439:, Richard Leo wrote: "Even though psychological coercion is the primary cause of police-induced false confessions, individuals differ in their ability to withstand interrogation pressure and thus in their susceptibility to making false confessions. All other things being equal, those who are highly suggestible or compliant are more likely to confess falsely. Individuals who are highly suggestible tend to have poor memories, high levels of anxiety, low self-esteem, and low assertiveness, personality factors that also make them more vulnerable to the pressures of interrogation and thus more likely to confess falsely. Interrogative suggestibility tends to be heightened by sleep deprivation, fatigue, and drug or alcohol withdrawal. Individuals who are highly compliant tend to be conflict avoidant, acquiescent, and eager to please others, especially authority figures." In particular, this tends to apply to individuals who are intellectually impaired or suffer from mental health issues.
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convicted of rape and sentenced to 8œ years in prison. Three other men, Geoffrey A. Farris, John E. Danser and
Richard D. Pauley Jr., were also initially indicted with the crime through accusations by others, but their charges were later dropped before trial as Tice would not testify against them. The supporters of the Norfolk Four have offered evidence that purports to prove that the four men are innocent, with no known involvement or connections to the incident. No physical evidence supported their cases. Tice's conviction was overturned, and Williams and Dick received governmental pardons, clearing their names. The four received a settlement from the city of Norfolk and state in 2018.
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American, or
African American male suspect regarding his whereabouts at a given time and date. All interrogations were taped in an equal-focus perspective. Voluntariness judgments varied as a function of the race of the suspect. More participants viewing the Chinese American suspect and the African American suspect versions of the interrogation judged the suspect's statements to be voluntary than did those viewing the Caucasian suspect version. Both the African American suspect and the Chinese American suspect were judged to have a higher likelihood of guilt than the Caucasian suspect. Racial salience bias in videotaped interrogations is a genuine phenomenon that has been proven through
419:
confronting the suspect with a statement that it is known that they committed the crime. This would usually involve frequent interruptions when the suspect tried to speak. Researchers have found that police interrogators only allowed people to speak for an average of 5.8 seconds before they interrupted. Often, the police lie and describe non-existent evidence that points to the suspect as the offender. In the second step, the police present a hypothesis about why the suspect committed the crime. This explanation "minimizes the moral implications of the alleged offense or allows a suspect to save face by having a morally acceptable excuse for committing the crime."
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cooperative witnesses, and, not surprisingly, their actual interview practices are quite poor." While many officers may develop their own interview techniques, the lack of formal training could lead to interviewing with the purpose of simply completing the investigation, regardless of the truth. The easiest way to complete an investigation would be a confession. Fisher and
Geiselman concur, saying, "It seems to be more on interrogating suspects (to elicit confessions) rather than on interviewing cooperative witnesses and victims". This study suggests that more training could prevent false confessions, and give police a new mindset while in the interview room.
280:
highly sophisticated intelligence or manipulated by their so-called "friends" are more likely to make such confessions. Young people are particularly vulnerable to confessing, especially when stressed, tired, or traumatized, and have a significantly higher rate of false confessions than adults. Hundreds of innocent people have been convicted, imprisoned, and sometimes sentenced to death after confessing to crimes they did not commitâbut years later, have been exonerated. It was not until several shocking false confession cases were publicized in the late 1980s, combined with the introduction of
448:
statements made to them or the implications of their answers. They often lack the ability to think in a causal way about the consequences of their actions." This also affects their social intelligence. Leo says: "They are not, for example, likely to understand that the police detective who appears to be friendly is really their adversary or to grasp the long-term consequences of making an incriminating statement. They are thus highly suggestible and easy to manipulate ... (they are also) eager to please. They tend to have a high need for approval and thus are prone to being acquiescent."
1108:. Police questioned him for more than 50 hours. He said he eventually confessed to the murder of his mother because police hit him so hard he was knocked off his chair, and because he thought that if he confessed, the interrogations would stop. He believed that he would be able to explain himself to a judge and be set free. His confession was videotaped, but his interrogation was not. At the time Cook County prosecutors were required to videotape murder confessions, but not the preceding interrogations. With his confession on tape, Bell was tried, convicted, and sentenced to jail.
947:, was wrongfully convicted of the 1992 rape and murder of 11-year-old Holly Staker. Although his DNA was excluded from that tested in the rape kit, and the report from the electronic ankle monitor he was wearing at the time (while awaiting trial for a non-violent burglary) established that he was not in the vicinity of the murder, he confessed to the crimes. Rivera had been interrogated for several days by police using the Reid technique. His conviction was overturned in 2011, and the appellate court took the unusual step of barring prosecutors from retrying him.
524:: "Reliance on confessions is due, in part, to their decisive impact upon the adversarial process. Triers of fact accord confessions such heavyweight in their determinations that 'the introduction of a confession makes the other aspects of a trial in court superfluous, and the real trial, for all practical purposes, occurs when the confession is obtained.' No other class of evidence is so profoundly prejudicial. 'Thus the decision to confess before trial amounts in effect to a waiver of the right to require the state at trial to meet its heavy burden of proof'."
