Krubera Cave - Knowledge

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the Kujbyshevskaja Cave and the Iljukhina System were detected in the Kholodnaja Rechka and Reprua springs, proving groundwater flow to the south-southwest across major tectonic structures over a distance of 13–16 km as the crow flies (Figure 1). The tracer from Kujbyshevskaja Cave was also detected in a borehole located between these two springs, which yields groundwater from a depth of 200 m (660 ft) below sea level. This has been interpreted as an indication of the connection of the cave with the submarine discharge. The large "Central Karst Hydrologic System", which encompasses most of the southeastern flank of the Arabika anticline, had been identified in this way. The system became the deepest in the world with its overall vertical range of about 2,500 m (8,200 ft) (measuring to the borehole water-bearing horizon) or even 2,700 m (8,900 ft) (measuring to the deepest reported submarine discharge points).

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underwater passage continues to depth under steep angle. Also in the deep parts of the Main Branch, several side passages and sumps at various depths were explored. In a side branch which previously ended at −1,775 m by the "Blue Lake" sump, a series of air-filled passages was explored behind the sump, separated by six intermediary sumps. The farthest sump, "Yantarny", was explored for 130 m in length and 19.5 m in depth and continues. The deepest point in this branch has been reached at −1,841 m. In the Nekuybyshevskaya Branch, a group led by Kyryl Markovskoy continued exploring new leads and extended the depth of this branch to −1,293 m.

725:(average discharge 2.5 m/s or 88 cu ft/s; altitude 1 m or 3 ft 3 in above sea level) and Kholodnaja Rechka (1.2 m/s or 42 cu ft/s; 50 m or 160 ft a.s.l.). Two more major springs are located in the river canyons bordering Arabika to the east: Goluboe Ozero in the Bzyb canyon (2.5 m/s or 88 cu ft/s; 90 m or 300 ft a.s.l.) and Gega waterfall in the Gega canyon (1 m/s or 35 cu ft/s; 540 m or 1,770 ft a.s.l.). There are also several smaller springs in the 818: 78: 1161:(7,020 ft). Water level measurement results of 2009–2010, collected during this expedition, showed that the water level rose up to 228 m (748 ft) above the sump "Two Captains" during June 2010. Data logging devices were installed by Irish members of the expedition near to the entrance of the cave, to log surface conditions and enable correlation of data between surface and underground locations. "Spanish Branch" exploration was completed and a limit was reached with 131 m total passage surveyed. 50: 1143:

level loggers, swap their locations and push exploration in the "Spanish branch" near camp 1400. 2008–2009 data collected from 1,710 m and 1,800 m indicated that the sump levels rose in two distinct periods: continuously from May–July 2009 and with an isolated pulse in October 2008, both sumps reaching a maximum flood depth of 12 m. New logger locations at depths of 1,800 m, 1,980 m (Kvitochka sump) and 2,140 m (Dva Kapitana's sump).

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closed feature with internal vertical relief of about 120 m (390 ft) (measured from its lowest rim) separated from the abyssal slope by the bar at a depth of about 260 m (850 ft). It has steep northern and northeastern slopes (on the side of the massif) and gentle south and southwestern slopes. Its formation is apparently karstic. Presently this depression seems to be a focus of submarine discharge of the karst systems of Arabika.

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enlarging squeezes which had previously obstructed exploration. The Ortobalagan Valley had been selected as a primary focus for the Ukrainian efforts. This approach, followed in subsequent years by other caving clubs which joined exploration activity in different parts of Arabika, resulted in the discovery of many deep caves including five caves deeper than 1,000 m.

946:. The first explorers were stopped by impassable squeezes at −95 m in a meandering passage which led off from the foot of the entrance shaft. The cave remained largely neglected over the next 20 years, although occasionally visited by cavers from various caving clubs. Before 1980 there were no caves deeper than 310 m (1,020 ft) known in Arabika. 608:. This had a pronounced effect on the development of deep groundwater circulation and of Krubera Cave in particular. Both longitudinal and transverse faults and related fracture zones play a role in guiding groundwater flow; the latter guide flow across the strike of major plicative dislocations, from the central sector toward the 776:

major spring, Goluboje Ozero in the Bzyb River canyon, although it apparently drains a large area of the eastern sector of the massif (the hypothetical "Eastern Karst Hydrological System"). It is not clear where Sarma Cave (−1,550 m) drains to, Goluboje Ozero to the southeast or Reprua to the southwest, at the shore.

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between the pits required enormous amounts of work to widen them to a passable size. The cave was pushed to −340 m during 1982–1987. Two "windows" in a vertical shaft at depths of 220–250 m were documented on the cave map but remained unexplored. During this time the cave received its second, alternative name

1102:("Two Captains") was tested by Gennadiy Samokhin to depth of 17 m, which extended the total depth of Krubera Cave to 2,158 m (7,080 ft). In the Nekuybyshevskaya Branch, a group led by Kyryl Markovskoy broke through the boulder choke at −640 m and explored a continuation to −1,004 m. 759:(1979) reported submarine springs near the eastern part of Gagra at depth of 25–30 m and Buachidze and Meliva (1967) revealed submarine discharge at depths up to −400 m by hydrochemical profiling. Recently an outstanding feature of the sea floor topography near Arabika has been revealed from a digital 993:(also spelled Yuriy Kasyan) made a major breakthrough in Krubera Cave by discovering and exploring two branches behind the windows at a depth of 220–250 m. These branches stretched in two different directions. The "Main Branch" was explored to −740 m and the "Nekuybyshevskaya Branch" to −500 m. 962:

In the Ortobalagan Valley, the Ukrainian cavers made breakthroughs in Kuybyshevskaya Cave at −160 m and pushed it to −1,110 m (−3,640 ft) by 1986 through a series of massive boulder chokes. They broke through an impassable squeeze at −120 m in Genrikhova Bezdna Cave and eventually

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landscape, with numerous glacial trough valleys and cirques, with ridges and peaks between them. The bottoms of trough valleys and karst fields lie at elevations of 2,000–2,350 m (6,560–7,710 ft), and ridges and peaks rise to 2,500–2,700 m (8,200–8,900 ft). The highest peak is the

