Space Science Reviews
8124:10.1093/mnras/stv1201
6369:Space Science Reviews
5302:Adams, Steve (1997).
5180:10.1073/pnas.11.7.382
5153:Adams, W. S. (1925).
4956:(Licentiate thesis).
4548:Aitken, R.G. (1922).
4294:Astronomical Register
4048:Astrophysical Journal
3679:Ohio State University
3141:is one such example.
3095:cataclysmic variables
3066:Cataclysmic variables
2894:
2548:based on the calcium
2503:
2495:
2468:planetary mass object
2457:quantum gravitational
2418:
2410:
2092:Cataclysmic variables
2086:Pulsating white dwarf
1965:
1912:effective temperature
1851:Carbon lines present
1732:
1654:
1646:IR-faint white dwarfs
1575:
1508:Radiation and cooling
1431:
1421:
1271:
1226:
1033:William Alfred Fowler
916:, and they must obey
729:
367:If we were to regard
365:
340:
51:
15755:Planet-hosting stars
15633:With resolved images
15604:Historical brightest
15534:Photometric-standard
15460:Solar radio emission
15254:Eddington luminosity
15034:Triple-alpha process
14972:ThorneâĆ»ytkow object
14347:Young stellar object
14126:ThorneâĆ»ytkow object
11969:10.1093/mnras/stt569
11078:10.1093/mnras/sty446
11011:10.1093/mnras/stu097
8453:10.1093/mnras/sts522
5674:The Nobel Foundation
5493:on 25 September 2007
3673:Johnson, J. (2007).
3602:List of white dwarfs
2776:. One orbits around
2704:is highly variable.
2459:processes involving
2291:triple-alpha process
2024:circularly polarized
1991:) were predicted by
1597:white dwarf of 0.59
1584:As was explained by
1530:StefanâBoltzmann law
1518:thermal conductivity
1455:hydrostatic equation
1335:
1260:
1139:
995:equal to half their
711:, and that from its
681:(hypothetical), and
324:Henry Norris Russell
280:List of white dwarfs
172:triple-alpha process
70:stellar core remnant
38:For other uses, see
15579:Highest temperature
15350:Colorâcolor diagram
15215:Protoplanetary disk
15019:Protonâproton chain
14697:Chemically peculiar
14077:Neutron star merger
13937:Chandrasekhar limit
13904:HulseâTaylor pulsar
13831:Soft gamma repeater
13548:Extreme helium star
13444:Chandrasekhar limit
13276:10.1038/nature06318
13268:2007Natur.450..522D
13200:2004ApJ...612L.129G
13158:1998ApJ...494..759P
13062:2000PASP..112..873W
13014:1998JPCM...1011247W
13008:(49): 11247â11261.
12971:(Master's thesis).
12904:2015MNRAS.446.4078K
12720:2012ApJS..199...29G
12545:10.1038/nature07608
12537:2008Natur.456..617K
12484:10.1038/nature11447
12476:2012Natur.489..533G
12441:on 24 January 2012.
12347:2012NewAR..56..122W
12287:2012PASA...29..447M
12062:2020ApJ...898L..40L
12003:1997ASIC..486..147D
11960:2013MNRAS.432..500N
11893:2013AsBio..13..279B
11836:2011ApJ...731L..31A
11724:2024ApJ...962L..32M
11372:10.1038/nature15527
11364:2015Natur.526..546V
11266:2008ApJ...674..431F
11203:2018MNRAS.473.2871V
11136:2016MNRAS.457..217P
11069:2018MNRAS.476.3939M
11002:2014MNRAS.439.2442F
10935:2015MNRAS.447.1049V
10870:2012ApJ...747..148D
10823:1998ApJ...503L.151L
10776:2009AJ....138.1681S
10723:2007ApJ...657L..41S
10680:on 16 February 2007
10631:2021jwst.prop.1911M
10591:2009JPhCS.172a2004N
10554:2021orel.bookE...1V
10495:2021ApJ...913L..31S
10438:2005ApJ...635L.161R
10374:1987Natur.330..138Z
10323:2016NewAR..71....9F
10286:2015ASPC..493..291Z
10237:2021ApJ...914...61K
10167:1917PASP...29..258V
10110:2019ApJ...872L..25D
10036:2008AJ....135.1785J
9829:2007ApJ...669.1279S
9776:1997RvMP...69..337A
9716:2000MNRAS.312..531P
9659:2012ApJ...761L..23J
9611:1994ApJ...425..797L
9517:1984ApJ...277..791N
9499:Nomoto, K. (1984).
9470:2005JPhG...31S.651S
9371:2002RvMP...74.1015W
9262:2005MNRAS.362..891B
9223:2001AN....322..405S
9156:1997ApJ...482..420L
9117:2011ApJ...730...67B
9061:2009JPhCS.172a2004N
9008:2003ApJ...591..288H
8952:1998JPCM...1011247W
8946:(49): 11247â11261.
8909:2000ApJ...532.1078O
8809:1968ApJ...153..151L
8770:1967ApJ...148L.161L
8732:2007ApJS..171..219Q
8680:"ZZ Ceti variables"
8607:2017NatAs...1E..29B
8552:2003AJ....125..348L
8444:2013MNRAS.429.2934K
8387:2015SSRv..191..111F
8338:1970ApJ...161L..77K
8254:1967PhRv..153.1372L
8160:1947Natur.159..658B
8115:2015MNRAS.451.3237W
8064:2014AREPS..42...45J
8014:2013ApJ...766L..18X
7961:10.1038/nature06318
7953:2007Natur.450..522D
7898:2007MNRAS.375.1315K
7849:1960stat.book.....G
7835:Stellar atmospheres
7810:1952ApJ...116..283L
7773:1941PASP...53..248K
7698:1990RPPh...53..837K
7660:1945AnAp....8..143S
7511:2019Natur.565..202T
7396:2021ApJ...911L...5B
7278:2024Natur.627..286B
7192:2005ApJ...622..572B
7060:2004ApJ...605L.133M
7013:1995BaltA...4..129W
6947:1968ApJ...151..227V
6902:2022ApJ...934...36B
6812:1987ApJ...315L..77W
6763:2022MNRAS.517.4557E
6703:2004ApJ...612L.129G
6656:1998ApJ...497..294L
6612:1999ApJS..121....1M
6571:1997ApJS..108..339B
6530:1998hdf..symp..252K
6487:1952MNRAS.112..583M
6469:Mestel, L. (1952).
6438:2005MNRAS.356..131L
6381:1985SSRv...40...79H
6298:1997ApJ...489L.157H
6257:1983ApJ...269..253S
6205:2022PhR...988....1S
6152:2012JDE...253..553C
6099:1994CMaPh.166..417C
6058:1968ApJ...151.1089O
6017:1947MNRAS.107..231H
5722:1997ASSL..214...49C
5646:1935MNRAS..95..207C
5600:1931ApJ....74...81C
5529:1929ZPhy...56..851A
5399:1980RSPSA.371....8H
5362:1926MNRAS..87..114F
5316:1997rist.book.....A
5306:. London; Bristol:
5236:1999CQGra..16A...3C
5214:Class. Quantum Grav
5171:1925PNAS...11..382A
5098:1916ApJ....44..292O
5049:2005ApJ...630L..69L
5002:1910pgcs.book.....B
4947:Sandin, F. (2005).
4926:1979ApJ...228..240S
4879:2007MNRAS.375.1315K
4814:2007ApJ...660.1451K
4759:2006ApJS..167...40E
4708:1999ApJS..121....1M
4660:1950AJ.....55...86L
4614:1924MNRAS..84..308E
4568:1922PASP...34..353A
4525:1922PASP...34..132L
4479:1922PASP...34...54L
4435:1922PASP...34..156L
4389:1917PASP...29..258V
4367:van Maanen, A.
4343:1915PASP...27..236A
4307:1877AReg...15..186F
4265:1844MNRAS...6R.136B
4216:1914PASP...26..198A
4180:2005AAS...20720501H
4122:1785RSPT...75...40H
4070:2003ApJ...591..288H
4016:2007ApJS..170..377S
3927:2004ApJ...606L.147L
3885:2005ASPC..334..165W
3799:2001PASP..113..409F
3561:Illustration of an
3151:
3103:intermediate polars
3007:age of the universe
2991:Chandrasekhar limit
2913:gravitational waves
2897:gravitational waves
2786:solar system giants
2597:. Exoplanets with
2558:Kuiper Belt objects
2461:virtual black holes
2374:Type Iax supernovae
2224:asteroseismological
2098:
1799:
1764:interstellar medium
1687:asteroseismological
1683:body-centered cubic
1461:Chandrasekhar limit
1078:elliptical galaxies
1042:Chandrasekhar limit
809:The core of the Sun
304:of the white dwarf
268:age of the universe
228:Chandrasekhar limit
170:in its core by the
117:Willem Jacob Luyten
72:composed mostly of
15584:Lowest temperature
15335:Photometric system
15305:Absolute magnitude
15239:Circumstellar dust
14852:Stellar black hole
14488:Stellar population
14374:HerbigâHaro object
14121:Pulsar wind nebula
14099:Stellar black hole
13623:Intermediate polar
13519:Stellar black hole
11315:on 24 October 2015
9427:on 7 November 2012
9400:on 7 November 2012
9039:Journal of Physics
8690:on 5 February 2007
8297:10.1007/BF00651351
7101:on 5 February 2007
6851:Dover Publications
6389:10.1007/BF00212870
6107:10.1007/BF02112323
5999:Hoyle, F. (1947).
5831:The New York Times
5537:10.1007/BF01340146
5523:(11â12): 851â856.
5484:Cornell University
3707:(1 January 2009).
3213:Objects in system
3149:
3121:, discovered with
3115:main sequence star
2950:Type Ia supernovae
2919:Type Ia supernovae
2900:
2792:method with JWST.
2506:
2498:
2421:
2413:
2384:hypervelocity star
2369:Type Iax supernova
2096:
1968:
1797:
1739:
1660:
1582:
1446:
1416:
1266:
1221:
999:, one should take
738:general relativity
397:Adriaan van Maanen
386:Alvan Graham Clark
332:Williamina Fleming
286:triple star system
152:main-sequence star
124:evolutionary state
62:
15915:Stellar phenomena
15910:Stellar evolution
15798:
15797:
15701:Substellar object
15680:Planetary nebulae
15099:Luminous red nova
15009:Deuterium burning
14995:
14994:
14478:Instability strip
14458:Wolf-Rayet nebula
14412:Horizontal branch
14357:Pre-main-sequence
14269:
14268:
14050:Supernova remnant
13840:Ultra-long period
13757:
13756:
13652:Carbon detonation
13485:Type Ia supernova
13454:Stellar evolution
13231:on 24 August 2007
12973:DePaul University
12868:978-3-540-61520-0
12521:(7222): 617â619.
12460:(7417): 533â536.
12020:978-0-7923-4359-2
11595:Data Release 3".
11348:(7574): 546â549.
10368:(6144): 138â140.
9872:on 24 August 2013
7741:978-3-540-61520-0
7495:(7738): 202â205.
7262:(8003): 286â288.
6860:978-0-486-43813-9
6539:978-0-521-63097-9
6353:978-0-333-75088-9
5739:978-94-010-6334-0
5346:"On dense matter"
5325:978-0-7484-0621-0
5078:Ăpik, E. (1916).
4986:Boss, L. (1910).
3966:. 17 April 2007.
3962:(Press release).
3758:978-0-598-58212-6
3596:Degenerate matter
3501:
3500:
3089:when part of the
3026:Tycho's Supernova
2925:Type Ia supernova
2876:greenhouse effect
2818:with the help of
2805:substellar object
2707:The giant planet
2644:NASA; video; 2:10
2636:
2526:tidally disrupted
2441:Type Ia supernova
2408:
2236:stellar evolution
2170:
2169:
2068:, in addition to
1993:P. M. S. Blackett
1900:
1899:
1450:equation of state
1393:
1216:
1070:Type Ia supernova
1050:nuclear reactions
1031:.) Together with
906:quantum mechanics
898:electron orbitals
874:
873:
846:Neutron star core
659:radius of the Sun
401:van Maanen's Star
256:color temperature
245:carbon detonation
241:type Ia supernova
18:White dwarf stars
16:(Redirected from
15932:
15887:
15886:
15875:
15874:
15873:
15863:
15862:
15861:
15851:
15850:
15849:
15839:
15838:
15827:
15826:
15825:
15815:
15814:
15806:
15790:Stars portal
15788:
15787:
15776:
15775:
15432:Planetary system
15355:Strömgren sphere
15227:Asteroseismology
14948:Black hole star
14520:
14519:
14446:Planetary nebula
14407:Red-giant branch
14296:
14289:
14282:
14273:
14272:
14259:
14258:
14249:
14248:
14023:Asteroseismology
13925:Fast radio burst
13784:
13777:
13770:
13761:
13760:
13747:
13746:
13737:
13736:
13699:Planetary nebula
13423:
13416:
13409:
13400:
13399:
13391:
13377:
13363:
13349:
13335:
13321:
13295:
13261:
13240:
13238:
13236:
13219:
13193:
13191:astro-ph/0405566
13171:
13169:
13129:
13103:
13101:astro-ph/0104255
13075:
13073:
13056:(773): 873â924.