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sodomized, and scalded with boiling water by other prisoners. Eventually DNA testing established that
Marshall was not involved in the crimes. Despite being released, Marshall continues to live in a state of "semi-detention"; he is being held in a psychiatric hospital due to the psychological damage caused during his incarceration. He was awarded $ 2.3-million in compensation. An inquiry into the case made the point that not only had DNA testing not been done at the time of his trial, Marshall's mental handicap was entirely overlooked throughout his prosecution.
612:
464:, Richard Leo wrote that these "include faulty reality monitoring, distorted perceptions and beliefs, an inability to distinguish fact from fantasy, proneness to feelings of guilt, heightened anxiety, mood disturbances, and a lack of self control. In addition, the mentally ill may suffer from deficits in executive functioning, attention, and memory; become easily confused; and lack social skills such as assertiveness. These traits also increase the risk of falsely confessing."
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to conform to the investigators' demands for a confession, even if it was to a crime they did not commit. One of the most important findings in guilt manipulation research is that once guilt is induced in the subject, it can be directed into greater compliance with requests that are completely unrelated to the original source of guilt. This has important implications for police interrogation because guilt induction is recommended in manuals on police interrogation.
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222:
596:âbased on the state constitution's due process clause. In 2019, 21 states plus the District of Columbia require recording by law in serious cases. Many other cities have voluntarily implemented electronic recording as best practice, including Philadelphia, Boston, San Diego, San Francisco, Denver, Portland, and Austin. Electronic recording of interrogations has become mandatory in approximately 1,000 law enforcement agencies across the country.
511:
motion a seemingly irrefutable presumption of guilt among justice officials, the media, the public, and lay jurors. This chain of events in effect leads each part of the system to be stacked against the individual who confesses, and as a result he is treated more harshly at every stage of the investigative and trial process. He is significantly more likely to be incarcerated before trial, charged, pressured to plead guilty, and convicted".
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no effort to pursue any exculpatory evidence or other possible leads, even if the confession is internally inconsistent, contradicted by external evidence, or the result of coercive interrogation. Even when other case evidence subsequently emerges suggesting or demonstrating that the suspect's confession is false, police almost always continue to believe in the suspect's guilt and the underlying accuracy of the confession."
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police offer inducements to suspects, telling them they will be treated more leniently if they confess. Material rewards such as coffee or the cessation of the interrogation are used to the same effect. Suspects may be told they will feel better by confessing, thereby getting the truth out in the open. After enduring this pressure, often for hours on end, vulnerable suspects may confess just to bring the process to an end.
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particular event. Research suggests "An interrogator can take advantage of this weakness, sometimes unwittingly, through highly suggestive questioning and proffered explanations for the suspect's alleged lack of memory." The suspect is unable to detect that they are being manipulated into agreeing with something that is not true and begins to agree with the interrogator "until he or she finally comes to accept guilt".
1136:, police before he confessed to the 2004 murder of his 3-year-old daughter, Riley. He was convicted and sentenced to jail. His confession was later ruled to have been coerced. Because of DNA testing, police later identified Scott Eby as the killer. He was a neighbor living a few miles from the Fox family at the time of Riley's murder. Police identified him as the killer while he was serving a 14-year sentence for
476:, for example, five teenagers aged from 14 to 16 falsely confessed to assault and rape of a white woman in Manhattan's Central Park on April 19, 1989. The police ignored the fact that none of the suspects' DNA matched two semen samples found on the victim. Both samples belonged to a single source, Matias Reyes, a violent serial rapist and murderer who finally confessed to the Central Park rape in 2002.
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said he could not remember committing the crime but believed he must have done so based on what the police were telling him. The confession was videotaped by police and showed
Michael making statements to the effect of, "I'm only saying this because it's what you want to hear". His admission has been cited as a classic example of a coerced false confession during police interrogation.
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at the time of trialâbut were still wrongfully convicted. According to the
National Registry of Exonerations in the United States, 27% of those on the registry who were accused of homicide, but were later exonerated, gave false confessions. However, 81% of people with mental illness or intellectual disabilities also confessed when accused of homicide.
983:(Damien Echols, Jason Baldwin, and Jessie Misskelley) were convicted for the 1993 murders of three 8-year-old boys. At the time of the alleged crime, they were 16, 17, and 18 years old. One month after the murders, police interrogated Misskelley, who has an IQ of 72, for five hours. He confessed to the murders and implicated both Echols and Baldwin.
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on deception, coercion and aggressive confrontation to secure confessions. Despite this, in 2014, it was still popular with police interrogators even though subjects provide less information, and the strategy provides fewer true confessions and more false confessions than less confrontational interviewing techniques.
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Thomas Perez Jr. confessed to the murder of his father under duress after 17 hours of interrogation, during which police claimed they had found his father's body, that they would euthanize his dog as a stray, and made other claims. His father, Thomas Perez Sr., was later found alive and on a visit to
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confessed to a series of murders, including that of the woman. Pavlinac had become obsessed with details of the crime during interrogation by police. She later said she confessed to get out of the abusive relationship with the boyfriend. Her boyfriend purportedly confessed in order to avoid the death
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in 1998. Michael, 14 at the time, was targeted by the police when he seemed "distant and preoccupied" after
Stephanie's body was discovered, and the rest of the family grieved. After two days of intense questioning, Michael admitted to killing Stephanie. His confession was vague and lacked detail; he
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The fifth man, Omar
Ballard, was indicted in 2005 after his DNA was found to match that at the crime scene. He had informally confessed in 1997 but withdrew his statement after being pressured to implicate the four other men. He pleaded guilty to the crime in 2009 in order to avoid the death penalty.