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August: the Ukr.S.A. expedition led by Nikolay Solovyov and Alexander Klimchouk. In the Main Branch, surveyed the post-sump series, established a camp at −1,640 m, discovered a lead to a new section ("The Way to the Dream") and explored to −1,840 m. Explored the Uzhgorodskaya Series in the

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In January 2001, the Ukr.S.A. expedition explored the cave to −1,710 m (−5,610 ft) making it the deepest cave in the world. For the first time in the history of speleology, the deepest cave in the world had been established outside of western Europe. Since 2001, the Krubera explorations by

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The results of the dye-tracing tests demonstrated that groundwater flow is not subordinate to the fold structure but is largely controlled by faults that cut across the strike of major folds, and that the large part of the central sector of Arabika is hydraulically connected to the springs along the

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experiments conducted during the 1980s under the coordination of Alexander Klimchouk have radically changed previous notions of the hydrogeology of Arabika, revealed its outstanding speleological perspectives and strongly stimulated further efforts for exploration of deep caves. Tracers injected in

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map that combines depth soundings and high-resolution marine gravity data. This is a huge submarine depression in front of the Zhovekvara River mouth, which has dimensions of about 5 x 9 km and a maximum depth of about 380 m (1,250 ft). The Arabika Submarine Depression is a

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August–September: the Ukr.S.A. expedition led by Jurij Kasjan further pushed the Nekuybushevskaya Branch to a siphon at depth of 1,557 m (5,108 ft). The international "Towards the Centre of the Earth" expedition led by Aidas Gudaitis returned to the main branch to collect data from water

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August–September: the Ukr.S.A. expedition led by Jurij Kasjan. In the Main Branch, Gennadiy Samokhin dived the terminal "Dva Kapitana" Sump for a length of 140 m and depth of −46 m, which set the new depth for Krubera Cave at 2,191 m (7,188 ft). After an elbow at -35 m the

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July: the CAVEX team started their separate explorations, beyond the Ukr.S.A. project, in Krubera Cave. Continued exploring a section beyond Sump 1 at −1,410 m and reached the next sump (Sump 2 – "Blue Lake") at depth claimed to be −1,840 m. The depth of that point according to

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August: the Ukr.S.A. expedition led by Jurij Kasjan. Four underground camps established in the cave: in the Main Branch at −500, −1,200 and −1,400 m and in the Nekujbyshevskaja Branch at −500 m. Systematic inspection and probing of potential leads in the deep sections of the Main Branch;

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From 1982 onwards, the Kiev cavers started systematically working in Krubera Cave, located less than 200 metres from the Kuybyshevskaya entrance, hoping to connect with the Arabikskaya System and increase its total depth by 60 m. Exploration progressed slowly because critically tight meanders

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Major on-shore karst springs with individual average discharges of 1 to 2.5 m/s (35 to 88 cu ft/s) are located at altitudes ranging from 1 m (3.3 ft) (Reprua Spring) to 540 m (1,770 ft) (Gega waterfall). Two of them are located in the shore area; these are Reprua

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dislocation structure of the massif is severely complicated by faults, with the fault-block structure strongly controlling both cave development and groundwater flow. Major faults of the sub-Caucasian orientation delineate several large elongated blocks that experienced uplift with different rates

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structure of Arabika is dominated by the axis of the large sub-Caucasian anticline (oriented NW–SE), with the gently dipping southwestern mega-flank, complicated by several low-order folds, and steeply dipping northeastern flank (Figure 3). The axis of the anticline roughly coincides with the

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stretch, which holds the advanced position in the Arabika's central sector relative to the seashore. Since 1980, Ukrainian cavers have been undertaking systematic efforts in exploring deep caves in the Ortobalagan Valley, resulting in exploration of the Krubera Cave to its current depth and of the

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Jordana, R.; Baquero, E.; Reboleira, S.; Sendra, A. (2012), "Reviews of the genera Schaefferia Absolon, 1900, Deuteraphorura Absolon, 1901, Plutomurus Yosii, 1956 and the Anurida Laboulbène, 1865 species group without eyes, with the description of four new species of cave springtails (Collembola)

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October: the Ukr.S.A. expedition led by Jurij Kasjan. The exploration beyond the Kvitochka Sump had been cancelled due to a sudden flood. Established a camp at −1,960 m. Performed a verification survey to −1,200 m by hydrolevelling to assess the precision of the standard Ukr.S.A. survey

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began in 1980 when the Kiev Speleological Club, led by Alexander Klimchouk, started exploring caves there. They adopted an approach to cave search and exploration which included thorough investigations in a defined area and systematic testing of cave limits, through digging in boulder chokes and

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It is difficult to interpret these facts in terms of the development of karst systems controlled by contemporary sea level, or within the range of its Pleistocene fluctuations (up to −150 m). In combination with the existence of the Arabika Submarine Depression, all these facts point to the

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Another tracer was injected in the Moskovskaja Cave (−970 m) and detected at the Gegsky Vodopad spring, indicating the presence of a karst hydrologic system comprising the northeastern flank of the Arabika anticline (the "Northern System"). No connections have been revealed with yet another

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The difference in elevation of the highest cave entrance (Arbaika) and its deepest explored point is 2,199 ± 20 metres (7,215 ± 66 ft). It became the deepest-known cave in the world in 2003 when the expedition of the Ukrainian Speleological Association reached a depth of

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January: the CAVEX team expedition. Performed a dive in the terminal "Dva Kapitana" sump and claimed it to reach −30 m depth below the water table. However, characteristics of morphology of the underwater passage reported by the team were not confirmed by the subsequent exploration, and no

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at different levels (e.g., at −2,100–2,040 m (−6,890–6,690 ft) in Kujbyshevskaja and Krubera caves, −1,200–1,240 m (−3,940–4,070 ft) and −980–1,150 m (−3,220–3,770 ft) in the non-Kujbyshevskaja branch of Krubera Cave, etc.). The deep parts of Krubera display a more

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the Ukr.S.A. have been undertaken within the frame of the multi-year project named "The Call of the Abyss", coordinated by A. Klimchouk, Y. Kasyan, G. Samokhin and K. Markovskoy. Besides the Ukrainian speleologists, cavers from many countries such as France, Spain, Russia,

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Krubera Cave has an extremely steep profile and reveals a huge thickness of the vadose zone. The lower boundary of the vadose zone (the top of the phreatic zone) is at an elevation of about 110 m (360 ft) at low flow, which suggests a low overall hydraulic gradient of 0.007-0.008.