13033:
12988:
12976:
12925:
12915:
12897:
12888:(4): 4078â4087.
12872:
12859:Stellar remnants
12840:
12839:
12837:
12835:
12825:
12819:
12818:
12816:
12814:
12804:
12798:
12797:
12795:
12793:
12783:
12777:
12776:
12766:
12764:astro-ph/9812008
12746:
12740:
12739:
12713:
12693:
12687:
12686:
12684:
12682:
12667:
12658:
12657:
12655:
12653:
12638:
12632:
12631:
12597:
12571:
12565:
12564:
12530:
12510:
12504:
12503:
12469:
12449:
12443:
12442:
12430:
12424:
12423:
12397:
12373:
12367:
12366:
12340:
12316:
12307:
12306:
12280:
12256:
12245:
12244:
12218:
12216:astro-ph/0603036
12197:
12191:
12190:
12164:
12162:astro-ph/0402287
12144:
12138:
12137:
12135:
12133:
12117:
12111:
12110:
12108:
12106:
12090:
12084:
12083:
12073:
12055:
12031:
12025:
12024:
11988:
11982:
11981:
11971:
11953:
11929:
11923:
11922:
11912:
11886:
11862:
11856:
11855:
11829:
11809:
11803:
11802:
11800:
11787:
11781:
11780:
11778:
11768:
11759:(3): 3302â3309.
11744:
11738:
11737:
11735:
11717:
11692:
11686:
11685:
11679:
11677:
11662:
11656:
11655:
11653:
11651:
11637:
11631:
11630:
11612:
11587:
11581:
11580:
11546:
11522:
11516:
11515:
11481:
11457:
11451:
11450:
11448:
11435:
11429:
11428:
11426:
11424:
11418:
11407:
11398:
11392:
11391:
11357:
11336:
11325:
11324:
11322:
11320:
11311:. Archived from
11300:
11294:
11293:
11259:
11239:
11233:
11232:
11214:
11196:
11187:(3): 2871â2880.
11172:
11166:
11165:
11147:
11129:
11105:
11099:
11098:
11080:
11062:
11053:(3): 3939â3955.
11038:
11032:
11031:
11013:
10995:
10986:(3): 2442â2458.
10971:
10965:
10964:
10946:
10928:
10919:(2): 1049â1058.
10904:
10898:
10897:
10863:
10843:
10837:
10836:
10834:
10802:
10796:
10795:
10769:
10760:(6): 1681â1689.
10749:
10743:
10742:
10716:
10714:astro-ph/0702296
10696:
10690:
10689:
10687:
10685:
10666:
10660:
10659:
10657:
10655:
10641:
10635:
10634:
10617:
10611:
10610:
10584:
10564:
10558:
10557:
10541:
10535:
10534:
10524:
10506:
10488:
10464:
10458:
10457:
10431:
10429:astro-ph/0511358
10411:
10402:
10401:
10382:10.1038/330138a0
10357:
10351:
10350:
10316:
10296:
10290:
10289:
10273:
10267:
10266:
10248:
10230:
10206:
10197:
10196:
10178:
10146:
10140:
10139:
10121:
10103:
10075:
10064:
10063:
10029:
10020:(5): 1785â1792.
10009:
10003:
10002:
9968:
9948:
9942:
9941:
9939:
9937:
9918:
9912:
9911:
9909:
9907:
9888:
9882:
9881:
9879:
9877:
9868:. Archived from
9855:
9849:
9848:
9822:
9802:
9796:
9795:
9769:
9767:astro-ph/9701131
9749:
9738:
9737:
9727:
9709:
9707:astro-ph/9911371
9685:
9679:
9678:
9652:
9631:
9625:
9624:
9622:
9590:
9584:
9583:
9557:
9555:astro-ph/0404325
9548:(3): 1169â1183.
9537:
9531:
9530:
9528:
9496:
9490:
9489:
9463:
9461:astro-ph/0412215
9454:(6): S651âS657.
9443:
9437:
9436:
9434:
9432:
9416:
9410:
9409:
9407:
9405:
9389:
9383:
9382:
9365:(4): 1015â1071.
9354:
9345:
9344:
9342:
9340:
9319:
9313:
9312:
9302:
9300:astro-ph/9806011
9282:
9276:
9275:
9273:
9241:
9235:
9234:
9217:(5â6): 405â410.
9206:
9200:
9199:
9197:
9195:
9186:. Archived from
9182:Jeffery, Simon.
9179:
9170:
9169:
9167:
9135:
9129:
9128:
9110:
9090:
9081:
9080:
9054:
9034:
9028:
9027:
9001:
8999:astro-ph/0212469
8981:
8972:
8971:
8935:
8929:
8928:
8902:
8900:astro-ph/9910495
8893:(2): 1078â1088.
8882:
8876:
8875:
8849:
8847:astro-ph/0409243
8829:
8823:
8822:
8820:
8788:
8782:
8781:
8752:
8746:
8745:
8743:
8711:
8700:
8699:
8697:
8695:
8676:
8670:
8669:
8667:
8665:
8655:
8633:
8627:
8626:
8600:
8584:Nature Astronomy
8578:
8572:
8571:
8545:
8543:astro-ph/0210319
8525:
8519:
8518:
8492:
8472:
8466:
8465:
8455:
8437:
8428:(4): 2934â2944.
8413:
8407:
8406:
8380:
8371:(1â4): 111â169.
8358:
8352:
8351:
8349:
8315:
8309:
8308:
8272:
8266:
8265:
8248:(5): 1372â1377.
8237:
8231:
8230:
8194:
8188:
8187:
8168:10.1038/159658a0
8154:(4046): 658â66.
8143:
8137:
8136:
8126:
8108:
8099:(3): 3237â3248.
8084:
8078:
8077:
8075:
8043:
8034:
8033:
8007:
7987:
7981:
7980:
7946:
7926:
7920:
7919:
7909:
7891:
7889:astro-ph/0612277
7882:(4): 1315â1324.
7867:
7861:
7860:
7838:
7828:
7822:
7821:
7793:
7787:
7786:
7784:
7752:
7746:
7745:
7732:Stellar remnants
7727:
7718:
7717:
7681:
7664:
7663:
7643:
7637:
7636:
7634:
7632:
7613:
7607:
7606:
7580:
7560:
7554:
7553:
7551:
7549:
7543:
7504:
7486:
7477:
7471:
7470:
7444:
7424:
7418:
7417:
7407:
7389:
7365:
7359:
7358:
7332:
7312:
7306:
7305:
7271:
7247:
7241:
7240:
7212:
7206:
7205:
7203:
7171:
7165:
7164:
7138:
7136:astro-ph/0411199
7117:
7111:
7110:
7108:
7106:
7097:. Archived from
7086:
7080:
7079:
7053:
7051:astro-ph/0402046
7044:(2): L133âL136.
7033:
7027:
7026:
7024:
7001:Baltic Astronomy
6992:
6986:
6985:
6965:
6959:
6958:
6930:
6924:
6923:
6913:
6895:
6871:
6865:
6864:
6842:
6836:
6835:
6833:
6823:
6791:
6785:
6784:
6774:
6756:
6747:(3): 4557â4574.
6732:
6723:
6722:
6696:
6694:astro-ph/0405566
6676:
6670:
6669:
6667:
6635:
6626:
6625:
6623:
6591:
6585:
6584:
6582:
6550:
6544:
6543:
6523:
6521:astro-ph/9802217
6507:
6501:
6500:
6498:
6466:
6460:
6459:
6449:
6431:
6429:astro-ph/0411016
6407:
6401:
6400:
6364:
6358:
6357:
6331:
6312:
6311:
6309:
6277:
6271:
6270:
6268:
6236:
6225:
6224:
6198:
6178:
6172:
6171:
6145:
6125:
6119:
6118:
6078:
6072:
6071:
6069:
6037:
6031:
6030:
6028:
5996:
5990:
5989:
5987:
5985:
5967:
5961:
5960:
5958:
5956:
5933:
5927:
5926:
5924:
5922:
5906:
5900:
5899:
5873:
5871:astro-ph/0006383
5853:
5847:
5846:
5844:
5842:
5822:
5816:
5815:
5789:
5787:astro-ph/0006305
5769:
5752:
5751:
5715:
5713:astro-ph/9701225
5699:
5690:
5689:
5687:
5685:
5666:
5660:
5659:
5657:
5625:
5614:
5613:
5611:
5579:
5573:
5572:
5558:
5549:
5548:
5509:
5503:
5502:
5500:
5498:
5492:
5486:. Archived from
5481:
5470:
5464:
5463:
5461:
5459:
5440:
5427:
5426:
5382:
5376:
5375:
5373:
5341:
5330:
5329:
5299:
5293:
5292:
5290:
5288:
5262:
5256:
5255:
5229:
5227:astro-ph/9912186
5209:
5203:
5202:
5192:
5182:
5150:
5144:
5143:
5118:
5112:
5111:
5109:
5075:
5069:
5068:
5042:
5040:astro-ph/0507523
5020:
5014:
5013:
4983:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4972:
4966:
4955:
4944:
4938:
4937:
4907:
4901:
4900:
4890:
4872:
4870:astro-ph/0612277
4863:(4): 1315â1324.
4843:
4834:
4833:
4807:
4805:astro-ph/0611498
4798:(2): 1451â1461.
4785:
4779:
4778:
4752:
4750:astro-ph/0606700
4731:
4722:
4721:
4719:
4687:
4674:
4673:
4671:
4634:
4628:
4627:
4625:
4593:
4582:
4581:
4579:
4545:
4539:
4538:
4536:
4499:
4493:
4492:
4490:
4455:
4449:
4448:
4446:
4409:
4403:
4402:
4400:
4363:
4357:
4356:
4354:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4288:
4279:
4278:
4276:
4239:
4230:
4229:
4227:
4190:
4184:
4183:
4163:
4152:
4151:
4133:
4096:
4090:
4089:
4063:
4061:astro-ph/0212469
4042:
4036:
4035:
4009:
4007:astro-ph/0603449
3989:
3980:
3979:
3977:
3975:
3956:
3947:
3946:
3920:
3918:astro-ph/0404291
3898:
3889:
3888:
3878:
3876:astro-ph/0410690
3862:
3853:
3852:
3850:
3848:
3828:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3793:(782): 409â435.
3776:
3763:
3762:
3742:
3729:
3728:
3726:
3724:
3701:
3695:
3694:
3692:
3690:
3670:
3618:Planetary nebula
3557:
3543:
3528:
3514:
3152:
3148:
3060:magnetic braking
2732:tidal disruption
2722:The white dwarf
2638:
2637:
2617:
2514:planetary system
2508:A white dwarf's
2409:
2299:planetary nebula
2220:pre-white dwarfs
2124:in its spectrum
2122:absorption lines
2099:
2095:
2040:
2036:
2034:
2017:
1997:angular momentum
1811:H lines present
1800:
1796:
1785:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1689:observations of
1615:selection effect
1545:
1544:
1540:
1476:
1440:
1425:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1381:
1374:
1373:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1324:
1318:
1304:
1283:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1267:
1251:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1230:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1209:
1193:
1192:
1179:
1178:
1177:
1168:
1167:
1163:
1149:
1087:standard candles
1058:force of gravity
1023:
1007:
990:
981:
959:Edmund C. Stoner
955:Wilhelm Anderson
867:
862:Small black hole
855:
851:
838:
824:
803:room temperature
773:
747:
746:
725:Arthur Eddington
624:
607:
600:
593:
586:
579:
572:
565:
558:
551:
542:
535:
528:
521:
514:
507:
500:
493:
486:
479:
472:
465:
458:
451:
444:
439:
421:Arthur Eddington
357:Friedrich Bessel
320:William Herschel
180:planetary nebula
106:
43:
36:
21:
15940:
15939:
15935:
15934:
15933:
15931:
15930:
15929:
15895:
15894:
15893:
15881:
15871:
15869:
15859:
15857:
15847:
15845:
15833:
15823:
15821:
15809:
15801:
15799:
15794:
15782:
15764:
15689:
15658:Milky Way novae
15594:Smallest volume
15538:
15519:Radial velocity
15442:
15436:
15388:Common envelope
15364:
15263:
15232:Helioseismology
15203:Bipolar outflow
15144:Microturbulence
15139:Convection zone
15120:
15014:Lithium burning
15001:Nucleosynthesis
14991:
14873:
14782:
14509:
14388:
14337:Molecular cloud
14318:
14305:
14300:
14270:
14265:
14237:
14194:
14167:
14161:
14135:
14006:
13942:Gamma-ray burst
13932:Bondi accretion
13908:
13850:
13836:Anomalous X-ray
13814:
13793:
13788:
13758:
13753:
13725:
13687:
13656:
13568:
13562:
13553:Subdwarf B star
13468:
13432:
13427:
13380:
13366:
13352:
13338:
13324:
13310:
13252:(7169): 522â4.