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Williams and Dick pleaded guilty to murder, as they had been threatened by the potential of being sentenced to death at a jury trial. They were sentenced to one or more life sentences in prison without the possibility of parole. Tice was convicted of rape and murder and sentenced to death. Wilson was
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Sture
Bergwall, also known as Thomas Quick, confessed to more than 30 murders in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland while incarcerated in a mental institution for personality disorders. He had been committed after being convicted of less serious crimes. Between 1994 and 2001, Bergwall was convicted
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reports that since 1989, 375 offenders have been exonerated by DNA. Twenty-nine percent of them confessed to the crime for which they were convicted, but were then exonerated. As of July 2020, twenty-three of the 104 people whose cases involved false confessions had exculpatory DNA evidence available
401:
Police use persuasive manipulation techniques when conducting interrogations in hopes of obtaining a confession. These can include lying about evidence, making suspects believe they are there to help them or pretending to be the suspect's friends. After enough time and persuasion, suspects are likely
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Misskelley immediately recanted and said he was coerced to confess. Although his confession contained massive internal inconsistencies and differed significantly from the facts of the physical evidence revealed, the prosecution continued. Misskelley and
Baldwin were convicted of murder and sentenced
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In 2001, Ochoa and Danziger were exonerated and released from prison after 12 years of incarceration. While in prison, Danziger had been severely beaten by other inmates in 1991 and suffered permanent brain damage. He requires all day medical care for the rest of his life. Marino was later convicted
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Leo argued that false confessions gather collective force as the judicial process proceeds, and become almost impossible to overcome. He noted that "this chain reaction starts with the police. Once they obtain a confession, they typically close their investigation, clear the case as solved, and make
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The Reid Technique went on to become the leading interrogation method used by law enforcement throughout the United States and led to countless confessions. In recent years, justice researchers found that not all of those confessions were legitimate and determined that the technique primarily relies
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Rivera filed a lawsuit against a number of parties, including John E. Reid & Associates, who developed the Reid technique. Reid contended that Rivera's false confession was the result of the Reid technique being used incorrectly. Rivera was taken to Reid headquarters in Chicago twice during his
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was convicted in 1990, at the age of 16, of raping, beating and strangling a high school classmate. He had confessed to the crime after hours of interrogation by police without being given an opportunity to seek legal counsel. Court testimony noted that the DNA evidence in the case did not point to
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Years later a man named Achim Josef Marino (who was in prison serving his three-life sentences for a string of robberies and rapes) began writing letters from prison claiming he was the actual murderer in the Pizza Hut case and that Ochoa and Danziger were innocent. He said that he had converted to
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he had confessed to a crime he did not commit, Kiszko replied, "I started to tell these lies and they seemed to please them and the pressure was off as far as I was concerned. I thought if I admitted what I did to the police they would check out what I had said, find it untrue and would then let me
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linking them with criminal behavior, but these stereotypes are not prevalent towards Chinese Americans, making the two ethnicities ideal for comparison. Participants were randomly assigned to view mock police interrogations developed using a male Caucasian detective questioning a Caucasian, Chinese
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Changes in camera perspective lead to changes in the visual content available to the observer. Using eye-tracking as a measure and monitor of visual attention, researchers deduced that visual attention mediates the camera perspective bias. That is, the correlation between camera perspective and the
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The method has five stages: Preparation and Planning; Engage and Explain; Account, Clarification, Challenge; Closure; and Evaluation. Using this approach, investigators are not supposed to interrupt suspects while they tell their story; use openâended questions; and challenge any inconsistencies or
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Researchers argue that the police need to be trained better at identifying the circumstances which contribute to false confessions and the type of suspects inclined to make them. In the early 1990s, British psychologists collaborated with law enforcement to develop a more conversational approach to
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Leo noted that "most people assume that a confession, especially a detailed confession, is, by its very nature, true. Confession evidence therefore tends to define the case against a defendant, usually overriding any contradictory information or evidence of innocence. A suspect's confession sets in
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Offenders may also be exonerated by means other than DNA evidence. In the US, 2,750 people have been exonerated in the last three decadesâ9% of whom were women. Nearly 73% of women exonerated in the last three decades were convicted of crimes that never took place at all, according to data from the
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A 2010 study conducted by Fisher and Geiselman showed the lack of instruction given to entry-level police officers regarding the interview process. They stated in their research that, "We were discouraged to find that police often receive only minimal, and sometimes no, formal training to interview
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at the crime scene was finally tested a year later, it matched that of a serial rapist named DeShawn Boyd. He was already in prison after having been convicted of three other violent sexual assaults, all in the same neighborhood as the Netta Bell murder. Bell filed a civil lawsuit with the help of
484:
The incidence of false confession, and its causes, are likely to vary from one country to another. The rate also varies depending on the methodology used to measure it. Some studies only use confirmed cases where DNA proved the person who confessed was in fact innocent and has been exonerated by a