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August: During "Towards the Centre of the Earth" expedition led by Aidas Gudaitis, a Lithuanian member of Aenigma caving club Saulė Pankienė became the first woman to dive Kvitochka sump at 1,980 m, and subsequently to descend to the "Two Captains" sump at a depth of 2,140 m

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February–March: the Ukr. S.A. expedition led by Jurij Kasjan. In the Main Branch, continued exploring the "Windows" series where many side leads and several sumps were tested. A sump at −1,980 m called "Kvitochka" was passed by Nikolay Solovyov, and a continuation found behind

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groundwater is tapped by boreholes in the shore area at depths of 40–280, 500, 1,750, and 2,250 m below sea level, which suggests the existence of a deep flow system with vigorous flow. Submarine discharge along the Arabika coast is reported at depths up to ~400 m b.s.l.

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separates Arabika from the adjacent Bzybsky Massif, another outstanding karst area with many deep caves, including the Snezhnaja-Mezhonogo-Iljuzia System (−1,753 m or −5,751 ft) and Pantjukhina Cave (−1,508 m or −4,948 ft). To the southwest, Arabika borders the

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during 1992–94 resulted in instability and border problems which continued over subsequent years. This suspended speleological explorations in Arabika. Some stabilization of the situation in 1998 has since enabled a renewal of exploration effort to take place in the region.

926:, who published several works about the massif. In 1909–10 Russian karst scientist Alexander Kruber, a founder of the study in Russia, performed some field studies in Arabika. He published his observations in a series of Arabika-specific papers and several 588:

ridge bordering the Gelgeluk Valley to the north. Located on the southwestern flank of the major anticline is another large one (Berchil'sky), in which the crest is breached by the Ortobalagan Valley. There are several smaller sub-parallel anticlines and

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Peak of Speleologists (2,705 m (8,875 ft)) but the dominant summit is a typical pyramidal horn of the Arabika Mount (2,695 m (8,842 ft)). Some middle- to low-altitude ridges covered with forest lie between the central sector and the

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October: the Ukr.S.A. expedition led by Jurij Kasjan. In the Main Branch, discovered a lead into a new section beyond the Big Junction at −1,790 m. Explored this section named "Windows" to a blind chamber called "Game Over" at −2,080 m.

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August: the expedition of the Kiev Speleological Club and the CAVEX team. Tested and passed a sump at −1,440 m (now known as Sump 1), explored the post-sump section to roughly −1,660 m, continued climbing in the Lamprechtsofen

522:. The Porphyritic series forms the non-karstic basement of Arabika, which is exposed only on the northern and eastern outskirts, locally in the bottoms of the Kutushara and Gega River valleys. In the central part of Arabika the 324: 1132:

Aidas Gudaitis (Aenigma), descended the main branch as far as −1,800 m (−5,906 ft), placing water level loggers at siphons here and in the "Chamber of Soviet Speleologists" at −1,710 m (−5,610 ft).

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September: the Ukr.S.A. expedition led by Jurij Kasjan. Explored the Nekuybyshevskaya Branch to depth of 1,390 m (4,560 ft). An international scientific expedition "Towards the Centre of the Earth", led by

930:. During the subsequent 50 years no special studies were undertaken of the karst and caves in the region, although the karst of Arabika was referred to in many works dealing with regional geology and hydrogeology. 315:

to 46 metres' depth in 2007 and then to 52 m in 2012, setting successive world records of 2,191 m and 2,197 m, respectively. Krubera is one of the two known caves on Earth deeper than 2,000 metres.

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August: the Ukr. S.A. expedition led by Nikolay Solovyov. Continued digging and broke through the boulder choke at −500 m in the Nekuybyshevskaya Branch, explored it to the next boulder choke at −640 m.

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and Ukrainian cavers is Berchilskaya Cave, 770 m (2,530 ft) deep. All large caves of the Ortobalagan Valley likely belong to a single hydrological system, connected to large submarine springs at the

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morphology, characteristic of the zone of high-gradient floods, which can be up to 400 m above the low-flow water table, and vadose downcutting elements that are observed even below the water table.

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July–August: The CAVEX Team Summer expedition led by Konstantin Mujin performed the first biospeleological studies in the Krubera-Voronya cave. The biospeleological studies led by the cave biologists

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yield karstic groundwater from depths of 40–280 m below sea level. Other much deeper boreholes tapped low-salinity karstic waters at depths of 500 and 1,750 m in the Khashupse Valley near

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began exploring caves in the high sector of the massif. Among several other caves, they made the first exploration of an open-mouthed 60 m shaft in the Ortobalagan Valley and named it after

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succession of thick-bedded limestones with marly and sandy varieties. Sandy limestones are particularly abundant through the upper 1,000 m sections of deep caves of the Ortobalagan Valley.

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and sandstones) is retained only in a few ridges and peaks, but it lies intact through the low-altitude ridges to the south-west of the central part. There the Cretaceous succession includes

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To the question of groundwater discharge into the Black Sea in the Gagra area. Trudy laboratorii gidrogeologii I inzhenernoy geologii Gruzinskogo politechnicheskogo instituta, 3, 33–39.

307:, the Ukrainian Speleological Association expedition reached a depth greater than 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), and explored the cave to −2,080 m (−6,824 ft). Ukrainian diver 458:, which gently plunges northwest. The cave entrances are aligned along the anticlinal crest (Figure 2) but the caves are controlled by longitudinal, transverse, and oblique 1950:

Distribution of temperature in karst systems: data from deep caves of the Arabika Massif. Geologichny Zhurnal (Geological Journal), 1, 108–115, Kyiv (Ukraine) (in Russian).

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August: A team of 59 spent 27 days exploring Krubera. Including members from nine different countries, the team set up a series of camps underground. Ukrainian cave diver

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by 5 UN member states (two other states previously recognised it but then withdrew their recognition), while the remainder of the international community recognizes it as

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The deepest cave in the word Krubera and its hydrogeological and paleogeographic significance. Speleology and Karstology, 1, 100–104. Simferopol (Ukraine) (in Russian).

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In a search for the route to 2000 meters depth: The deepest cave in the World in the Arabika massif, Western Caucasus. Nat. Speleol. Soc. News (USA), 59 (9). 252–257.