13234:
13232:
13094:(5525): 2211a.
13038:Magnetic field
12985:sciencebits.com
12979:
12869:
12848:
12843:
12833:
12831:
12827:
12826:
12822:
12812:
12810:
12806:
12805:
12801:
12791:
12789:
12785:
12784:
12780:
12747:
12743:
12694:
12690:
12680:
12678:
12669:
12668:
12661:
12651:
12649:
12640:
12639:
12635:
12572:
12568:
12511:
12507:
12450:
12446:
12431:
12427:
12374:
12370:
12317:
12310:
12295:10.1071/AS11052
12257:
12248:
12198:
12194:
12145:
12141:
12131:
12129:
12118:
12114:
12104:
12102:
12091:
12087:
12032:
12028:
12021:
11989:
11985:
11930:
11926:
11863:
11859:
11810:
11806:
11788:
11784:
11745:
11741:
11693:
11689:
11675:
11673:
11664:
11663:
11659:
11649:
11647:
11639:
11638:
11634:
11588:
11584:
11523:
11519:
11458:
11454:
11436:
11432:
11422:
11420:
11416:
11405:
11399:
11395:
11337:
11328:
11318:
11316:
11301:
11297:
11240:
11236:
11173:
11169:
11106:
11102:
11039:
11035:
10972:
10968:
10905:
10901:
10844:
10840:
10803:
10799:
10750:
10746:
10697:
10693:
10683:
10681:
10668:
10667:
10663:
10653:
10651:
10643:
10642:
10638:
10618:
10614:
10565:
10561:
10542:
10538:
10465:
10461:
10412:
10405:
10358:
10354:
10297:
10293:
10274:
10270:
10207:
10200:
10147:
10143:
10076:
10067:
10010:
10006:
9949:
9945:
9935:
9933:
9920:
9919:
9915:
9905:
9903:
9890:
9889:
9885:
9875:
9873:
9856:
9852:
9803:
9799:
9750:
9741:
9686:
9682:
9632:
9628:
9591:
9587:
9538:
9534:
9497:
9493:
9444:
9440:
9430:
9428:
9417:
9413:
9403:
9401:
9390:
9386:
9355:
9348:
9338:
9336:
9321:
9320:
9316:
9283:
9279:
9242:
9238:
9207:
9203:
9193:
9191:
9190:on 4 April 2015
9180:
9173:
9136:
9132:
9091:
9084:
9035:
9031:
8982:
8975:
8936:
8932:
8883:
8879:
8830:
8826:
8789:
8785:
8753:
8749:
8712:
8703:
8693:
8691:
8678:
8677:
8673:
8663:
8661:
8634:
8630:
8579:
8575:
8526:
8522:
8473:
8469:
8414:
8410:
8359:
8355:
8316:
8312:
8273:
8269:
8242:Physical Review
8238:
8234:
8195:
8191:
8144:
8140:
8085:
8081:
8044:
8037:
7988:
7984:
7937:(7169): 522â4.
7927:
7923:
7868:
7864:
7829:
7825:
7794:
7790:
7753:
7749:
7742:
7728:
7721:
7682:
7667:
7644:
7640:
7630:
7628:
7615:
7614:
7610:
7561:
7557:
7547:
7545:
7541:
7484:
7478:
7474:
7425:
7421:
7366:
7362:
7313:
7309:
7248:
7244:
7213:
7209:
7172:
7168:
7118:
7114:
7104:
7102:
7087:
7083:
7034:
7030:
6993:
6989:
6966:
6962:
6931:
6927:
6872:
6868:
6861:
6843:
6839:
6792:
6788:
6733:
6726:
6677:
6673:
6636:
6629:
6592:
6588:
6551:
6547:
6540:
6508:
6504:
6467:
6463:
6408:
6404:
6365:
6361:
6354:
6332:
6315:
6278:
6274:
6237:
6228:
6183:Physics Reports
6179:
6175:
6126:
6122:
6079:
6075:
6038:
6034:
5997:
5993:
5983:
5981:
5968:
5964:
5954:
5952:
5937:"Basic symbols"
5935:
5934:
5930:
5920:
5918:
5907:
5903:
5854:
5850:
5840:
5838:
5823:
5819:
5770:
5755:
5740:
5700:
5693:
5683:
5681:
5668:
5667:
5663:
5626:
5617:
5580:
5576:
5559:
5552:
5510:
5506:
5496:
5494:
5490:
5479:
5471:
5467:
5457:
5455:
5442:
5441:
5430:
5383:
5379:
5342:
5333:
5326:
5310:. p. 240.
5300:
5296:
5286:
5284:
5263:
5259:
5220:(12A): A3âA21.
5210:
5206:
5151:
5147:
5132:Clarendon Press
5127:Stars and Atoms
5122:Eddington, A.S.
5119:
5115:
5076:
5072:
5021:
5017:
4984:
4980:
4970:
4968:
4964:
4953:
4945:
4941:
4908:
4904:
4844:
4837:
4786:
4782:
4732:
4725:
4688:
4677:
4635:
4631:
4594:
4585:
4546:
4542:
4500:
4496:
4456:
4452:
4410:
4406:
4364:
4360:
4318:
4314:
4289:
4282:
4259:(11): 136â141.
4240:
4233:
4191:
4187:
4164:
4155:
4097:
4093:
4043:
4039:
3990:
3983:
3973:
3971:
3958:
3957:
3950:
3899:
3892:
3863:
3856:
3846:
3844:
3829:
3816:
3777:
3766:
3759:
3743:
3732:
3722:
3720:
3702:
3698:
3688:
3686:
3671:
3650:
3646:
3641:
3574:
3567:
3566:
3563:ultracool dwarf
3558:
3549:
3548:
3544:
3535:
3529:
3520:
3519:
3515:
3506:
3201:
3198:
3193:
3187:
3184:
3179:
3173:
3147:
3135:sub-brown dwarf
3111:
3079:hydrogen fusion
3074:
3068:
3056:common envelope
3044:
3038:
2935:
2932:
2927:
2921:
2889:
2848:
2840:
2837:
2832:
2829:
2775:
2772:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2639:
2625:
2620:
2619:
2618:
2609:
2608:
2587:LSPM J0207+3331
2490:
2484:
2453:proton lifetime
2402:
2400:
2371:
2332:
2329:
2307:
2280:
2277:
2272:
2251:
2244:
2241:
2232:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2058:
2038:
2032:
2030:
2015:
2014:(also known as
2002:Blackett effect
1981:
1960:
1952:
1914:. For example:
1782:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1768:
1767:
1755:surface gravity
1727:
1720:
1717:
1669:â a mixture of
1613:adjust for the
1603:
1600:
1542:
1538:
1537:
1510:
1475:
1469:
1444:
1441:is denoted as M
1439:
1433:
1426:
1403:
1399:
1382:
1380:
1376:
1375:
1369:
1365:
1343:
1342:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1320:
1310:
1292:
1281:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1237:is the radius,
1234:
1231:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1173:
1169:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1148:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1127:
1117:
1102:hydrogen-fusing
1030:
1027:
1022:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1006:
1000:
989:
983:
980:
973:
970:
966:
957:and in 1930 by
865:
853:
849:
836:
822:
771:
706:
703:
699:
696:
656:
653:
649:
646:
642:
639:
635:
632:
627:
626:
622:
618:
616:
614:
612:
609:
605:
602:
598:
595:
591:
588:
584:
581:
577:
574:
570:
567:
563:
560:
556:
553:
549:
547:
544:
540:
537:
533:
530:
526:
523:
519:
516:
512:
509:
505:
502:
498:
495:
491:
488:
484:
481:
477:
474:
470:
467:
463:
460:
456:
453:
449:
446:
442:
433:
376:invisible ones.
282:
276:
237:
234:
197:
194:
126:of stars whose
101:
92:comes from the
44:
37:
33:Degenerate star
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
15938:
15928:
15927:
15922:
15917:
15912:
15907:
15892:
15891:
15879:
15867:
15855:
15843:
15831:
15819:
15796:
15795:
15793:
15792:
15780:
15769:
15766:
15765:
15763:
15762:
15757:
15752:
15747:
15742:
15737:
15732:
15727:
15726:
15725:
15720:
15719:
15718:
15713:
15697:
15695:
15691:
15690:
15688:
15687:
15682:
15677:
15676:
15675:
15670:
15660:
15655:
15650:
15645:
15640:
15635:
15630:
15629:
15628:
15623:
15622:
15621:
15611:
15606:
15601:
15596:
15591:
15589:Largest volume
15586:
15581:
15576:
15566:
15565:
15564:
15559:
15548:
15546:
15540:
15539:
15537:
15536:
15531:
15526:
15521:
15516:
15515:
15514:
15509:
15504:
15494:
15489:
15484:
15479:
15474:
15473:
15472:
15467:
15462:
15457:
15446:
15444:
15438:
15437:
15435:
15434:
15429:
15428:
15427:
15422:
15417:
15407:
15402:
15401:
15400:
15395:
15390:
15385:
15374:
15372:
15366:
15365:
15363:
15362:
15357:
15352:
15347:
15342:
15337:
15332:
15327:
15322:
15317:
15312:
15307:
15302:
15300:Magnetic field
15297:
15292:
15287:
15282:
15277:
15271:
15269:
15265:
15264:
15262:
15261:
15256:
15251:
15246:
15241:
15236:
15235:
15234:
15224:
15223:
15222:
15217:
15210:Accretion disk
15207:
15206:
15205:
15200:
15190:
15189:
15188:
15186:Alfvén surface
15183:
15181:Stellar corona
15178:
15173:
15168:
15158:
15156:Radiation zone
15153:
15152:
15151:
15146:
15136:
15130:
15128:
15122:
15121:
15119:
15118:
15113:
15112:
15111:
15106:
15101:
15096:
15091:
15081:
15076:
15071:
15066:
15061:
15056:
15051:
15046:
15041:
15036:
15031:
15026:
15021:
15016:
15011:
15005:
15003:
14997:
14996:
14993:
14992:
14990:
14989:
14984:
14979:
14974:
14969:
14964:
14963:
14962:
14957:
14954:
14946:
14945:
14944:
14939:
14934:
14929:
14924:
14919:
14914:
14909:
14904:
14894:
14889:
14883:
14881:
14875:
14874:
14872:
14871:
14866:
14865:
14864:
14854:
14849:
14848:
14847:
14842:
14841:
14840:
14835:
14825:
14815:
14814:
14813:
14803:
14798:
14792:
14790:
14784:
14783:
14781:
14780:
14778:Blue straggler
14775:
14774:
14773:
14763:
14758:
14757:
14756:
14746:
14745:
14744:
14739:
14734:
14729:
14724:
14719:
14714:
14709:
14704:
14694:
14689:
14688:
14687:
14682:
14677:
14667:
14666:
14665:
14655:
14654:
14653:
14648:
14643:
14633:
14628:
14627:
14626:
14621:
14616:
14606:
14601:
14596:
14591:
14590:
14589:
14584:
14574:
14573:
14572:
14567:
14562:
14557:
14552:
14547:
14542:
14536:Main sequence
14534:
14529:
14523:
14517:
14515:Classification
14511:
14510:
14508:
14507:
14506:
14505:
14500:
14490:
14485:
14480:
14475:
14470:
14465:
14460:
14455:
14454:
14453:
14451:Protoplanetary
14443:
14438:
14437:
14436:
14431:
14421:
14420:
14419:
14409:
14404:
14398:
14396:
14390:
14389:
14387:
14386:
14381:
14376:
14371:
14370:
14369:
14364:
14359:
14354:
14344:
14339:
14334:
14328:
14326:
14320:
14319:
14317:
14316:
14310:
14307:
14306:
14299:
14298:
14291:
14284:
14276:
14267:
14266:
14264:
14263:
14253:
14242:
14239:
14238:
14236:
14235:
14234:
14233:
14223:
14218:
14213:
14208:
14202:
14200:
14196:
14195:
14193:
14192:
14187:
14182:
14177:
14171:
14169:
14163:
14162:
14160:
14159:
14154:
14149:
14143:
14141:
14137:
14136:
14134:
14133:
14128:
14123:
14118:
14113:
14108:
14107:
14106:
14096:
14095:
14094:
14084:
14079:
14074:
14069:
14064:
14059:
14058:
14057:
14052:
14042:
14041:
14040:
14035:
14025:
14020:
14014:
14012:
14008:
14007:
14005:
14004:
13999:
13994:
13989:
13984:
13979:
13974:
13969:
13964:
13959:
13954:
13952:Neutron matter
13949:
13944:
13939:
13934:
13929:
13928:
13927:
13916:
13914:
13910:
13909:
13907:
13906:
13901:
13896:
13891:
13886:
13885:
13884:
13879:
13874:
13864:
13858:
13856:
13855:Binary pulsars
13852:
13851:
13849:
13848:
13843:
13842:
13841:
13838:
13833:
13822:
13820:
13819:Single pulsars
13816:
13815:
13813:
13812:
13807:
13801:
13799:
13795:
13794:
13787:
13786:
13779:
13772:
13764:
13755:
13754:
13752:
13751:
13741:
13730:
13727:
13726:
13724:
13723:
13718:
13713:
13708:
13707:
13706:
13695:
13693:
13689:
13688:
13686:
13685:
13680:
13675:
13670:
13664:
13662:
13658:
13657:
13655:
13654:
13649:
13644:
13639:
13638:
13637:
13627:
13626:
13625:
13620:
13615:
13605:
13603:Symbiotic nova
13600:
13595:
13590:
13589:
13588:
13583:
13572:
13570:
13564:
13563:
13561:
13560:
13555:
13550:
13545:
13544:
13543:
13538:
13528:
13527:
13526:
13516:
13515:
13514:
13509:
13504:
13494:
13493:
13492:
13482:
13476:
13474:
13470:
13469:
13467:
13466:
13461:
13456:
13451:
13446:
13440:
13438:
13434:
13433:
13426:
13425:
13418:
13411:
13403:
13395:
13394:
13393:
13392:
13378:
13364:
13350:
13336:
13322:
13297:
13296:
13241:
13220:
13208:10.1086/424568
13172:
13167:10.1086/305238
13152:(2): 759â767.