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These confessions are the result of coercive interrogation techniques used by the police. Suspects may be interviewed for hours on end, sometimes without a lawyer or family member present. Even when the suspect is innocent, this creates stress and eventually leads to mental exhaustion. Sometimes,
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These confessions are given freely, without police prompting. Sometimes people incriminate themselves to divert attention from the actual person who committed the crime. For instance, a parent might confess to save their child from jail. Alternatively, people sometimes confess to a notorious crime
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Crowe's confession and Houser's statements to police were later thrown out as coerced by a judge; part of Treadway's confession was also ruled inadmissible. Later all charges were dropped against each of the three boys. Prosecutors later charged an unrelated party with the crime. His defense team
694:
Research indicates that an equal focus perspective produces relatively unbiased assessments of videotaped interrogations. A variation of the equal focus perspective is the dual camera approach where the subject's and the interviewer's faces are presented side-by-side. One study into this approach
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In response to the prevalence of false confessions induced by aggressive police interrogation methods, one suggested solution has been to videotape all interrogations so that what occurred can be monitored by the legal defense team and by jury members. This solution stems from the perception that
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These confessions are those in which the person is so affected by the interrogation process, they come to believe they have actually committed the crime, even though they have no memory of doing so. This seems to occur when the suspect lacks self-confidence, especially in their own memory about a
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Stefan Kiszko was convicted of murder in 1976, in what was later described as "one of Britain's most notorious miscarriages of justice". One of the main pieces of prosecution evidence was a confession Kiszko made after three days of police questioning. After almost 16 years in prison, Kiszko was
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Psychological research suggests that evaluations of videotaped confessions can be affected by the camera perspective used at the initial recording. Extensive empirical data has been collected in this area by manipulating the position of the camera: to a suspect-focus (looking at the front of the
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According to Richard Leo, the developmentally disabled are more likely to confess for a number of reasons. "First, because of their subnormal intellectual functioning, low intelligence, short attention span, poor memory, and poor conceptual and communication skills, they do not always understand
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Other studies use self-report surveys where offenders are asked if they have ever falsely confessed to a crime, although there may be no way of checking the validity of such claims. These surveys apply to confessions to any kind of crime, not just rape and murder. Two Icelandic studies based on
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The case of Canadian Simon Marshall is an example and was one of Quebec's most notorious miscarriages of justice. Marshall was mentally disabled, and accused of a series of rapes in 1997. He confessed to 13 charges, and was convicted and imprisoned for five years. While in prison he was beaten,
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for a crime which the individual did not commit. Although such confessions seem counterintuitive, they can be made voluntarily, perhaps to protect a third party, or induced through coercive interrogation techniques. When some degree of coercion is involved, studies have found that subjects with
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Joshua Treadway, a friend of Michael's, was questioned and gave a detailed confession after many hours of interrogation. Aaron Houser, a mutual friend of the boys, was questioned and did not confess but presented a "hypothetical" and incriminating account of the crime under prompting by police
799:
through a bakery window. It was proven during his trial that he had not been in the country until two days after the start of the fire, he was never at any point near the bakery in question, the bakery did not have windows, and he was crippled and unable to throw a bomb. But, as a foreigner (a
634:'s head and shoulders), detective-focus (looking at the front of the detective and the back of the suspect), and equal-focus (where the profiles of both the detective and the suspect were equally visible) perspective. The research indicates that the camera perspective influences assessments of
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Tuite was convicted of the murder in 2004, but the conviction was overturned. At the second trial in 2013, the jury found him not guilty. The murder of Stephanie Crowe remains unsolved. In 2012, Superior Court Judge Kenneth So made the rare ruling that Michael Crowe, Treadway, and Houser were
738:
In 2007, thirteen men and women, ranging in age from their early 50s to mid-70s, were arrested and indicted in Japan for buying votes in an election. Six confessed to buying votes with liquor, cash and catered parties. All were acquitted in 2007 in a local district court, which found that the
829:
Stephen Downing was convicted and spent 27 years in prison. The main piece of evidence used against him was a confession he signed. He had agreed to this after an 8-hour interrogation which left him confused, and his poor literacy skills meant he did not fully understand what he was signing.
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of interrogating suspects was first introduced in the United States in the 1940s and 50s by former police officer John Reid. It was intended to replace the beatings that police frequently used to elicit information. The technique involves a nine-step process. The first step involves directly
814:
Timothy Evans was accused of murdering his wife and daughter. He was subsequently tried for the murder of the daughter, was convicted and hanged. When informed about their deaths and asked if he was responsible, Evans reportedly replied "Yes". He was later posthumously pardoned in 1966.
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notes that videotaping on its own "will not solve the problem of false confessions occurring nor will it ensure that false confessions will be detected before an innocent life is ruined". The authors argue that "More needs to be done with regard to reforming how police go about
871:, was convicted of murdering his mother. He had signed a detailed confession after first discovering and informing of the crime, and then being detained and interrogated for many hours with little sleep. During this interrogation, with no lawyer present, he agreed to undergo a
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Prosecutors offered the three men a deal if they pleaded guilty: to release them for time served. They accepted the Alford plea but said that they would continue to work to clear their names and find the real murderer(s). They were released after eighteen years in prison.