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caught by Gennady Samokhin in August 2013, during dives in the siphon 'Dva Kapitana', dwells at the deepest part of the Krubera Cave (at the depth of −2,175 metres).

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The Arabika Massif has a prominent high central sector with elevations above the tree line at ~1,800–1,900 m (5,900–6,200 ft). This is an area of classical

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Maruashvili, L. I.; Tintilozov, Z. K.; Changashvili, G. Z. (1961), "The results of speleological explorations carried out in 1960 on the Arabika limestone massif",

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On impact of the late Quaternary glaciations on the karst development of the Arabika massif (Caucasus). Izvestia VGO (Leningrad), 116 (2), 165¬–170 (in Russian).

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and exhibit complex winding patterns in the plan view, remaining largely within and near the anticlinal crest zone. The caves are predominantly combinations of

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The results of the recent speleological explorations in the karstic belt of the Western Georgia in 1957–1960. Zemlevedenie (Moscow), nov. ser. VI (in Russian).

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Krubera (Voronja) Cave, Georgia. In: Gunn, J. (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Cave and Karst Science. New York - London: Fitzroy Dearborn – Taylor and Francis Books.

905: 900: 451: 414:. A plateau-like middle-altitude outlier of the massif in its south sector is Mamzdyshkha, with part of the plateau slightly emerging above the tree line. 2020: 996:

In 2000, the Main Branch was quickly pushed by the multi-stage expedition of the Ukr. S.A. in August to −1,200 m and in September to −1,410 m.

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July: the CAVEX team expedition. Explored the section beyond the Kvitochka Sump to a further sump called Dva Kapitana ("Two Captains") at −2,140 m.

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Maruashvili, L. I.; Tintilozov, Z. K., "The results of the recent speleological explorations in the karstic belt of the Western Georgia in 1957–1960",

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Karst circulation systems of the Arabika massif. Peschery (Caves), inter-university scientific transactions, Perm: Perm University, 6–16 (in Russian)

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Krubera Cave is located at 2,256 m above sea level in the Ortobalagan Valley, a perfectly shaped, relatively shallow, glacial trough of the sub-

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To the northwest, north, northeast, and east, Arabika is bordered by the deeply incised canyons of Sandripsh, Kutushara, Gega and Bzyb rivers. The

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The cave has six entrances, in the gallery below they are arranged by altitude, highest to lowest, after the main one. All are situated above the

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The results of speleological explorations carried out in 1960 on the Arabika limestone massif. Izvestia AN GSSR (Tbilisi), XXVI (5) (in Russian).

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Karst and ancient glaciation in Arabika. Abstracts of papers of the second scientific session of speleologists. Tbilisi: AN GSSR (in Russian).

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Among several hundred caves known in the Arabika Massif, fifteen have been explored deeper than 400 m and five deeper than 1,000 m.

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The world's deepest subterranean community - Krubera-Voronja Cave (Western Caucasus). International Journal of Speleology, 41 (2): 221–230.

1577:"Kruberia abchasica, a new genus and species of troglobiont amphipods (Crustacea: Gammaridae) from Krubera Cave (Western Transcaucasia)" 77: 1304:

Dubliansky VN, Klimchuk AB, Kiselev VE, Vakhrushev BA, Kovalev YN, Melnikov VP, Ryzhkov AF, Tintilozov ZK, Chuykov VD, Churubrova ML.

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and 2,250 m near Gagra. This suggests the existence of a deep karst system and vigorous karst groundwater circulation at depth.

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Sendra, A.; Reboleira, A. S. P. S. (2012), "The world's deepest subterranean community – Krubera–Voronja Cave (Western Caucasus)",

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The deepest cave in the world in the Arabika Massif and the evolution of the Black Sea. Svet (Light), 2 (31), 33–36 (in Russian).

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Sendra, A.; Reboleira, A.S.P.S. (2012), "The world's deepest subterranean community – Krubera-Voronja Cave (Western Caucasus)",

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upper part of Krubera by climbing an 80 m high shaft in the Meander Krym. Continued working in the Nekuybyshevskaya Branch.

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The major events in the exploration of Krubera Cave in subsequent years were as follows (see Figure 4 for spot locations):

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surrounding caves, now mostly connected to it. Another deep cave in the valley, located in its very upper part and explored by

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Krubera: il piu profondo abisso del mondo (Alla ricerca del −2000 metri nel massiccio di Arabika). La Rivista del CAI, 71–75.

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Buachidze, I. M.; Meliva, A. M. (1967), "To the question of groundwater discharge into the Black Sea in the Gagra area",

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From observations of karst in the vicinity of Gagra and Karabi-Yuajla. Zemlevedenie (Moscow), 19 (1–2) (in Russian).

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Klimchouk, A. B. (2006), "The deepest cave in the world in the Arabika Massif and the evolution of the Black Sea",

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August–September: the Ukr.S.A. expedition coordinated by Jurij Kasjan. In the Main Branch the terminal sump called

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connected it to Kuybyshevskaya at −956 m in 1987. The resultant system has been named the Arabikskaya System.

733:, one of the shortest rivers in the world, about 60 feet (18 m) long, starts in the cave and flows toward the 2045: 1242: 1832: 1763: 1190: 1712:

Maruashvili, L. I.; Tintilozov, Z. K.; Changashvili, G. Z. (1962), "Karst and ancient glaciation in Arabika",

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in front of the massif. Shallow springs at depths of 5–7 m can be reached by free dive near Gantiadi.

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International Journal of Speleology - The world’s deepest subterranean community - Krubera-Voronja Cave

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climbing in the Lamprechtsofen tributary; digging in the boulder choke in the Nekuybyshevskaya Branch.

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group). Continued climbing in the Lamprechtsofen tributary to +210 m relative to the junction.

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Geology, Hydrogeology and activity of limestone karst. Metzniereba, Tbilisi, 232 p. (in Russian).

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Georgian territory. Georgia continues to claim the area as its own territory, designating it as

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The core part of the Arabika Massif is composed of the Upper Jurassic succession resting on the

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Kruber, A. A. (1912), "From observations of karst in the vicinity of Gagra and Karabi-Yuajla",

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Trudy Laboratorii Gidrogeologii I Inzhenernoy Geologii Gruzinskogo Politechnicheskogo Instituta

1308:[Descriptions of caves of the Arabika massif - 63.Arabikskaja cave system] (in Russian) 1062:

The depth mark of 2,000 m had been passed for the first time in the history of speleology.