13134:Observational
13131:
13130:
13077:
13076:
13071:10.1086/316593
13035:
13034:
12991:
12990:
12977:
12962:
12942:
12941:
12926:
12873:
12867:
12847:
12844:
12842:
12841:
12820:
12799:
12778:
12741:
12688:
12659:
12648:on 9 July 2007
12633:
12566:
12505:
12444:
12425:
12388:(1): 107â170.
12368:
12331:(4): 122â141.
12308:
12271:(4): 447â465.
12246:
12209:(1): 229â240.
12192:
12155:(2): 623â644.
12139:
12112:
12085:
12026:
12019:
11983:
11944:(1): 500â505.
11924:
11877:(3): 279â291.
11857:
11804:
11782:
11739:
11687:
11657:
11632:
11582:
11517:
11452:
11430:
11393:
11326:
11295:
11274:10.1086/521715
11250:(1): 431â446.
11234:
11167:
11120:(1): 217â231.
11100:
11033:
10966:
10899:
10838:
10832:10.1086/311546
10797:
10744:
10731:10.1086/513018
10691:
10661:
10636:
10612:
10559:
10536:
10459:
10446:10.1086/499561
10403:
10352:
10291:
10268:
10198:
10176:10.1086/122654
10141:
10065:
10004:
9943:
9913:
9883:
9850:
9837:10.1086/521346
9797:
9760:(2): 337â372.
9739:
9700:(3): 531â539.
9680:
9626:
9620:10.1086/174024
9585:
9532:
9526:10.1086/161749
9491:
9438:
9419:Dhillon, Vik.
9411:
9392:Dhillon, Vik.
9384:
9346:
9314:
9277:
9256:(3): 891â905.
9236:
9201:
9171:
9165:10.1086/304125
9150:(1): 420â432.
9130:
9082:
9029:
9016:10.1086/375341
8992:(1): 288â300.
8973:
8930:
8917:10.1086/308613
8877:
8824:
8818:10.1086/149645
8783:
8778:10.1086/180037
8747:
8741:10.1086/513870
8726:(1): 219â248.
8701:
8671:
8628:
8573:
8560:10.1086/345573
8536:(1): 348â353.
8520:
8467:
8408:
8353:
8347:10.1086/180574
8310:
8283:(4): 464â504.
8267:
8232:
8189:
8138:
8079:
8035:
7982:
7921:
7862:
7823:
7818:10.1086/145612
7788:
7782:10.1086/125335
7747:
7740:
7719:
7692:(7): 837â915.
7665:
7638:
7608:
7555:
7472:
7419:
7360:
7307:
7242:
7207:
7201:10.1086/428116
7186:(1): 572â576.
7166:
7129:(1): 219â224.
7112:
7081:
7068:10.1086/420884
7028:
6987:
6960:
6955:10.1086/149432
6925:
6866:
6859:
6837:
6821:10.1086/184864
6786:
6724:
6711:10.1086/424568
6671:
6665:10.1086/305463
6650:(1): 294â302.
6627:
6621:10.1086/313186
6586:
6580:10.1086/312955
6565:(1): 339â387.
6545:
6538:
6502:
6481:(6): 583â597.
6461:
6422:(1): 131â144.
6402:
6375:(1â2): 79â90.
6359:
6352:
6340:IOP Publishing
6313:
6307:10.1086/316797
6272:
6266:10.1086/161036
6226:
6173:
6120:
6073:
6067:10.1086/149507
6032:
6011:(2): 231â236.
5991:
5971:Tohline, J. E.
5962:
5928:
5901:
5848:
5817:
5753:
5738:
5691:
5661:
5640:(3): 207â225.
5615:
5609:10.1086/143324
5574:
5550:
5504:
5465:
5428:
5393:(1744): 8â23.
5377:
5356:(2): 114â122.
5331:
5324:
5294:
5257:
5204:
5165:(7): 382â387.
5145:
5113:
5107:10.1086/142296
5070:
5057:10.1086/462419
5015:
4978:
4939:
4934:10.1086/156841
4902:
4835:
4822:10.1086/514327
4780:
4767:10.1086/507110
4723:
4717:10.1086/313186
4675:
4669:10.1086/106358
4629:
4608:(5): 308â333.
4583:
4577:10.1086/123244
4540:
4534:10.1086/123168
4494:
4488:10.1086/123146
4450:
4444:10.1086/123176
4404:
4398:10.1086/122654
4358:
4352:10.1086/122440
4312:
4280:
4231:
4225:10.1086/122337
4185:
4153:
4091:
4078:10.1086/375341
4054:(1): 288â300.
4037:
4024:10.1086/513700
4000:(2): 377â408.
3981:
3948:
3935:10.1086/421462
3890:
3854:
3814:
3808:10.1086/319535
3764:
3757:
3730:
3696:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3639:
3633:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3610:
3604:
3599:
3593:
3588:
3582:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3568:
3560:
3559:
3552:
3550:
3546:
3545:
3538:
3536:
3530:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3516:
3509:
3505:
3502:
3499:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3486:
3483:
3480:
3477:
3474:
3467:
3466:
3463:
3460:
3457:
3454:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3432:
3429:
3426:
3423:
3420:
3417:
3414:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3380:
3373:
3372:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3360:
3357:
3354:
3351:
3348:
3341:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3325:
3322:
3319:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3279:
3278:
3275:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3247:
3246:
3243:
3240:
3237:
3234:
3231:
3228:
3225:
3222:
3215:
3214:
3211:
3204:
3199:
3196:
3190:
3185:
3182:
3176:
3169:
3166:
3159:
3156:
3146:
3143:
3110:
3107:
3091:accretion disc
3070:Main article:
3067:
3064:
3040:Main article:
3037:
3034:
2933:
2930:
2923:Main article:
2920:
2917:
2888:
2885:
2880:accretion disk
2860:tidally locked
2852:habitable zone
2847:
2844:
2838:
2835:
2830:
2827:
2773:
2770:
2709:WD J0914+1914b
2685:magnetic field
2640:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2550:H- and K-lines
2483:
2480:
2476:diamond planet
2399:
2396:
2370:
2367:
2330:
2327:
2306:
2303:
2278:
2275:
2271:
2268:
2250:
2247:
2242:
2239:
2231:
2228:
2168:
2167:
2156:
2145:
2144:
2137:
2126:
2125:
2114:
2084:Main article:
2081:
2078:
2074:covalent bonds
2057:
2056:Chemical bonds
2054:
1980:
1979:Magnetic field
1977:
1959:
1956:
1950:
1935:
1934:
1927:magnetic field
1923:
1908:Edward M. Sion
1898:
1897:
1894:
1890:
1889:
1886:
1882:
1881:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1870:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1860:
1857:
1853:
1852:
1849:
1845:
1844:
1841:
1837:
1836:
1833:
1829:
1828:
1825:
1821:
1820:
1817:
1813:
1812:
1809:
1805:
1804:
1726:
1723:
1718:
1715:
1601:
1598:
1509:
1506:
1486:rotating frame
1473:
1442:
1437:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1385:
1379:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1341:
1331:
1307:speed of light
1265:
1248:
1220:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1147:
1144:
1135:
1116:
1113:
1028:
1025:
1020:
1012:
1009:
1004:
993:atomic numbers
987:
978:
971:
968:
882:chemical bonds
872:
871:
868:
863:
859:
858:
856:
847:
843:
842:
839:
834:
828:
827:
825:
820:
816:
815:
813:
810:
806:
805:
799:
796:
790:
789:
783:
780:
776:
775:
774:solar masses.