665:-free. In other words, the manner in which videotaping is implemented holds the potential for bias. This bias can be avoided by using an equal-focus perspective. This finding has been replicated numerous times, reflecting the growing uses of videotaped confessions in
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A serial rapist and murderer, he was apprehended and sentenced to prison after he pleaded guilty to other crimes of violence against women, and confessed to acting alone. He was sentenced to 100 years in prison, 59 of which were suspended. He is the only man whose
426:
In 2017, Wicklander-Zulawski & Associates, one of the biggest consulting groups responsible for training law enforcement officers throughout the United States, announced that because of its coercive methods, it would no longer use the Reid Technique.
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from the crime scene was tested, and it matched that of Marino. The DNA of Ochoa and Danziger was excluded from matching that evidence. Ochoa later said that he was coerced by the police to confess and implicate his friend in the rape and murder.
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statement, which they took as a confession. His conviction was overturned in 1996, and Gauger was freed. He was pardoned by the Illinois governor in 2002. Two motorcycle gang members were later convicted of Morris and Ruth Gauger's murders.
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videotaped interrogations and confessions allow for a more complete and objective record of the policeâsuspect interaction. Those who advocate for the videotaping of interrogations argue that the presence of the camera will deter the use of
498:. Their alleged "crimes" included events determined to be accidents, crimes that were fabricated and deaths by suicide. About 40% of female exonerees were wrongly convicted of harming their children or other loved ones in their care.
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matched that found at the scene. He confessed to committing the crime by himself, and said none of the other men indicted and tried were involved. Forensic evidence is consistent with his story that there were no other participants.
1016:. The convictions of the four were based largely on their confessions, which they have since maintained were coerced after hours of interrogation, during which the men were played off against each other over time. The Mid-Atlantic
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was recorded by police and later presented at trial in either a written or an audiotaped format. Electronic recording of interrogations was first mandated in the United States in Alaska in 1985 by the Supreme Court of Alaska in
891:. A coworker, Chris Ochoa, pleaded guilty to the murder. His friend and coworker, Richard Danziger, was convicted of the rape. Ochoa confessed to the murder, as well as implicating Danziger in the rape. The only forensic
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interrogation for polygraph tests. These were inconclusive, but a Reid employee, Michael Masokas, told Rivera that he failed. The case was settled out of court with John E. Reid & Associates paying $ 2 million.
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To the average person, the possibility that someone would confess to a crime they did not commit seems highly unlikely and makes little sense. The following factors have been found to contribute to false confessions.
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Snyder, Celeste J.; Lassiter, G. Daniel; Lindberg, Matthew J.; Pinegar, Shannon K. (1 May 2009). "Videotaped interrogations and confessions: does a dual-camera approach yield unbiased and accurate evaluations?".
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analysis of only one gene was performed at the time; even though Ochoa had this gene, it was known also to be present in 10â16% of individuals. Both men received life sentences with no possibility of parole.
2017:
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him. He was incarcerated for 16 years before DNA testing in 2006 implicated a man named Steven Cunningham; Cunningham would ultimately confess to the murder, and Deskovic was released in September 2006.
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Ratcliff, Jennifer J.; Lassiter, G. Daniel; Schmidt, Heather C.; Snyder, Celeste J. (1 January 2006). "Camera perspective bias in videotaped confessions: Experimental evidence of its perceptual basis".
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self-report conducted ten years apart found the rates of false confession to be 12.2% and 24.4% respectively. A more recent Scottish study found the rate of self-reported false confessions was 33.4%.
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Ware, Lezlee J.; Lassiter, G. Daniel; Patterson, Stephen M.; Ransom, Michael R. (1 January 2008). "Camera perspective bias in videotaped confessions: Evidence that visual attention is a mediator".
875:, which he was wrongly told he had failed, and was persuaded that only he could have committed the crime. He was sentenced to six to sixteen years for manslaughter but freed on appeal in 1976.
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in order to avoid the risk of a harsher sentence after trial. Teenagers and young adults, individuals with mental health problems or low intelligence and those who achieve scores high on the
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of eight murders, based on his confessions. All of these convictions have now been overturned on appeal as he was found to have made false confessions and been incompetent to stand trial.
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Daniel Lassiter, G.; Diamond, S. S.; Schmidt, H. C.; Elek, J. K. (1 March 2007). "Evaluating Videotaped Confessions: Expertise Provides No Defense Against the Camera-Perspective Effect".
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and guilt judgments, but was no better than the infamous suspect-focus condition in terms of its impact on the ability to accurately distinguish between true and false confession.
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Saul Kassin, a leading expert on false confessions, says that young people are also particularly vulnerable to confessing, especially when stressed, tired, or traumatized. In the
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Fisher, R.P.; Geiselman, E.R. (2010). "The Cognitive Interview method of conducting police interviews: Eliciting extensive information and promoting Therapeutic Jurisprudence".
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Kassin, S. M.; Drizin, S. A.; Grisso, T.; Gudjonsson, G. H.; Leo, R. A.; Redlich, A. D. (2010). "Police-induced confessions, risk factors, and recommendations: Looking ahead".
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contradictions after the subject has told their story. Also interviewers are not allowed to deceive or pretend they have incriminating evidence they do not actually have.
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In 2000, Corethian Bell, who has a diagnosis of mental retardation, was accused of murdering his mother, Netta Bell, after he had found her body and called police in
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Custodial interrogations recorded in their entirety with the camera positioned so that the resultant videotape displays an equal-focus or detective-focus perspective.