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Blind Descent. The Quest to Discover the Deepest Place on Earth. New York: Random House, 2010.

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The political status of Abkhazia is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence from

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Map of the Arabika Massif, showing the location of Krubera Cave and its projected resurgences

1822:"Report of the Irish Members of the International Expedition to Krubera–Voronya Cave 2010" 295:

1,910 m (6,270 ft) which exceeded the depth of the previous deepest-known cave,

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species, including four springtails discovered during the CAVEX Team expedition of 2010:

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was responsible for reaching a new world depth record of −2,199 metres (−7,215 ft).

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Soviet speleologists who explored the cave in the 1960s named it for Russian geographer

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In 1999, the expedition of the Ukrainian Speleological Associations (Ukr. S.A.) led by

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possibility that karst systems in Arabika could have originated in response to the

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La Côte d’Azur Russe (Riviera du Caucase). Ch. XVI: La massif de l'Arabika, Paris.

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At the beginning of the 20th century, Arabika was visited by French speleologist

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shafts and steep meandering passages, although in places they cut apparently old

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Karabi-Yuajla and the Arabika massif. Zemlevedenie (Moscow), 18(3) (in Russian).

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Submarine springs are known in the Arabika area, emerging from the floor of the

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and Alberto Sendra, provided the deepest subterranean arthropods of the Earth.

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Klimchouk, A. B. (1990), "Karst circulation systems of the Arabika massif",

303:, by 80 metres (260 ft). In 2006, for the first time in the history of 2021:

Krubera Cave: The First 2000m+ Deep Cave on Earth; Chronicle of Exploration

990: 973:(Crows') Cave, owing to the number of crows nesting in the entrance shaft. 730: 562: 344:

speleologists during the 1980s, for the crows nesting in the entrance pit.

893:, living 1,980 metres (6,500 ft) below the cave entrance. The beetle 809:, where the dramatic sea level drop of ~1,500 m is well established. 364:, the home of Krubera (Voronya) Cave, is one of the largest high-mountain 829:

The biocenosis of Krubera-Voronja is composed of more than 12 species of

768: 605: 531: 527: 487: 406: 312: 276: 352: 1896:

Karst of the Arabika massif. Metzniereba, Tbilisi, 245 p. (in Russian).

1561: 1200: 850: 846: 802: 760: 551: 547: 523: 394: 304: 1926:

Le grotte del massiccio di Arabika. La Rivista del CAI, 112(1), 37–47.

1360:"The deepest cave in the world (Krubera Cave) became 6 m deeper" 1009: 927: 842: 830: 798: 752: 741: 734: 621: 609: 577: 539: 507: 495: 491: 455: 431: 411: 399: 387: 365: 193: 1990:

Maruashvili, L. I., Tintilozov, Z. K., and Changashvili, G. Z. 1962.

1984:

Maruashvili, L. I., Tintilozov, Z. K., and Changashvili, G. Z. 1961.

889:; the last of these is the deepest terrestrial animal ever found on 1005: 982: 858: 745: 601: 589: 584: 484: 476: 421: 110: 1714:

Abstracts of Papers of the 2nd Scientific Session of Speleologists

1329:. Ukrainian Institute of Speleology and Karstology. Archived from 287:

of Abkhazia, a partly recognised state, previously part of Soviet

1819: 1711: 1692: 1306:"Описания пещер массива Арабика - 63.Пещерная система Арабикская" 1237: 1001: 862: 511: 426: 1267:"Deepest Cave, Call of the Abyss - National Geographic Magazine" 899:

inhabits Krubera-Voronja cave and also several caves around the

1968:

The voyage to Arabika. Estestvoznanie i geografia (in Russian).

1303: 854: 838: 543: 467: 371: 1640:

Kruber, A. A. (1911), "Karabi-Yuajla and the Arabika massif",

1537: 890: 726: 592:

farther southwest, between the Berchil' Ridge and the coast.

569: 555: 368: 1820:

Macnamara, S.; Tobin, N.; Mullan, E.; O'Connell, T. (2011).

1753:"Krubera–Voronja Cave: International Expedition August 2009" 573: 535: 519: 503: 341: 1391:

Peschery (Caves), Inter-university Scientific Transactions

1746: 1744: 1742: 1406:"Entrances of 4 More Caves, Connected to Krubera-Voronja" 1012:

have taken part in different expeditions of the Ukr.S.A.

1954:

Klimchouk, A.B., Samokhin, G.V., and Kasjan Yu.M. 2008.

1424: 1422: 267:) is the second-deepest-known cave on Earth, after the 1739: 1539:

from Krubera-Voronya cave, Arabika Massif, Abkhazia",

561:

The Upper Jurassic succession begins with thin-bedded

336:. The alternate name "Voronya Cave", "Crows' Cave" in 1459:

Geology, Hydrogeology and activity of limestone karst

1419: 2002:

Sendra, Alberto and Ana Sofia P.S. Reboleira. 2012.