768:
765:
761:
760:
757:
751:
704:
701:
697:
694:
654:
651:
647:
644:
640:
637:
633:
630:
620:
610:
603:
599:Red supergiant
596:
589:
582:
575:
568:
561:
554:
545:
538:
531:
524:
517:
510:
503:
496:
489:
482:
475:
468:
461:
454:
447:
440:
432:
429:
275:
272:
235:
232:
195:
192:
184:CO white dwarf
115:was coined by
98:thermal energy
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
15937:
15926:
15925:Exotic matter
15923:
15921:
15918:
15916:
15913:
15911:
15908:
15906:
15903:
15902:
15900:
15890:
15885:
15880:
15878:
15868:
15866:
15856:
15854:
15844:
15842:
15837:
15832:
15830:
15820:
15818:
15813:
15808:
15807:
15804:
15791:
15786:
15781:
15779:
15771:
15770:
15767:
15761:
15758:
15756:
15753:
15751:
15750:Intergalactic
15748:
15746:
15743:
15741:
15738:
15736:
15733:
15731:
15730:Galactic year
15728:
15724:
15721:
15717:
15714:
15712:
15709:
15708:
15707:
15704:
15703:
15702:
15699:
15698:
15696:
15692:
15686:
15683:
15681:
15678:
15674:
15671:
15669:
15666:
15665:
15664:
15661:
15659:
15656:
15654:
15651:
15649:
15646:
15644:
15641:
15639:
15636:
15634:
15631:
15627:
15624:
15620:
15617:
15616:
15615:
15612:
15610:
15609:Most luminous
15607:
15605:
15602:
15600:
15597:
15595:
15592:
15590:
15587:
15585:
15582:
15580:
15577:
15575:
15572:
15571:
15570:
15567:
15563:
15560:
15558:
15555:
15554:
15553:
15550:
15549:
15547:
15545:
15541:
15535:
15532:
15530:
15527:
15525:
15524:Proper motion
15522:
15520:
15517:
15513:
15510:
15508:
15505:
15503:
15500:
15499:
15498:
15495:
15493:
15490:
15488:
15487:Constellation
15485:
15483:
15480:
15478:
15475:
15471:
15468:
15466:
15463:
15461:
15458:
15456:
15455:Solar eclipse
15453:
15452:
15451:
15448:
15447:
15445:
15441:Earth-centric
15439:
15433:
15430:
15426:
15423:
15421:
15418:
15416:
15413:
15412:
15411:
15408:
15406:
15403:
15399:
15396:
15394:
15391:
15389:
15386:
15384:
15381:
15380:
15379:
15376:
15375:
15373:
15371:
15367:
15361:
15358:
15356:
15353:
15351:
15348:
15346:
15343:
15341:
15338:
15336:
15333:
15331:
15328:
15326:
15323:
15321:
15318:
15316:
15313:
15311:
15308:
15306:
15303:
15301:
15298:
15296:
15293:
15291:
15288:
15286:
15283:
15281:
15278:
15276:
15273:
15272:
15270:
15266:
15260:
15257:
15255:
15252:
15250:
15247:
15245:
15242:
15240:
15237:
15233:
15230:
15229:
15228:
15225:
15221:
15218:
15216:
15213:
15212:
15211:
15208:
15204:
15201:
15199:
15196:
15195:
15194:
15191:
15187:
15184:
15182:
15179:
15177:
15174:
15172:
15169:
15167:
15164:
15163:
15162:
15159:
15157:
15154:
15150:
15147:
15145:
15142:
15141:
15140:
15137:
15135:
15132:
15131:
15129:
15127:
15123:
15117:
15114:
15110:
15107:
15105:
15102:
15100:
15097:
15095:
15092:
15090:
15087:
15086:
15085:
15082:
15080:
15077:
15075:
15072:
15070:
15067:
15065:
15062:
15060:
15057:
15055:
15052:
15050:
15047:
15045:
15042:
15040:
15039:Alpha process
15037:
15035:
15032:
15030:
15027:
15025:
15022:
15020:
15017:
15015:
15012:
15010:
15007:
15006:
15004:
15002:
14998:
14988:
14985:
14983:
14980:
14978:
14975:
14973:
14970:
14968:
14965:
14961:
14958:
14955:
14953:
14950:
14949:
14947:
14943:
14940:
14938:
14935:
14933:
14930:
14928:
14925:
14923:
14920:
14918:
14915:
14913:
14910:
14908:
14905:
14903:
14900:
14899:
14898:
14895:
14893:
14890:
14888:
14885:
14884:
14882:
14880:
14876:
14870:
14867:
14863:
14860:
14859:
14858:
14855:
14853:
14850:
14846:
14843:
14839:
14836:
14834:
14831:
14830:
14829:
14826:
14824:
14821:
14820:
14819:
14816:
14812:
14811:Helium planet
14809:
14808:
14807:
14804:
14802:
14801:Parker's star
14799:
14797:
14794:
14793:
14791:
14789:
14785:
14779:
14776:
14772:
14769:
14768:
14767:
14764:
14762:
14759:
14755:
14752:
14751:
14750:
14747:
14743:
14740:
14738:
14735:
14733:
14732:Lambda Boötis
14730:
14728:
14725:
14723:
14720:
14718:
14715:
14713:
14710:
14708:
14705:
14703:
14700:
14699:
14698:
14695:
14693:
14690:
14686:
14683:
14681:
14678:
14676:
14673:
14672:
14671:
14668:
14664:
14661:
14660:
14659:
14656:
14652:
14649:
14647:
14644:
14642:
14639:
14638:
14637:
14634:
14632:
14629:
14625:
14622:
14620:
14617:
14615:
14612:
14611:
14610:
14607:
14605:
14602:
14600:
14597:
14595:
14592:
14588:
14585:
14583:
14580:
14579:
14578:
14575:
14571:
14568:
14566:
14563:
14561:
14558:
14556:
14553:
14551:
14548:
14546:
14543:
14541:
14538:
14537:
14535:
14533:
14530:
14528:
14525:
14524:
14521:
14518:
14516:
14512:
14504:
14501:
14499:
14498:Superluminous
14496:
14495:
14494:
14491:
14489:
14486:
14484:
14481:
14479:
14476:
14474:
14471:
14469:
14466:
14464:
14461:
14459:
14456:
14452:
14449:
14448:
14447:
14444:
14442:
14439:
14435:
14432:
14430:
14427:
14426:
14425:
14422:
14418:
14415:
14414:
14413:
14410:
14408:
14405:
14403:
14402:Main sequence
14400:
14399:
14397:
14395:
14391:
14385:
14382:
14380:
14379:Hayashi track
14377:
14375:
14372:
14368:
14365:
14363:
14360:
14358:
14355:
14353:
14350:
14349:
14348:
14345:
14343:
14340:
14338:
14335:
14333:
14330:
14329:
14327:
14325:
14321:
14315:
14312:
14311:
14308:
14304:
14297:
14292:
14290:
14285:
14283:
14278:
14277:
14274:
14262:
14254:
14252:
14244:
14243:
14240:
14232:
14229:
14228:
14227:
14224:
14222:
14219:
14217:
14214:
14212:
14209:
14207:
14204:
14203:
14201:
14197:
14191:
14188:
14186:
14183:
14181:
14178:
14176:
14173:
14172:
14170:
14168:investigation
14164:
14158:
14155:
14153:
14152:Centaurus X-3
14150:
14148:
14145:
14144:
14142:
14138:
14132:
14129:
14127:
14124:
14122:
14119:
14117:
14116:Pulsar planet
14114:
14112:
14109:
14105:
14104:Related links
14102:
14101:
14100:
14097:
14093:
14092:Related links
14090:
14089:
14088:
14085:
14083:
14080:
14078:
14075:
14073:
14070:
14068:
14065:
14063:
14060:
14056:
14055:Related links
14053:
14051:
14048:
14047:
14046:
14043:
14039:
14036:
14034:
14031:
14030:
14029:
14026:
14024:
14021:
14019:
14016:
14015:
14013:
14009:
14003:
14000:
13998:
13995:
13993:
13990:
13988:
13985:
13983:
13980:
13978:
13975:
13973:
13970:
13968:
13965:
13963:
13960:
13958:
13955:
13953:
13950:
13948:
13945:
13943:
13940:
13938:
13935:
13933:
13930:
13926:
13923:
13922:
13921:
13918:
13917:
13915:
13911:
13905:
13902:
13900:
13897:
13895:
13892:
13890:
13887:
13883:
13880:
13878:
13877:X-ray burster
13875:
13873:
13870:
13869:
13868:
13865:
13863:
13860:
13859:
13857:
13853:
13847:
13844:
13839:
13837:
13834:
13832:
13829:
13828:
13827:
13824:
13823:
13821:
13817:
13811:
13808:
13806:
13803:
13802:
13800:
13796:
13792:
13785:
13780:
13778:
13773:
13771:
13766:
13765:
13762:
13750:
13742:
13740:
13732:
13731:
13728:
13722:
13719:
13717:
13714:
13712:
13709:
13705:
13702:
13701:
13700:
13697:
13696:
13694:
13690:
13684:
13681:
13679:
13676:
13674:
13671:
13669:
13666:
13665:
13663:
13659:
13653:
13650:
13648:
13645:
13643:
13642:Binary pulsar
13640:
13636:
13633:
13632:
13631:
13628:
13624:
13621:
13619:
13616:
13614:
13611:
13610:
13609:
13606:
13604:
13601:
13599:
13596:
13594:
13591:
13587:
13584:
13582:
13579:
13578:
13577:
13574:
13573:
13571:
13565:
13559:
13558:Helium planet
13556:
13554:
13551:
13549:
13546:
13542:
13539:
13537:
13534:
13533:
13532:
13529:
13525:
13524:Related links
13522:
13521:
13520:
13517:
13513:
13512:Related links
13510:
13508:
13505:
13503:
13500:
13499:
13498:
13495:
13491:
13488:
13487:
13486:
13483:
13481:
13478:
13477:
13475:
13471:
13465:
13464:Mira variable
13462:
13460:
13457:
13455:
13452:
13450:
13447:
13445:
13442:
13441:
13439:
13435:
13431:
13424:
13419:
13417:
13412:
13410:
13405:
13404:
13401:
13397:
13389:
13385:
13384:
13379:
13375:
13371:
13370:
13365:
13361:
13357:
13356:
13351:
13347:
13343:
13342:
13337:
13333:
13329:
13328:
13323:
13319:
13315:
13314:
13309:
13308:
13307:
13304:
13303:
13302:
13301:
13293:
13289:
13285:
13281:
13277:
13273:
13269:
13265:
13260:
13255:
13251:
13247:
13242:
13230:
13226:
13221:
13217:
13213:
13209:
13205:
13201:
13197:
13192:
13187:
13183:
13179:
13173:
13168:
13163:
13159:
13155:
13151:
13147:
13143:
13138:
13137:
13136:
13135:
13127:
13123:
13119:
13115:
13111:
13107:
13102:
13097:
13093:
13089:
13084:
13083:
13082:
13081:
13072:
13067:
13063:
13059:
13055:
13051:
13047:
13042:
13041:
13040:
13039:
13031:
13027:
13023:
13019:
13015:
13011:
13007:
13003:
12998:
12997:
12996:
12995:
12986:
12982:
12978:
12974:
12970:
12969:
12963:
12960:
12959:0-471-87317-9
12956:
12952:
12949:
12948:
12947:
12946:
12939:
12935:
12931:
12927:
12923:
12919:
12914:
12909:
12905:
12901:
12896:
12891:
12887:
12883:
12879:
12874:
12870:
12864:
12860:
12855:
12854:
12853:
12852:
12830:
12824:
12809:
12803:
12788:
12782:
12774:
12770:
12765:
12760:
12756:
12752:
12745:
12737:
12733:
12729:
12725:
12721:
12717:
12712:
12707:
12703:
12699:
12692:
12676:
12672:
12666:
12664:
12647:
12643:
12637:
12629:
12625:
12621:
12617:
12613:
12609:
12605:
12601:
12596:
12591:
12587:
12583:
12582:
12577:
12570:
12562:
12558:
12554:
12550:
12546:
12542:
12538:
12534:
12529:
12524:
12520:
12516:
12509:
12501:
12497:
12493:
12489:
12485:
12481:
12477:
12473:
12468:
12463:
12459:
12455:
12448:
12440:
12436:
12429:
12421:
12417:
12413:
12409:
12405:
12401:
12396:
12391:
12387:
12383:
12379:
12372:
12364:
12360:
12356:
12352:
12348:
12344:
12339:
12334:
12330:
12326:
12322:
12315:
12313:
12304:
12300:
12296:
12292:
12288:
12284:
12279:
12274:
12270:
12266:
12262:
12255:
12253:
12251:
12242:
12238:
12234:
12230:
12226:
12222:
12217:
12212:
12208:
12204:
12196:
12188:
12184:
12180:
12176:
12172:
12168:
12163:
12158:
12154:
12150:
12143:
12127:
12123:
12116:
12100:
12096:
12089:
12081:
12077:
12072:
12067:
12063:
12059:
12054:
12049:
12045:
12041:
12037:
12030:
12022:
12016:
12012:
12008:
12004:
12000:
11996:
11995:
11987:
11979:
11975:
11970:
11965:
11961:
11957:
11952:
11947:
11943:
11939:
11935:
11928:
11920:
11916:
11911:
11906:
11902:
11898:
11894:
11890:
11885:
11880:
11876:
11872:
11868:
11861:
11853:
11849:
11845:
11841:
11837:
11833:
11828:
11823:
11819:
11815:
11808:
11799:
11794:
11786:
11777:
11772:
11767:
11762:
11758:
11754:
11750:
11743:
11734:
11729:
11725:
11721:
11716:
11711:
11707:
11703:
11699:
11691:
11684:
11671:
11667:
11661:
11646:
11642:
11636:
11628:
11624:
11620:
11616:
11611:
11606:
11602:
11598:
11594:
11586:
11578:
11574:
11570:
11566:
11562:
11558:
11554:
11550:
11545:
11540:
11536:
11532:
11528:
11521:
11513:
11509:
11505:
11501:
11497:
11493:
11489:
11485:
11480:
11475:
11471:
11467:
11463:
11456:
11447:
11442:
11434:
11415:
11411:
11404:
11397:
11389:
11385:
11381:
11377:
11373:
11369:
11365:
11361:
11356:
11351:
11347:
11343:
11335:
11333:
11331:
11314:
11310:
11306:
11299:
11291:
11287:
11283:
11279:
11275:
11271:
11267:
11263:
11258:
11253:
11249:
11245:
11238:
11230:
11226:
11222:
11218:
11213:
11208:
11204:
11200:
11195:
11190:
11186:
11182:
11178:
11171:
11163:
11159:
11155:
11151:
11146:
11141:
11137:
11133:
11128:
11123:
11119:
11115:
11111:
11104:
11096:
11092:
11088:
11084:
11079:
11074:
11070:
11066:
11061:
11056:
11052:
11048:
11044:
11037:
11029:
11025:
11021:
11017:
11012:
11007:
11003:
10999:
10994:
10989:
10985:
10981:
10977:
10970:
10962:
10958:
10954:
10950:
10945:
10940:
10936:
10932:
10927:
10922:
10918:
10914:
10910:
10903:
10895:
10891:
10887:
10883:
10879:
10875:
10871:
10867:
10862:
10857:
10853:
10849:
10842:
10833:
10828:
10824:
10820:
10816:
10812:
10808:
10801:
10793:
10789:
10785:
10781:
10777:
10773:
10768:
10763:
10759:
10755:
10748:
10740:
10736:
10732:
10728:
10724:
10720:
10715:
10710:
10706:
10702:
10695:
10679:
10675:
10671:
10665:
10650:
10646:
10640:
10632:
10628:
10624:
10616:
10608:
10604:
10600:
10596:
10592:
10588:
10583:
10578:
10575:(1): 012004.