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436:
1943:
1918:
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Frenchman), and a Catholic, Hubert was a perfect scapegoat. Ever-maintaining his guilt, Hubert was brought to trial, found guilty, and duly executed by hanging.
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and focused directly on the suspect. These suspect-focus videotapes lead to the perception that the subject is participating voluntarily, when compared to both
460:
Individuals who are mentally ill tend to have a number of symptoms which predispose them to agreeing with or confabulating false and misleading information. In
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confessions had been entirely fabricated. The presiding judge said the defendants had "made confessions in despair while going through marathon questioning."
2800:
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codifies these strategies and is still used by many police forces in the United States. People may also confess to a crime they did not commit as a form of
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Kevin Fox was released after serving eight months in jail. The Fox family eventually won an $ 8 million civil judgment against the county government.
1117:
1012:
Danial Williams, Joseph J. Dick Jr., Derek Tice, and Eric C. Wilson are four of five men convicted in the 1997 rape and murder of Michelle Moore-Bosko in
347:
did not match that found at the crime scene. His wife and brother also said he was home in another state at the time of the murder, and had never been to
677:
Psychological research has explored camera perspective bias with African American and Chinese American suspects. African Americans are victims to strong
895:
linking Danziger to the crime scene was a single pubic hair found in the restaurant, which was said to be consistent with his pubic hair type. Although
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Lassiter, G. Daniel; Lindberg, M. (2010). "Video recording custodial interrogations: Implications of psychological science for policy and practice".
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Lassiter, G. Daniel; Slaw, R. David; Briggs, Michael A.; Scanlan, Carla R. (1 December 1992). "The Potential for Bias in Videotaped Confessions1".
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2550:"Evidence of the camera perspective bias in authentic videotaped interrogations: Implications for emerging reform in the criminal justice system"
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Ratcliff, Jennifer J.; Lassiter, G. Daniel; Jager, Victoria M.; Lindberg, Matthew J.; Elek, Jennifer K.; Hasinski, Adam E. (1 January 2010).
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considers this a miscarriage of justice. Moore-Bosko's parents continue to believe that all those convicted were participants in the crime.
1966:
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of the murder in 2002 (he couldn't be charged with the rape due to the statute of limitations) and was given an additional life sentence.
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3375:
252:
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Geller, W.A. (1992). "Police videotaping of suspect interrogations and confessions: A preliminary explanation of issues and practices".
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The charges against the three boys were dismissed without prejudice (which would allow charges to be reinstated at a later date) after
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in the United States. Karr had become obsessed with every detail of the murder and, ten years after her death, he was extradited from
2063:"The Risk of Making False Confessions: The Role of Developmental Disorders, Conduct Disorder, Psychiatric Symptoms, and Compliance"
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baby which received headlines around the world. Approximately 500 people confessed to the murder of Elizabeth Short (known as the "
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3031:
1065:
linked a neighborhood transient, Richard Tuite, to Stephanie's blood. Embarrassed by the reversal, the Escondido police and the
3598:
713:
If an interrogation has already been videotaped from a suspect-focus perspective, it should not be used. Rather, the use of an
649:
In the United States and in many other countries, interrogations are typically recorded with the camera positioned behind the
335:
A more recent example of a voluntary confession occurred in 2006, when John Mark Karr confessed to the murder of six-year-old
1391:
605:
2178:
1734:
3670:
3665:
3423:
3205:
1070:
1951:
3279:
3071:
608:
built certain protections into the questioning process, including the requirement that all suspect interviews be taped.
3873:
3122:
2907:
1066:
324:
because of the attention they receive from such a confession. About 250 people confessed to the 1932 kidnapping of the
2424:"Videotaped interrogations and confessions: A simple change in camera perspective alters verdicts in simulated trials"
2043:
332:") in 1947 which also received enormous media attentionâsome of those who confessed were not even born when she died.
3747:
3701:
2154:
1293:
940:
542:
obtain information from suspects. This approach, which is more ethical and less confrontational, became known as the
495:
3252:
351:, where the murder occurred. His confession was so clearly false that prosecutors never charged him with the crime.
1121:
1074:
284:, that the extent of wrongful convictions began to emergeâand how often false confessions played a role in these.
3863:
3416:
1210:
703:
372:
245:
2976:
2422:
Lassiter, G. Daniel; Geers, Andrew L.; Handley, Ian M.; Weiland, Paul E.; Munhall, Patrick J. (1 January 2002).
1761:
864:
3727:
3385:
2393:
868:
98:
543:
3179:
2747:
2208:
702:
To aid criminal-justice practitioners and legal policy makers to achieve sound and fair policy, a study in
2336:"Video Recording Custodial Interrogations: Implications of Psychological Science for Policy and Practice"
1467:
1185:
724:
The dual-camera approach is not advised because it does nothing to moderate actual accuracy of judgments.
2866:
646:
resulting bias is caused by the viewer's visual attention, which is decided by the focus of the camera.
3888:
3878:
3868:
3330:
3305:"Fontana pays nearly $ 900,000 for 'psychological torture' inflicted by police to get false confession"
1844:
238:
1991:
908:
Christianity while in prison and wanted to tell the truth to free Ochoa and Danziger from prison. The
563:
to induce confessions and will provide a visual and auditory record which can be used to evaluate the
3893:
3620:
3365:
1042:
58:
2134:
1140:. After questioning and confrontation with the DNA results, Eby confessed and later pleaded guilty.