84: 56: 19:"Krubera" redirects here. For flowering plant, see 805:) could have almost dried up, as did the adjacent 1865:(in Russian). Ukrainian Speleological Association 1730: 1484: 1482: 446:Outline of Voronja, Arbaika and Berčilskaja caves 2052: 1750: 1052:the subsequent Ukr.S.A. survey is −1,775 m. 938:In the early 1960s, Georgian geographers led by 1996:Maruashvili, L. I., and Tintilozov, Z. K. 1963. 1791: 1659:Kruber, A. A. (1912), "The voyage to Arabika", 1574: 1507: 1461:(in Russian), Metzniereba, Tbilisi, p. 232 1428: 767:The speleological explorations and a series of 2046:New Species Discovered in World's Deepest Cave 1479: 1233:is formally recognised as an independent state 780:seashore and with submarine discharge points. 740:Some boreholes located along the shore of the 550:limestones and marly limestones with abundant 236: 968: 2026:History of Exploration in the Arabica Massif 1113:safety line was found deeper than 16 m. 475:pervasive conduit pattern with a mixture of 311:extended the cave by diving in the terminal 1575:Sidorov, Dmitry; Samokhin, Gennady (2016). 454:extends along the crest of the Berchil'sky 374:in the Western Caucasus. It is composed of 1625:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1471:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 347: 249:k'ruberis gamokvabuli or k'ruberis ghrmuli 1805: 1613:La Cote d'Azur Russe (Riviera du Caucase) 1592: 1560: 1523: 1488: 1388: 1357: 912: 1854: 1456: 1327:"3D model of the Krubera (Voronja) Cave" 1223: 1221: 954:The new era in cave explorations in the 816: 441: 351: 323: 1888:Buachidze, I.M., and Meliva, A.M. 1967. 1611:(1909), "XVI: La massif de l'Arabika", 1403: 1358:Klimchouk, Alexander (13 August 2012). 903:. The subterranean amphipod crustacean 861:. Krubera-Voronja cave is inhabited by 390:and plunge below the modern sea level. 238:კრუბერის გამოქვაბული or კრუბერის ღრმული 2053: 1863:"Call of the Abyss 2012. Photo Report" 1860: 1673: 1658: 1639: 1607: 1299: 1297: 1295: 1008:, United Kingdom, Ireland, Israel and 1948:Klimchouk A.B. and Kasjan Yu.M. 2006. 1218: 981:The political and ethnic conflict in 1353: 1351: 976: 917: 1942:Klimchouk, A. and Kasjan, Yu. 2004. 1936:Klimchouk, A. and Kasjan, Yu. 2001. 1813: 1794:International Journal of Speleology 1785: 1751:Furnell, T.; Macnamara, S. (2010). 1724: 1705: 1686: 1667: 1652: 1633: 1511:International Journal of Speleology 1397: 1393:(in Russian), Perm University: 6–16 1292: 13: 1735:(in Russian), nov. ser. VI, Moscow 1601: 1568: 1531: 1501: 1450: 572:limestones, marls, sandstones and 340:, was a name given to the cave by 14: 2087: 2014: 1441: 1382: 1348: 1319: 1259: 615: 704: 689: 674: 659: 644: 629: 83: 76: 55: 48: 1881: 1015: 719: 1833:Speleological Union of Ireland 1764:Speleological Union of Ireland 386:continuously southwest to the 248: 169:16.058 km (9.978 mi) 1: 2036:BBC coverage of the discovery 1541:Terrestrial Arthropod Reviews 1252: 797:(5.96–5.33 Ma) when the 2031:The 3D model of Krubera Cave 1271:National Geographic Magazine 177:2,256 m (7,402 ft) 161:2,199 m (7,215 ft) 7: 1179: 886:Plutomurus ortobalaganensis 874:Deuteraphorura kruberaensis 833:of several groups, such as 823:Plutomurus ortobalaganensis 10: 2092: 1661:Estestvoznanie I Geografia 1243:Russian-occupied territory 1086:Russian Geographic Society 812: 437: 25: 18: 880:Schaefferia profundissima 795:Messinian salinity crisis 319: 256: 237: 222: 207: 199: 189: 181: 173: 165: 157: 120: 106: 42: 35: 16:Cave in Abkhazia, Georgia 1807:10.5038/1827-806x.41.2.9 1594:10.15298/arthsel.25.4.04 1553:10.1163/187498312x622430 1525:10.5038/1827-806x.41.2.9 1457:Kiknadze, T. Z. (1979), 1404:Jakopin, Primož (2019). 1211: 949: 933: 94:(Voronya Cave) (Georgia) 26:Not to be confused with 1165: 1147: 1136: 1121: 1106: 1092: 1067: 1045: 1034: 1023: 490:Series, which includes 348:Location and background 271:. It is located in the 1912:Klimchouk, A. B. 1990. 1906:Klimchouk, A. B. 1984. 1861:Kasjan, Jurij (2012). 1547:, Netherlands: 35–85, 969: 913:History of exploration 826: 447: 357: 329: 1930:Klimchouk, A.B. 2004. 1918:Klimchouk, A.B. 2006. 1894:Kiknadze, T. Z. 1972. 1720:(5), Tbilisi: AN GSSR 1206:List of deepest caves 1186:Geography of Abkhazia 924:Édouard-Alfred Martel 868:Anurida stereoodorata 820: 445: 355: 327: 142:43.40972°N 40.36222°E 1972:Kruber, A. A. 1912b. 1966:Kruber, A. A. 1912a. 1900:Kiknadze, T.Z. 1979. 1280:on December 14, 2007 1191:Geography of Georgia 510:, conglomerates and 263:, sometimes spelled 67:Show map of Abkhazia 1978:Martel, E. A. 1909. 1960:Kruber, A. A. 1911. 1924:Klimchouk, A. 1991. 