10574:
10570:
10563:
10555:
10551:
10547:
10540:
10532:
10528:
10523:
10518:
10514:
10510:
10505:
10500:
10496:
10492:
10487:
10482:
10478:
10474:
10470:
10463:
10455:
10451:
10447:
10443:
10439:
10435:
10430:
10425:
10421:
10417:
10410:
10408:
10399:
10395:
10391:
10387:
10383:
10379:
10375:
10371:
10367:
10363:
10356:
10348:
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9865:Time Magazine
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9045:(1): 012004.
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3831:Richmond, M.
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3119:WD J1953-1019
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3012:
3008:
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2999:
2994:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2983:thermonuclear
2980:
2975:
2974:carbon fusion
2971:
2967:
2966:compressional
2963:
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2809:planetesimals
2806:
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2790:proper motion
2787:
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2717:hydrogen line
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2677:rocky planets
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2661:
2657:
2645:
2616:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2590:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2575:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2502:
2494:
2489:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2472:helium planet
2469:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2417:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2380:
2375:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2302:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2267:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2246:
2237:
2227:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2204:
2199:
2198:V777 Her
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2118:spectral type
2115:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2093:
2087:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2062:chemical bond
2053:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2008:
2007:magnetic flux
2004:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1976:
1974:
1964:
1955:
1953:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1879:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1850:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1801:
1795:
1793:
1787:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1736:
1735:WD J0914+1914
1731:
1722:
1712:
1710:
1705:
1704:fractionation
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1665:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1634:
1629:
1628:galactic disk
1625:
1621:
1620:WD J2147â4035
1616:
1610:
1607:
1596:
1591:
1587:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1535:
1531:
1525:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1505:
1501:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1462:
1456:
1451:
1436:
1430:
1413:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1383:
1377:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1339:
1330:
1328:
1323:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1289:
1287:
1279:
1263:
1255:
1254:electron mass
1218:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1174:
1170:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1142:
1134:
1132:
1126:
1122:
1112:
1110:
1106:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1019:
1003:
998:
997:atomic weight
994:
986:
977:
964:
960:
956:
950:
947:
946:
939:
937:
936:
931:
930:
925:
924:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
869:
864:
861:
860:
857:
848:
845:
844:
840:
835:
833:
832:Atomic nuclei
830:
829:
826:
821:
818:
817:
814:
811:
808:
807:
804:
800:
797:
795:
792:
791:
788:
784:
781:
779:Water (fresh)
778:
777:
769:
766:
763:
762:
758:
755:
752:
749:
748:
745:
743:
739:
733:
728:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
691:
686:
684:
680:
676:
675:neutron stars
672:
671:compact stars
668:
664:
660:
625:
608:
601:
594:
587:
585:Bright giants
580:
573:
566:
559:
552:
548:Main sequence
543:
536:
529:
522:
515:
508:
501:
494:
487:
480:
473:
466:
459:
452:
450:Spectral type
445:
438:
428:
426:
422:
418:
414:
413:Willem Luyten
410:
409:proper motion
406:
402:
398:
393:
391:
387:
383:
382:C.A.F. Peters
377:
374:
370:
364:
362:
358:
352:
350:
344:
339:
337:
336:spectral type
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
314:
311:
310:main sequence
307:
303:
302:binary system
299:
295:
294:main sequence
291:
287:
281:
271:
269:
265:
261:
257:
252:
250:
246:
242:
238:
229:
225:
221:
216:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
120:
118:
114:
110:
104:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
59:
55:
50:
46:
41:
34:
19:
15920:White dwarfs
15877:Solar System
15653:White dwarfs
15643:Brown dwarfs
15626:Most distant
15574:Most massive
15552:Proper names
15512:Photographic
15465:Solar System
15443:observations
15370:Star systems
15193:Stellar wind
15176:Chromosphere
15149:Oscillations
15029:Helium flash
14879:Hypothetical
14857:X-ray binary
14805:
14796:Compact star
14691:
14631:Bright giant
14384:Henyey track
14362:Herbig Ae/Be
14086:
14028:Compact star
14002:Urca process
13992:Timing noise
13977:Relativistic
13872:X-ray binary
13867:X-ray pulsar
13791:Neutron star
13673:Urca process
13647:Helium flash
13630:X-ray binary
13531:Compact star
13497:Neutron star
13449:PG 1159 star
13429:
13396:
13387:
13382:
13373:
13368:
13359:
13354:
13345:
13340:
13331:
13326:
13317:
13312:
13299:
13298:
13249:
13245:
13233:. Retrieved
13229:the original
13181:
13177:
13149:
13145:
13133:
13132:
13091:
13087:
13079:
13078:
13053:
13049:
13037:
13036:
13005:
13001:
12994:Variability
12993:
12992:
12984:
12967:
12950:
12944:
12943:
12933:
12885:
12881:
12858:
12850:
12849:
12832:. Retrieved
12823:
12811:. Retrieved
12802:
12790:. Retrieved
12781:
12754:
12750:
12744:
12701:
12697:
12691:
12679:. Retrieved
12650:. Retrieved
12646:the original
12636:
12585:
12579:
12569:
12518:
12514:
12508:
12457:
12453:
12447:
12439:the original
12428:
12385:
12381:
12371:
12328:
12324:
12268:
12264:
12206:
12202:
12195:
12152:
12148:
12142:
12130:. Retrieved
12115:
12103:. Retrieved
12088:
12043:
12039:
12029:
11993:
11986:
11941:
11937:
11927:
11874:
11871:Astrobiology
11870:
11860:
11817:
11813:
11807:
11785:
11756:
11752:
11742:
11705:
11701:
11690:
11681:
11674:. Retrieved
11672:. 5 May 2023
11660:
11648:. Retrieved
11644:
11641:"CYCLE 2 GO"
11635:
11600:
11596:
11592:
11585:
11534:
11530:
11520:
11469:
11465:
11455:
11433:
11421:. Retrieved
11409:
11396:
11345:
11341:
11317:. Retrieved
11313:the original
11308:
11298:
11247:
11243:
11237:
11184:
11180:
11170:
11117:
11113:
11103:
11050:
11046:
11036:
10983:
10979:
10969:
10916:
10912:
10902:
10851:
10847:
10841:
10814:
10810:
10800:
10757:
10753:
10747:
10704:
10700:
10694:
10684:20 September
10682:. Retrieved
10678:the original
10673:
10664:
10652:. Retrieved
10648:
10639:
10622:
10615:
10572:
10568:
10562:
10545:
10539:
10476:
10472:
10462:
10419:
10415:
10365:
10361:
10355:
10304:
10300:
10294:
10277:
10271:
10218:
10214:
10161:(172): 258.
10158:
10154:
10144:
10091:
10087:
10017:
10013:
10007:
9956:
9952:
9946:
9934:. Retrieved
9925:
9916:
9904:. Retrieved
9895:
9886:
9874:. Retrieved
9870:the original
9863:
9853:
9810:
9806:
9800:
9757:
9753:
9697:
9693:
9683:
9640:
9636:
9629:
9602:
9598:
9588:
9545:
9541:
9535:
9508:
9504:
9494:
9451:
9447:
9441:
9429:. Retrieved
9425:the original
9414:
9402:. Retrieved
9398:the original
9387:
9362:
9358:
9339:18 September
9337:. Retrieved
9326:
9317:
9290:
9286:
9280:
9253:
9249:
9239:
9214:
9210:
9204:
9192:. Retrieved
9188:the original
9147:
9143:
9133:
9098:
9094:
9042:
9038:
9032:
8989:
8985:
8943:
8939:
8933:
8890:
8886:
8880:
8837:
8833:
8827:
8800:
8796:
8786:
8761:
8757:
8750:
8723:
8719:
8692:. Retrieved
8688:the original
8683:
8674:
8662:. Retrieved
8641:
8631:
8588:
8582:
8576:
8533:
8529:
8523:
8483:(A30): 9pp.
8480:
8476:
8470:
8425:
8421:
8411:
8368:
8362:
8356:
8329:
8323:
8313:
8280:
8276:
8270:
8245:
8241:
8235:
8202:
8198:
8192:
8151:
8147:
8141:
8096:
8092:
8082:
8058:(1): 45â67.
8055:
8051:
7995:
7991:
7985:
7934:
7930:
7924:
7879:
7875:
7865:
7834:
7826:
7801:
7797:
7791:
7767:(314): 248.
7764:
7760:
7750:
7731:
7689:
7685:
7651:
7647:
7641:
7629:. Retrieved
7620:
7611:
7568:
7564:
7558:
7546:. Retrieved
7492:
7488:
7475:
7432:
7428:
7422:
7377:
7373:
7363:
7320:
7316:
7310:
7259:
7255:
7245:
7220:
7216:
7210:
7183:
7179:
7169:
7126:
7122:
7115:
7103:. Retrieved
7099:the original
7094:
7084:
7041:
7037:
7031:
7004:
7000:
6990:
6976:(1â2): L15.
6973:
6969:
6963:
6938:
6934:
6928:
6883:
6879:
6869:
6846:
6840:
6831:10183/108730
6803:
6799:
6789:
6744:
6740:
6684:
6680:
6674:
6647:
6643:
6606:(1): 1â130.
6603:
6599:
6589:
6562:
6558:
6548:
6511:
6505:
6478:
6474:
6464:
6419:
6415:
6405:
6372:
6368:
6362:
6335:
6289:
6285:
6275:
6248:
6244:
6186:
6182:
6176:
6133:
6129:
6123:
6090:
6086:
6076:
6049:
6045:
6035:
6008:
6004:
5994:
5982:. Retrieved
5965:
5953:. Retrieved
5940:
5931:
5919:. Retrieved
5904:
5861:
5857:
5851:
5839:. Retrieved
5830:
5820:
5777:
5773:
5704:White Dwarfs
5703:
5682:. Retrieved
5664:
5637:
5633:
5591:
5587:
5577:
5568:
5562:
5520:
5516:
5513:Anderson, W.
5507:
5497:21 September
5495:. Retrieved
5488:the original
5468:
5456:. Retrieved
5447:
5390:
5386:
5380:
5353:
5349:
5303:
5297:
5285:. Retrieved
5272:HyperPhysics
5270:
5265:Nave, C. R.
5260:
5217:
5213:
5207:
5162:
5158:
5148:
5126:
5116:
5089:
5083:
5073:
5030:
5024:
5018:
4988:
4981:
4969:. Retrieved
4949:
4942:
4917:
4911:
4905:
4860:
4854:
4847:Kepler, S.O.
4795:
4789:
4783:
4743:(1): 40â58.
4740:
4736:
4702:(1): 1â130.
4699:
4695:
4651:
4645:
4638:Luyten, W.J.
4632:
4605:
4601:
4562:(202): 353.
4559:
4553:
4543:
4519:(198): 132.
4516:
4510:
4503:Luyten, W.J.
4497:
4470:
4466:
4459:Luyten, W.J.
4453:
4429:(199): 156.
4426:
4420:
4413:Luyten, W.J.
4407:
4383:(172): 258.
4380:
4374:
4361:
4337:(161): 236.
4334:
4328:
4315:
4298:
4292:
4256:
4250:
4243:Bessel, F.W.
4210:(155): 198.
4207:
4201:
4188:
4167:
4113:
4107:
4100:Herschel, W.