3793:
3593:
3453:
963:
839:
473:
103:
2548:
Lassiter, G. Daniel; Ware, Lezlee J.; Ratcliff, Jennifer J.; Irvin, Clinton R. (1 February 2009).
3903:
3788:
3752:
3706:
3637:
1486:
3335:
2709:
2664:
3553:
3439:
2223:
1215:
1162:
515:
88:
83:
3015:
2585:
2164:
3858:
3778:
3632:
3478:
3473:
3468:
2547:
2117:
1195:
1133:
1105:
1082:
928:
485:
court. This mostly applies to murder and rape cases. For instance, in the United States, the
113:
3326:
3180:"San Diego Jury Finds Richard Tuite Not Guilty in Retrial for the Murder of Stephanie Crowe"
990:
For the next 17 years, the three men maintained their innocence. In August 2011, testing of
3773:
3732:
3652:
3498:
3123:"Coerced False Confessions During Police Interrogations: Michael Crowe's Forced Confession"
2108:
824:
792:
520:
325:
63:
1766:
Slideshow presentation for the New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment
962:
was sentenced to death for the murders of his parents, Morris, 74, and Ruth, 70, at their
8:
3488:
3400:
2923:
2636:"The hidden consequences of racial salience in videotaped interrogations and confessions"
2517:
1555:"Coerced Internalized False Confessions and Police Interrogations: The Power of Coercion"
2962:
3815:
3680:
2752:
2531:
2491:
2421:
2355:
2279:
2120:
2090:
1826:
1713:
1674:
1449:
1414:
1372:
1332:
1069:
let the case languish without charges for two years. In 2001 the District Attorney and
980:
944:
307:
False confessions can be categorized into three general types, as outlined by American
146:
68:
2465:
336:
3696:
3625:
3615:
3610:
3581:
3543:
3518:
3513:
3463:
3458:
2903:
2728:
2683:
2603:
2483:
2479:
2443:
2359:
2283:
2224:"Interview and interrogation methods and their effects on true and false confessions"
2160:
2150:
2082:
1896:
1830:
1717:
1666:
1631:
1535:
1453:
1410:
1376:
1359:
1336:
1289:
1230:
1205:
1017:
1013:
966:
farm in April 1993. He was interrogated for more than 21 hours. He gave the police a
796:
486:
288:
266:
108:
24:
2222:
Meissner, Christian A.; Redlich, Allison D.; Bhatt, Sujeeta; Brandon, Susan (2012).
2094:
994:
evidence was found to be inconclusive; it included DNA from an unknown contributor.
343:
based on his confession. But his account did not match details of the case, and his
3783:
3737:
3588:
3548:
3483:
2845:
2835:
2720:
2675:
2647:
2595:
2561:
2527:
2475:
2435:
2347:
2313:
2271:
2235:
2142:
2074:
1818:
1705:
1658:
1623:
1569:
1527:
1441:
1418:
1406:
1364:
1322:
1281:
1152:
1089:
718:
658:
73:
53:
43:
3197:
2840:
2827:
2495:
2200:
1967:"Donald Trump and the Central Park Five: the racially charged rise of a demagogue"
1678:
1255:
368:
2635:
1515:
3898:
3883:
3605:
3568:
3538:
3533:
3523:
3002:
2948:
2679:
2599:
2439:
2351:
2317:
2275:
1627:
1235:
1190:
1051:
987:
to life in prison without parole; Echols was convicted and sentenced to death.
766:
683:
415:
364:
202:
48:
3049:
2801:"POLICE 'Unfair' Police interview process forced false confession, says judge"
2146:
1662:
3852:
3370:
3096:
2899:
2566:
2549:
2335:
2078:
1709:
1327:
1310:
1240:
888:
809:
786:
696:
635:
564:
1445:
1434:"This psychologist explains why people confess to crimes they didn't commit"
1368:
1355:"This psychologist explains why people confess to crimes they didn't commit"
1285:
1054:. All three boys subsequently recanted their statements, claiming coercion.
611:
3768:
3508:
2871:
2732:
2687:
2607:
2487:
2447:
2304:
Kassin, Saul M. (1 January 1997). "The psychology of confession evidence".
2086:
2062:
2044:"8 Facts About Incarcerated and Wrongfully Convicted Women You Should Know"
2018:"Examining why false confessions occur in the U.S. criminal justice system"
1900:
1693:
1670:
1635:
1539:
1433:
1250:
1220:
1007:
967:
714:
650:
329:
281:
197:
182:
172:
167:
142:
3153:"Attorney General's Office to Review Stephanie Crowe Murder Investigation"
1157:
Laverne Pavlinac confessed that she and her boyfriend murdered a woman in
3558:
3408:
3391:
1845:"Leading Police Consulting Group Will No Longer Teach the Reid Technique"
1573:
1278:
Miscarriages of Justice: Actual Innocence, Forensic Evidence, and the Law
1245:
1200:
1062:
959:
308:
276:
3227:
3159:(Press release). State of California Department of Justice. 29 June 2001
2239:
1807:"Deception and truth detection when analyzing nonverbal and verbal cues"
1516:"False confessions: How can psychology so basic be so counterintuitive?"