1842:on 23 November 2017 1800:(2), USA: 221–230, 1773:on 23 November 2017 1518:(2), USA: 221–230, 1447:Meliva et al., 1969 1155:Ana Sofia Reboleira 138: / 97:Show map of Georgia 1581:Arthropoda Selecta 1364:speleogenesis.info 1231:in 1992, Abkhazia 906:Kruberia abchasica 901:Ortobalagan Valley 827: 452:Ortobalagan Valley 448: 358: 330: 147:43.40972; 40.36222 2061:Caves of Abkhazia 1100:Dva Kapitana 977:1990s–early 2000s 940:Levan Maruashvili 918:Early exploration 309:Gennadiy Samokhin 226: 225: 21:Krubera peregrina 2083: 1875: 1874: 1872: 1870: 1858: 1852: 1851: 1849: 1847: 1841: 1835:. Archived from 1829:Irish Speleology 1826: 1817: 1811: 1810: 1809: 1789: 1783: 1782: 1780: 1778: 1772: 1766:. Archived from 1760:Irish Speleology 1757: 1748: 1737: 1736: 1728: 1722: 1721: 1709: 1703: 1702: 1695:Izvestia AN GSSR 1690: 1684: 1683: 1671: 1665: 1664: 1656: 1650: 1649: 1637: 1631: 1630: 1624: 1616: 1605: 1599: 1598: 1596: 1572: 1566: 1565: 1564: 1535: 1529: 1528: 1527: 1505: 1499: 1498: 1486: 1477: 1476: 1470: 1462: 1454: 1448: 1445: 1439: 1438: 1426: 1417: 1416: 1414: 1412: 1401: 1395: 1394: 1386: 1380: 1379: 1377: 1375: 1366:. Archived from 1355: 1346: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1336:on 29 March 2022 1335: 1323: 1317: 1316: 1314: 1313: 1301: 1290: 1289: 1287: 1285: 1279: 1273:. Archived from 1263: 1246: 1225: 1173:Gennady Samokhin 972: 944:Alexander Kruber 712:Genrihova bezdna 708: 693: 678: 663: 648: 633: 502:at the top, and 382:limestones that 376:Lower Cretaceous 334:Alexander Kruber 328:Alexander Kruber 281:Western Caucasus 259:; also known as 258: 250: 247: 240: 239: 153: 152: 150: 149: 148: 143: 139: 136: 135: 134: 131: 98: 87: 86: 80: 68: 59: 58: 52: 33: 32: 2091: 2090: 2086: 2085: 2084: 2082: 2081: 2080: 2066:Limestone caves 2051: 2050: 2017: 2008:Tabor, James M. 1884: 1879: 1878: 1868: 1866: 1859: 1855: 1845: 1843: 1839: 1824: 1818: 1814: 1790: 1786: 1776: 1774: 1770: 1755: 1749: 1740: 1729: 1725: 1710: 1706: 1691: 1687: 1672: 1668: 1657: 1653: 1638: 1634: 1618: 1617: 1606: 1602: 1573: 1569: 1536: 1532: 1506: 1502: 1487: 1480: 1464: 1463: 1455: 1451: 1446: 1442: 1427: 1420: 1410: 1408: 1402: 1398: 1387: 1383: 1373: 1371: 1370:on 10 July 2018 1356: 1349: 1339: 1337: 1333: 1325: 1324: 1320: 1311: 1309: 1302: 1293: 1283: 1281: 1277: 1265: 1264: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1249: 1226: 1219: 1214: 1182: 1168: 1150: 1139: 1124: 1109: 1095: 1070: 1048: 1037: 1026: 1018: 979: 952: 936: 920: 915: 835:pseudoscorpions 815: 722: 715: 709: 700: 694: 685: 679: 670: 664: 655: 649: 640: 634: 618: 472:fossil passages 440: 350: 322: 269:Veryovkina Cave 242: 146: 144: 140: 137: 132: 129: 127: 125: 124: 102: 101: 100: 99: 96: 95: 93: 90: 89: 88: 71: 70: 69: 66: 65: 62: 61: 60: 37: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2089: 2079: 2078: 2076:Gagra District 2073: 2068: 2063: 2049: 2048: 2043: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2023: 2016: 2015:External links 2013: 2012: 2011: 2005: 1999: 1993: 1987: 1981: 1975: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1951: 1945: 1939: 1933: 1927: 1921: 1915: 1909: 1903: 1897: 1891: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1876: 1853: 1812: 1784: 1738: 1723: 1716:(in Russian), 1704: 1697:(in Russian), 1685: 1678:(in Russian), 1666: 1651: 1644:(in Russian), 1632: 1600: 1567: 1530: 1500: 1493:(in Russian), 1478: 1449: 1440: 1418: 1396: 1381: 1347: 1318: 1291: 1257: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1248: 1247: 1216: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1181: 1178: 1177: 1176: 1167: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1158: 1149: 1146: 1145: 1144: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1133: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1118: 1114: 1108: 1105: 1104: 1103: 1094: 1091: 1090: 1089: 1081: 1078: 1075: 1069: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1057: 1053: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1042: 1036: 1033: 1032: 1031: 1025: 1022: 1017: 1014: 978: 975: 956:Arabika Massif 951: 948: 935: 932: 919: 916: 914: 911: 896:Catops cavicis 814: 811: 757:Tamaz Kiknadze 721: 718: 717: 716: 710: 703: 701: 695: 688: 686: 680: 673: 671: 665: 658: 656: 650: 643: 641: 635: 628: 617: 616:Cave entrances 614: 439: 436: 380:Upper Jurassic 362:Arabika Massif 349: 346: 321: 318: 297:Lamprechtsofen 285:Gagra District 273:Arabika Massif 224: 223: 220: 219: 209: 205: 204: 201: 197: 196: 191: 187: 186: 183: 179: 178: 175: 171: 170: 167: 163: 162: 159: 155: 154: 122: 118: 117: 108: 104: 103: 91: 82: 81: 75: 74: 73: 72: 63: 54: 53: 47: 46: 45: 44: 43: 40: 39: 38:(Voronya Cave) 28:Vorontsov Cave 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2088: 2077: 2074: 2072: 2069: 2067: 2064: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2056: 2047: 2044: 2042: 2039: 2037: 2034: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2024: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2009: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1955: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1916: 1913: 1910: 1907: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1885: 1864: 1857: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1823: 1816: 1808: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1788: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1754: 1747: 1745: 1743: 1734: 1727: 1719: 1715: 1708: 1700: 1696: 1689: 1682:(1–2), Moscow 1681: 1677: 1670: 1662: 1655: 1647: 1643: 1636: 1628: 1622: 1614: 1610: 1609:Martel, E. A. 1604: 1595: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1571: 1563: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1534: 1526: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1512: 1504: 1496: 1492: 1485: 1483: 1474: 1468: 1460: 1453: 1444: 1436: 1432: 1425: 1423: 1407: 1400: 1392: 1385: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1354: 1352: 1332: 1328: 1322: 1307: 1300: 1298: 1296: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1262: 1258: 1244: 1240: 1239: 