4094:
4051:
4047:
4040:
3997:
3993:
3972:. Retrieved
3908:
3902:
3866:
3845:. Retrieved
3790:
3784:
3748:White Dwarfs
3747:
3721:. Retrieved
3699:
3687:. Retrieved
3613:PG 1159 star
3607:Neutron star
3440:Gliese 223.2
3283:Van Maanen 2
3112:
3075:
3045:
3019:
3015:
3011:neutron star
3001:
2997:
2995:
2986:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2947:
2928:
2901:
2872:tidal forces
2849:
2846:Habitability
2813:
2794:
2764:
2746:
2740:
2721:
2706:
2698:
2693:Roche radius
2660:Helix Nebula
2653:
2591:
2579:Roche radius
2574:Giclas 29-38
2570:
2540:shows iron,
2538:van Maanen 2
2518:
2507:
2465:
2422:
2391:
2377:
2372:
2358:
2354:
2345:, neon, and
2324:compact star
2308:
2273:
2252:
2233:
2219:
2211:
2207:
2203:GW Vir stars
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2182:gravity wave
2171:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2148:
2133:
2129:
2110:
2102:
2059:
2043:
2028:
2016:GRW +70 8247
2000:
1982:
1969:
1943:
1939:
1936:
1904:G. P. Kuiper
1901:
1843:Metal lines
1788:
1743:spectroscopy
1740:
1713:
1711:satellite.
1708:
1661:
1657:Gaia mission
1631:
1611:
1583:
1567:Urca process
1565:through the
1560:
1533:
1526:
1511:
1502:
1479:
1470:
1459:
1447:
1434:
1321:
1315:
1311:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1290:
1232:
1128:
1109:brown dwarfs
1091:
1074:
1062:neutron star
1047:
1040:
1017:
1001:
984:
975:
951:
943:
940:
933:
927:
921:
902:R. H. Fowler
875:
735:
730:
687:
665:, or 1
628:
527:White dwarfs
525:
520:Brown dwarfs
416:
404:
394:
390:Walter Adams
379:
372:
368:
366:
353:
349:Walter Adams
346:
341:
316:40 Eridani C
306:40 Eridani B
298:40 Eridani A
283:
253:
217:
212:
208:
188:solar masses
183:
150:period of a
142:. After the
132:neutron star
121:
112:
96:of residual
65:
63:
45:
15865:Outer space
15853:Spaceflight
15706:Brown dwarf
15482:Circumpolar
15360:Kraft break
15340:Color index
15315:Metallicity
15275:Designation
15244:Cosmic dust
15166:Photosphere
14932:Dark-energy
14907:Electroweak
14892:Black dwarf
14823:Radio-quiet
14806:White dwarf
14692:White dwarf
14342:Bok globule
14087:White dwarf
14072:Microquasar
14038:Exotic star
13967:Pulsar kick
13889:Millisecond
13805:Radio-quiet
13613:AM CVn star
13541:Exotic star
13480:Black dwarf
13430:White dwarf
13235:22 November
13184:(2): L129.
12834:16 December
12813:13 December
12757:: 897â910.
12105:16 February
11423:11 December
10817:(1): L151.
10422:(2): L161.
9936:14 February
8591:(2): 0029.
7621:www.eso.org
6687:(2): L129.
6292:(2): L157.
5864:: 337â377.
5841:22 February
5780:: 191â230.
5448:ScienceBits
4473:(197): 54.
4321:Adams, W.S.
4194:Adams, W.S.
3911:(2): L147.
3705:Henry, T.J.
3585:Brown dwarf
3579:Black dwarf
3471:Gliese 3991
3155:Identifier
3139:WD 0806â661
3083:dwarf novae
3048:brown dwarf
3030:WD 0810-353
2801:brown dwarf
2778:WD 1202â232
2742:WD 1856+534
2736:exoasteroid
2724:WD 0145+234
2701:WD 1145+017
2546:F-type star
2379:zombie star
2080:Variability
2020:Roger Angel
1819:He I lines
1699:latent heat
1679:crystallize
1633:black dwarf
1586:Leon Mestel
1498:dynamically
1037:Nobel Prize
888:of unbound
819:White dwarf
683:black holes
679:quark stars
606:Hypergiants
592:Supergiants
578:Blue giants
417:white dwarf
399:discovered
260:black dwarf
113:white dwarf
109:binary star
66:white dwarf
15905:Star types
15899:Categories
15668:Candidates
15663:Supernovae
15648:Red dwarfs
15507:Extinction
15295:Kinematics
15290:Luminosity
15268:Properties
15161:Atmosphere
15059:Si burning
15049:Ne burning
14987:White hole
14960:Quasi-star
14887:Blue dwarf
14742:Technetium
14658:Hypergiant
14636:Supergiant
14216:Astropulse
14131:QCD matter
14111:Radio star
14082:Quark-nova
14033:Quark star
13982:Rp-process
13913:Properties
13661:Properties
13593:Dwarf nova
13536:Quark star
13490:Candidates
13080:Frequency
12792:2 December
12595:2210.04863
12053:2007.13932
12046:(2): L40.
11820:(2): L31.
11798:2408.03985
11766:2404.05488
11715:2401.13153
11708:(2): L32.
11683:concerned.
11610:2206.05595
11544:2109.10912
11479:1811.08902
11446:1910.04314
11355:1510.06387
11319:22 October
11194:1708.05391
11127:1603.09344
11060:1711.02940
10854:(2): 148.
10707:(1): L41.
10486:2104.14035
10479:(2): L31.
10314:1604.03092
10228:2102.01834
10101:1902.07073
10094:(2): L25.
9643:(2): L23.
9101:(67): 67.
8840:(2): L45.
8598:1612.03185
8378:1504.08072
8106:1505.07466
7998:(2): L18.
7631:4 December
7502:1908.00370
7442:2007.13669
7387:2103.12892
7269:2409.04419
7007:(2): 129.
6893:2206.03174
6754:2206.05258
6196:2209.02846
6136:(2): 553.
6093:(2): 417.
5955:12 January
5909:Kaler, J.
5033:(1): L69.
4116:: 40â126.
3689:17 October
3644:References
3377:Stein 2051
3345:40 Eridani
3314:LP 145-141
3192:Luminosity
3161:Distance (
3158:WD Number
3131:exoplanets
2797:PHL 5038AB
2782:WD 2105â82
2713:evaporated
2534:exoplanets
2486:See also:
2451:predict a
2320:black hole
2259:blue dwarf
2255:solar mass
2090:See also:
2046:AR Scorpii
1987:(100
1947:hydrogen (
1792:isothermal
1522:black body
1494:Fred Hoyle
1119:See also:
1105:red dwarfs
1094:luminosity
935:degenerate
880:joined by
812:c. 150,000
717:Ernst Ăpik
693:0.94
571:Red giants
550:("dwarfs")
534:Red dwarfs
290:40 Eridani
278:See also:
136:black hole
90:luminosity
15829:Astronomy
15599:Brightest
15497:Magnitude
15477:Pole star
15398:Symbiotic
15393:Eclipsing
15325:Starlight
15126:Structure
15116:Supernova
15109:Micronova
15104:Recurrent
15089:Symbiotic
15074:p-process
15069:r-process
15064:s-process
15054:O burning
15044:C burning
15024:CNO cycle
14967:Gravastar
14503:Hypernova
14493:Supernova
14468:Dredge-up
14441:Blue loop
14434:super-AGB
14417:Red clump
14394:Evolution
14352:Protostar
14332:Accretion
14324:Formation
14166:Satellite
14140:Discovery
14062:Hypernova
14045:Supernova
13987:Starquake
13668:Pulsating
13598:Micronova
13567:In binary
13437:Formation
13259:0711.3227
13030:250749380
12922:1365-2966
12895:1411.4149
12736:118304737
12711:1202.5581
12704:(2): 35.
12628:252863734
12620:0004-6361
12528:0810.5106
12467:1210.1948
12420:0066-4146
12395:1312.0628
12363:1387-6473
12338:1204.1155
12303:1448-6083
12278:1111.4492
12080:220831174
11978:119227364
11951:1211.1013
11884:1211.6467
11852:118739494
11827:1103.2791
11645:STScI.edu
11627:249626026
11577:237605138
11569:0004-6361
11512:119491061
11504:0004-6361
11282:0004-637X
11257:0710.0907
11221:0035-8711
11154:0035-8711
11087:0035-8711
11028:119257046
11020:0035-8711
10993:1401.5470
10961:119279872
10953:0035-8711
10926:1411.6012
10894:118688656
10886:0004-637X
10861:1201.0756
10835:. p. L51.
10792:119284418
10767:0910.1288
10649:STScI.edu
10607:250666952
10582:0903.2159
10513:0004-637X
10454:119462589
10390:0028-0836
10347:118486264
10339:1387-6473
10263:231786441
10255:0004-637X
10221:(1): 61.
10193:250734202
10185:0004-6280
10136:119359995
10128:2041-8213
10052:0004-6256
10027:0802.4075
9999:119268896
9991:0004-6361
9966:1404.2617
9820:0707.2895
9675:119203015
9650:1208.5069
9486:118886040
9108:1101.5169
9052:0903.2159
8968:250749380
8925:115958740
8490:1208.3650
8435:1211.5709
8403:119057870
8305:119003761
8205:: 1â115.
8030:119248244
8005:1302.6619
7944:0711.3227
7714:122582479
7578:1410.5471
7467:220793255
7414:232335433
7380:(1): L5.
7355:119279832
7330:1110.5665
7294:1476-4687
7105:6 January
7076:119378552
6920:0004-637X
6886:(1): 36.
6781:0035-8711
6397:120431159
6221:252111027
6143:1109.3046
5545:122576829
5423:120476662
5308:CRC Press
4971:20 August
4148:186209747
3943:118894713
3476:1708+437
3459:0.000062
3444:0552â041
3428:0.000085
3413:1748+708
3382:0426+588
3350:0413-077
3318:1142â645
3287:0046+051
3256:0736+053
3224:0642â166
3174:magnitude
3052:red giant
2960:. In the
2756:Hipparcos
2711:is being
2673:asteroids
2392:iron-core
2351:supernova
2347:magnesium
2339:fuse neon
2230:Formation
2178:HL Tau 76
1945:Molecular
1896:Variable
1751:Schatzman
1695:BPM 37093
1675:electrons
1578:IK Pegasi
1563:neutrinos
1490:viscosity
1466:Fermi gas
1384:ℏ
1363:≈
1264:ℏ
1171:ℏ
1146:≈
1131:Fermi gas
1066:accreting
1054:electrons
929:Fermi sea
894:electrons
557:Subgiants
541:Subdwarfs
395:In 1917,
313:red dwarf
274:Discovery
205:magnesium
156:red giant
140:Milky Way
119:in 1922.
52:Image of
15778:Category
15673:Remnants
15569:Extremes
15529:Parallax
15502:Apparent
15492:Asterism
15470:Sunlight
15420:Globular
15405:Multiple
15330:Variable
15320:Rotation
15280:Dynamics
15171:Starspot
14845:Magnetar
14788:Remnants
14604:Subgiant
14577:Subdwarf
14429:post-AGB
14251:Category
14067:Kilonova
13894:Be/X-ray
13826:Magnetar
13749:Category
13507:Magnetar
13284:18033290
13126:14080941
13118:11423620
12945:Physics
12861:. 1997.
12851:General
12675:Archived
12553:19052622
12492:23018963
12241:15493284
12126:Archived
12099:Archived
11919:23537137
11676:8 August
11414:Archived
11380:26490620
11290:17813180
11229:55764122
11162:56091285
10739:15244406
10674:BBC News
10625:: 1911.
10531:35003618
10307:: 9â34.
10060:16571761
9930:Archived
9900:Archived
9792:12173790
9734:17854858
9333:Archived
9077:17521113
9024:59065632
8764:: L161.
8658:Archived
8623:15683792
8515:55153825
8462:53316287
8227:74674634
8176:20239729
8133:54049842
7969:18033290
7916:10892288
7734:. 1997.
7625:Archived
7603:55152203
7539:Archived
7535:58004893
7527:30626942
7302:38448597
7095:BBC News
6456:15797437
6189:: 1â63.
6052:: 1089.
5978:Archived
5949:Archived
5915:Archived
5896:59325115
5835:Archived
5812:10210550
5678:Archived
5474:Bean, R.
5452:Archived
5281:Archived
5252:17677758
5199:16587023
5140:27015694
5124:(1927).
5010:10009645
4962:Archived
4897:10892288
4830:18587748
4775:13829139
4640:(1950).
4505:(1922).
4461:(1922).
4415:(1922).
4369:(1917).
4323:(1915).
4245:(1844).
4196:(1914).
4102:(1785).
4086:59065632
3974:20 April
3968:Archived
3841:Archived
3717:Archived
3683:Archived
3572:See also
3533:NGC 2440
3409:G 240-72
3397:0.00030
3333:0.00054
3302:0.00017
3271:0.00049
3200:☉
3186:☉
3172:Absolute
3123:Gaia DR2
2970:ignition
2956:and the
2934:☉
2868:eclipses
2864:transits
2839:☉
2689:exomoons
2566:exomoons
2554:nitrogen
2429:galaxies
2425:universe
2331:☉
2312:collapse
2289:via the
2279:☉
2263:helium-4
2243:☉
1719:☉
1606:hydrogen
1602:☉
1590:accretes
1500:stable.
1029:☉
1013:☉
982:, where
972:☉
850:8.4âĂâ10
837:2.3âĂâ10
767:c. 1,000
750:Material
713:spectrum
705:☉
698:☉
673:such as
655:☉
648:☉
641:☉
634:☉
613:absolute
308:and the
236:☉
196:☉
144:hydrogen
103:Sirius B
94:emission
15889:Science
15817:Physics
15803:Portals
15745:Gravity
15694:Related
15614:Nearest
15562:Chinese
15410:Cluster
15383:Contact
15220:Proplyd
15094:Remnant
14982:Blitzar
14956:Hawking
14912:Strange
14862:Burster
14818:Neutron
14771:Extreme
14722:He-weak
14367:T Tauri
14261:Commons
14011:Related
13962:Optical
13920:Blitzar
13899:Spin-up
13692:Related
13581:Remnant
13569:systems
13300:Images
13292:4398697
13264:Bibcode
13216:7570539
13196:Bibcode
13154:Bibcode
13088:Science
13058:Bibcode
13010:Bibcode
12900:Bibcode
12769:Bibcode
12716:Bibcode
12600:Bibcode
12588:: A14.
12561:4409995
12533:Bibcode
12500:4431391
12472:Bibcode
12400:Bibcode
12343:Bibcode
12283:Bibcode
12221:Bibcode
12187:2963085
12167:Bibcode
12132:17 July
12058:Bibcode
11999:Bibcode
11956:Bibcode
11910:3612282
11889:Bibcode
11832:Bibcode
11720:Bibcode
11603:: A34.
11549:Bibcode
11484:Bibcode
11472:: A72.
11388:4451207
11360:Bibcode
11262:Bibcode
11199:Bibcode
11132:Bibcode
11095:4809366
11065:Bibcode
10998:Bibcode
10931:Bibcode
10866:Bibcode
10819:Bibcode
10772:Bibcode
10719:Bibcode
10627:Bibcode
10587:Bibcode
10550:Bibcode
10522:8740607
10491:Bibcode
10434:Bibcode
10398:4357883
10370:Bibcode
10319:Bibcode
10282:Bibcode
10233:Bibcode
10163:Bibcode
10106:Bibcode
10032:Bibcode
9971:Bibcode
9959:: A34.
9876:18 June
9845:8369390
9825:Bibcode
9772:Bibcode
9712:Bibcode
9655:Bibcode
9607:Bibcode
9605:: 797.
9580:2983893
9560:Bibcode
9513:Bibcode
9511:: 791.
9466:Bibcode
9367:Bibcode
9305:Bibcode
9293:: L85.
9258:Bibcode
9219:Bibcode
9152:Bibcode
9113:Bibcode
9057:Bibcode
9004:Bibcode
8948:Bibcode
8905:Bibcode
8872:9481357
8852:Bibcode
8805:Bibcode
8803:: 151.
8766:Bibcode
8728:Bibcode
8664:21 July
8603:Bibcode
8568:9005227
8548:Bibcode
8495:Bibcode
8440:Bibcode
8383:Bibcode
8334:Bibcode
8332:: L77.
8285:Bibcode
8250:Bibcode
8184:4133416
8156:Bibcode
8111:Bibcode
8060:Bibcode
8010:Bibcode
7977:4398697
7949:Bibcode
7894:Bibcode
7857:61-9138
7845:Bibcode
7806:Bibcode
7804:: 283.
7769:Bibcode
7694:Bibcode
7656:Bibcode
7654:: 143.
7583:Bibcode
7548:23 July
7507:Bibcode
7447:Bibcode
7435:: L11.
7392:Bibcode
7335:Bibcode
7323:: A33.
7274:Bibcode
7225:Bibcode
7223:: 465.
7188:Bibcode
7161:7297628
7141:Bibcode
7056:Bibcode
7009:Bibcode
6978:Bibcode
6943:Bibcode
6941:: 227.
6898:Bibcode
6808:Bibcode
6806:: L77.
6759:Bibcode
6719:7570539
6699:Bibcode
6652:Bibcode
6608:Bibcode
6567:Bibcode
6526:Bibcode
6483:Bibcode
6434:Bibcode
6377:Bibcode
6294:Bibcode
6253:Bibcode
6251:: 253.
6201:Bibcode
6148:Bibcode
6115:8372549
6095:Bibcode
6054:Bibcode
6013:Bibcode
5876:Bibcode
5792:Bibcode
5748:9288287
5718:Bibcode
5642:Bibcode
5596:Bibcode
5525:Bibcode
5415:2990270
5395:Bibcode
5358:Bibcode
5312:Bibcode
5287:26 June
5232:Bibcode
5190:1086032
5167:Bibcode
5094:Bibcode
5092:: 292.
5065:8792889
5045:Bibcode
4998:Bibcode
4922:Bibcode
4920:: 240.
4875:Bibcode
4810:Bibcode
4755:Bibcode
4704:Bibcode
4656:Bibcode
4610:Bibcode
4564:Bibcode
4521:Bibcode
4475:Bibcode
4431:Bibcode
4385:Bibcode
4339:Bibcode
4303:Bibcode
4301:: 186.
4261:Bibcode
4212:Bibcode
4176:Bibcode
4118:Bibcode
4066:Bibcode
4032:1386346
4012:Bibcode
3923:Bibcode
3881:Bibcode
3795:Bibcode
3723:21 July
3504:Gallery
3485:>15
3365:0.0141
3251:Procyon
3239:0.0295
3145:Nearest
3022:SN 1006
2979:runaway
2824:Spitzer
2752:LAWD 37
2728:NEOWISE
2542:calcium
2510:stellar
2190:ZZ Ceti
2151:(GCVS:
2132:(GCVS:
1975:phase.
1781:⁄
1771:⁄
1737:system.
1664:ionized
1604:with a
1541:⁄
1514:opacity
1284:is the
1276:is the
1252:is the
756:in kg/m
754:Density
373:Procyon
361:Procyon
264:kelvins
249:SN 1006
176:billion
15735:Galaxy
15723:Planet
15711:Desert
15619:bright
15557:Arabic
15378:Binary
15198:Bubble
14922:Planck
14897:Exotic
14833:Binary
14828:Pulsar
14766:Helium
14727:Barium
14670:Carbon
14663:Yellow
14651:Yellow
14624:Yellow
14463:PG1159
13947:Glitch
13862:Binary
13810:Pulsar
13711:RAMBOs
13502:Pulsar
13290:
13282:
13246:Nature
13214:
13124:
13116:
13028:
12957:
12920:
12865:
12734:
12626:
12618:
12559:
12551:
12515:Nature
12498:
12490:
12454:Nature
12418:
12361:
12301:
12239:
12185:
12078:
12017:
11976:
11917:
11907:
11850:
11650:15 May
11625:
11575:
11567:
11537:: A7.
11510:
11502:
11386:
11378:
11342:Nature
11288:
11280:
11227:
11219:
11160:
11152:
11093:
11085:
11026:
11018:
10959:
10951:
10892:
10884:
10790:
10737:
10654:15 May
10605:
10529:
10519:
10511:
10452:
10396:
10388:
10362:Nature
10345:
10337:
10261:
10253:
10191:
10183:
10134:
10126:
10058:
10050:
9997:
9989:
9906:10 May
9843:
9790:
9732:
9673:
9578:
9484:
9075:
9022:
8966:
8923:
8870:
8694:6 June
8643:Nature
8621:
8566:
8513:
8460:
8401:
8303:
8225:
8219:769678
8217:
8182:
8174:
8148:Nature
8131:
8028:
7975:
7967:
7931:Nature
7914:
7855:
7738:
7712:
7601:
7571:: L3.
7533:
7525:
7489:Nature
7465:
7412:
7353:
7300:
7292:
7256:Nature
7159:
7074:
6918:
6857:
6779:
6717:
6536:
6454:
6395:
6350:
6219:
6168:144301
6166:
6113:
5984:30 May
5945:VizieR
5894:
5810:
5746:
5736:
5594:: 81.
5571:: 944.
5543:
5421:
5413:
5322:
5250:
5197:
5187:
5138:
5063:
5008:
4895:
4828:
4773:
4654:: 86.
4146:
4140:106749
4138:
4084:
4030:
3941:
3755:
3494:>6
3479:24.23
3453:15.29
3447:21.01
3422:15.23
3416:20.26
3391:13.43
3385:17.99
3359:11.27
3353:16.39
3327:12.77
3321:15.12
3296:14.09
3290:14.07
3265:13.20
3259:11.46
3233:11.18
3219:Sirius
3099:polars
2952:: the
2943:fusion
2938:binary
2748:GD 140
2734:of an
2681:metals
2665:G29-38
2552:. The
2445:proton
2437:fusing
2343:oxygen
2287:oxygen
2283:carbon
2174:varied
2166:stars
2149:GW Vir
2141:helium
2050:pulsar
2012:GJ 742
1989:teslas
1783:10,000
1747:helium
1671:nuclei
1667:plasma
1595:carbon
1548:X-rays
1543:10,000
1319:where
1280:, and
1233:where
1082:X-rays
923:ground
890:nuclei
886:plasma
866:2âĂâ10
854:1âĂâ10
823:1âĂâ10
798:22,610
794:Osmium
759:Notes
690:binary
615:magni-
564:Giants
369:Sirius
168:oxygen
164:carbon
160:helium
148:fusing
54:Sirius
15841:Stars
15740:Guest
15544:Lists
15425:Super
15079:Fusor
14952:Black
14937:Quark
14917:Preon
14902:Boson
14838:X-ray
14754:Shell
14707:Ap/Bp
14609:Giant
14527:Early
14473:OH/IR
14303:Stars
14199:Other
14147:LGM-1
13798:Types
13618:Polar
13288:S2CID
13254:arXiv
13212:S2CID
13186:arXiv
13122:S2CID
13096:arXiv
13026:S2CID
12890:arXiv
12759:arXiv
12738:. 29.
12732:S2CID
12706:arXiv
12681:4 May
12652:4 May
12624:S2CID
12590:arXiv
12557:S2CID
12523:arXiv
12496:S2CID
12462:arXiv
12390:arXiv
12333:arXiv
12273:arXiv
12237:S2CID
12211:arXiv
12183:S2CID
12157:arXiv
12076:S2CID
12048:arXiv
11974:S2CID
11946:arXiv
11879:arXiv
11848:S2CID
11822:arXiv
11793:arXiv
11761:arXiv
11753:MNRAS
11710:arXiv
11623:S2CID
11605:arXiv
11573:S2CID
11539:arXiv
11508:S2CID
11474:arXiv
11441:arXiv
11417:(PDF)
11406:(PDF)
11384:S2CID
11350:arXiv
11286:S2CID
11252:arXiv
11225:S2CID
11189:arXiv
11158:S2CID
11122:arXiv
11091:S2CID
11055:arXiv
11024:S2CID
10988:arXiv
10957:S2CID
10921:arXiv
10890:S2CID
10856:arXiv
10788:S2CID
10762:arXiv
10735:S2CID
10709:arXiv
10603:S2CID
10577:arXiv
10481:arXiv
10450:S2CID
10424:arXiv
10394:S2CID
10343:S2CID
10309:arXiv
10259:S2CID
10223:arXiv
10189:S2CID
10132:S2CID
10096:arXiv
10056:S2CID
10022:arXiv
9995:S2CID
9961:arXiv
9841:S2CID
9815:arXiv
9788:S2CID
9762:arXiv
9730:S2CID
9702:arXiv
9671:S2CID
9645:arXiv
9576:S2CID
9550:arXiv
9482:S2CID
9456:arXiv
9431:3 May
9404:3 May
9295:arXiv
9194:3 May
9103:arXiv
9073:S2CID
9047:arXiv
9020:S2CID
8994:arXiv
8964:S2CID
8921:S2CID
8895:arXiv
8868:S2CID
8842:arXiv
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