1234: 1230: 1224: 1222: 1217: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1196:List of caves 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1183: 1174: 1170: 1169: 1159: 1156: 1152: 1151: 1141: 1140: 1131: 1126: 1125: 1115: 1111: 1110: 1101: 1097: 1096: 1087: 1082: 1079: 1076: 1072: 1071: 1063: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1049: 1039: 1038: 1028: 1027: 1021: 1013: 1011: 1007: 1003: 997: 994: 992: 987: 984: 974: 971: 964: 960: 957: 947: 945: 941: 931: 929: 925: 910: 908: 907: 902: 898: 897: 892: 888: 887: 882: 881: 876: 875: 870: 869: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 825: 824: 819: 810: 808: 807:Mediterranean 804: 800: 796: 790: 787: 781: 777: 773: 770: 765: 762: 758: 754: 749: 747: 743: 738: 736: 732: 728: 713: 707: 702: 698: 692: 687: 683: 682:Kujbyševskaja 677: 672: 668: 662: 657: 653: 647: 642: 638: 632: 627: 626: 625: 623: 613: 611: 607: 603: 598: 593: 591: 586: 581: 579: 575: 571: 568: 564: 559: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 506:, tuffaceous 505: 501: 500:conglomerates 497: 493: 489: 486: 481: 478: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 444: 435: 433: 428: 423: 418: 415: 413: 408: 407:glaciokarstic 403: 401: 396: 391: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 370: 367: 363: 354: 345: 343: 339: 335: 326: 317: 314: 310: 306: 302: 301:Austrian Alps 298: 292: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 254: 245: 234: 230: 221: 217: 213: 210: 206: 202: 198: 195: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 151: 123: 119: 116: 112: 109: 105: 79: 51: 41: 34: 29: 22: 2007: 2001: 1995: 1989: 1983: 1977: 1971: 1965: 1959: 1953: 1947: 1941: 1935: 1929: 1923: 1917: 1911: 1905: 1899: 1893: 1887: 1882:Bibliography 1867:. 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Retrieved 1275:the original 1270: 1261: 1236: 1099: 1061: 1019: 1016:2001 onwards 998: 995: 991:Jurij Kasjan 988: 980: 965: 961: 953: 937: 921: 904: 894: 884: 878: 872: 866: 828: 821: 791: 782: 778: 774: 766: 750: 739: 731:Reprua River 723: 720:Hydrogeology 711: 696: 681: 666: 651: 636: 619: 594: 582: 563:Kimmeridgian 560: 534:limestones, 482: 449: 419: 416: 404: 392: 359: 331: 293: 265:Voronja Cave 264: 261:Voronya Cave 260: 229:Krubera Cave 228: 227: 211: 92:Krubera Cave 36:Krubera Cave 1648:(3), Moscow 1587:: 373–379. 1562:10171/27607 1497:(31): 33–36 851:springtails 847:crustaceans 769:dye tracing 761:bathymetric 606:Pleistocene 552:concretions 532:Hauterivian 528:Valanginian 488:Porphyritic 277:Gagra Range 212:Crows' Cave 208:Translation 145: / 121:Coordinates 2071:Wild caves 2055:Categories 1312:2020-01-12 1284:23 October 1253:References 1201:Speleology 1130:Lithuanian 1041:tributary. 928:monographs 831:arthropods 803:Paratethys 729:town. The 548:Cenomanian 524:Cretaceous 508:sandstones 492:sandstones 395:Bzyb River 305:speleology 133:40°21′44″E 130:43°24′35″N 1374:10 August 1010:Lithuania 859:dipterans 843:opiliones 801:(Eastern 799:Black Sea 753:Black Sea 742:Black Sea 735:Black Sea 622:tree line 610:Black Sea 597:plicative 590:synclines 578:Tithonian 567:Oxfordian 554:of black 540:Barremian 460:fractures 456:anticline 432:Black Sea 427:Moldavian 422:Caucasian 412:Black Sea 400:Black Sea 388:Black Sea 366:limestone 299:, in the 283:, in the 257:Ӡоу Аҳаҧы 244:romanized 200:Entrances 194:Limestone 182:Discovery 174:Elevation 1621:citation 1467:citation 1180:See also 1006:Bulgaria 983:Abkhazia 746:Gantiadi 714:, 2110 m 699:, 2140 m 697:Detskaja 684:, 2180 m 669:, 2206 m 654:, 2259 m 639:, 2256 m 602:Pliocene 585:tectonic 516:porphyry 485:Bajocian 477:phreatic 233:Georgian 111:Abkhazia 107:Location 64:Location 1869:5 April 1615:, Paris 1437:: 33–39 1340:4 April 1238:de jure 1229:Georgia 1002:Moldova 970:Voronja 863:endemic 855:beetles 839:spiders 813:Biology 652:Arbaika 637:Voronja 600:during 526:cover ( 512:breccia 438:Geology 434:shore. 372:massifs 338:Russian 289:Georgia 279:of the 275:of the 216:Russian 190:Geology 115:Georgia 1846:28 May 1777:28 May 1334:(VRML) 1278:(VRML) 883:, and 667:Gnomov 570:cherty 544:Aptian 468:vadose 464:faults 320:Naming 253:Abkhaz 235:: 214: ( 166:Length 1840:(PDF) 1825:(PDF) 1771:(PDF) 1756:(PDF) 1212:Notes 1084:(the 950:1980s 934:1960s 891:Earth 727:Gagra 574:clays 556:chert 536:marls 496:clays 369:karst 158:Depth 1871:2019 1848:2012 1779:2012 1718:XXVI 1699:XXVI 1627:link 1473:link 1413:2022 1376:2013 1342:2009 1286:2013 1166:2012 1148:2010 1137:2009 1122:2008 1107:2007 1093:2006 1068:2005 1046:2004 1035:2003 1024:2001 857:and 784:Low- 604:and 595:The 583:The 542:and 530:and 520:lava 518:and 504:tuff 498:and 462:and 450:The 378:and 360:The 342:Kyiv 313:sump 185:1960 1802:doi 1589:doi 1557:hdl 1549:doi 1520:doi 1074:it. 786:TDS 384:dip 2057:: 1831:. 1827:. 1798:42 1796:, 1762:. 1758:. 1741:^ 1680:19 1646:18 1623:}} 1619:{{ 1585:25 1583:. 1579:. 1555:, 1543:, 1516:42 1514:, 1481:^ 1469:}} 1465:{{ 1433:, 1421:^ 1362:. 1350:^ 1294:^ 1269:. 1245:. 1220:^ 1004:, 877:, 871:, 853:, 849:, 845:, 841:, 837:, 737:. 624:. 612:. 558:. 514:, 494:, 402:. 291:. 255:: 251:, 241:, 113:, 1873:. 1850:. 1804:: 1781:. 1629:) 1597:. 1591:: 1559:: 1551:: 1545:5 1522:: 1495:2 1475:) 1435:3 1415:. 1378:. 1344:. 1315:. 1288:. 565:– 546:– 246:: 231:( 218:) 203:6 30:. 23:.

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