1161:
in 1990. They were convicted and sentenced to prison. Five years later,
1058:
argued that the three boys who were first charged had been responsible.
3839:
3528:
3503:
3493:
3003:"Man found guilty of murdering Jeanette Popp's Daughter Nancy DePriest"
2850:
1944:"Victims advocate says justice system to blame for wrongful conviction"
1531:
1175:
Perez Jr.'s sister. Perez Jr. received a $ 900,000 settlement in 2024.
750:
706:
presented the following recommendations based on the body of research:
678:
226:
187:
156:
123:
32:
1392:"False Confessions: Causes, Consequences, and Implications for Reform"
1124:
students, which was settled by the city in 2006 for $ 1 million.
2776:"The tragic and terrible case of Mauha Fawcett's wrongful conviction"
2651:
1884:
1822:
1137:
884:
872:
654:
631:
192:
16:
An admission of guilt for a crime which the individual did not commit
3834:
2724:
2135:"Strategies for Preventing False Confessions and Their Consequences"
2061:
Gudjonsson, Gisli Hannes; Gonzalez, Rafael A.; Young, Susan (2021).
221:
3742:
1806:
892:
639:
588:
560:
348:
340:
296:
177:
3340:
3642:
2543:
2541:
1919:"Mentally handicapped Quebec man receives millions for injustice"
292:
3386:
Justice Denied: False Confessions Are Alive and Well in the U.S.
2423:
2179:"P.E.A.C.E. A Different Approach to Investigative Interviewing"
1158:
642:
on the part of the detective, and even the dichotomy of guilt.
93:
3050:"Mid-Atlantic Innocence Project " Blog Archive " Norfolk Four"
2538:
1081:
factually innocent of the charges, permanently dismissing the
3206:"Michael Crowe Found 'Factually Innocent' In Sister's Murder"
2633:
2394:"National Organizations - Recording Custodial Interrogations"
1889:
The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
896:
666:
568:
462:
The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
78:
1648:
695:
suggests it eliminates the usual camera perspective bias on
3016:
https://www.bivensfuneralhome.com/obituary/Richard-Danziger
2629:
2627:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2221:
1885:"False confessions: Causes, consequences, and implications"
662:
3381:
Justice Denied: Miranda's Failure To Protect the Innocent
1112:
1029:
991:
909:
900:
579:
interviewing/interrogating suspects in the first place".
437:
Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
344:
3356:
Chicago Tribune: Cops urged to tape their interrogations
2828:"Coerced-Reactive Confessions: The Case of Thomas Quick"
2614:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2251:
2249:
553:
3032:"Juan Rivera and the Dangers of Coercive Interrogation"
2060:
1468:"False Confessions and Tips Still Flow in Simpson Case"
2417:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2409:
1315:
Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences
883:
In 1988, Nancy DePriest was raped and murdered at the
3259:. Northwestern University Law School. 11 October 2006
2246:
2139:
Univ. Of San Francisco Law Research Paper No. 2011-20
1992:"DNA Exonerations in the United States (1989 â 2020)"
721:
derived from the videotape should serve in its place.
2832:
Journal of Forensic Psychology Research and Practice
2461:
2459:
2457:
2261:
1607:
2748:"Pressed by Police, Even Innocent Confess in Japan"
2581:
2579:
2577:
2406:
378:
3376:Sign on San Diego: The Stephanie Crowe Murder Case
2658:
2334:Lassiter, G. Daniel; Lindberg, Matthew J. (2010).
2133:Kebbell, Mark R.; Davies, Graham M., eds. (2006).
1509:
1507:
3723:Race in the United States criminal justice system
3661:List of wrongful convictions in the United States
2943:
2941:
2513:
2511:
2509:
2507:
2505:
2454:
1226:List of wrongful convictions in the United States
791:In 1666, Robert Hubert confessed to starting the
375:are more vulnerable to making false confessions.
3850:
2574:
2399:National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers
2333:
1691:
1597:The Psychology of Interrogations and Confessions
354:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2380:(a Report to the National Institute of Justice)
1613:
1504:
923:
3822:List of death row inmates in the United States
2938:
2502:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2293:
318:
3424:
3253:"Corethian Bell v. Chicago Police Department"
2382:. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
2132:
1735:"The Seismic Change in Police Interrogations"
1431:
1280:(1st ed.). Academic Press. p. 116.
619:
505:
246:
3280:"A belated reward for Riley Fox murder lead"
2694:
1043:murder of his younger sister Stephanie Crowe
974:
3676:Overturned convictions in the United States
3063:
2668:Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
2588:Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
2329:
2327:
2290:
1698:Current Directions in Psychological Science
1616:International Journal of Law and Psychiatry
1399:Current Directions in Psychological Science
1276:Cooley, M. Craig; Brent, Turvey E. (2014).
1275:
1132:Kevin Fox was interrogated for 14 hours by
430:
313:Current Directions in Psychological Science
3438:
3431:
3417:
1729:
1727:
1694:"Suspect Interviews and False Confessions"
1593:
1169:
1146:
878:
630:suspect from waist up and the back of the
624:
442:
253:
239:
3277:
2849:
2839:
2825:
2565:
2373:
2371:
2369:
2015:
1964:
1912:
1910:
1425:
1348:
1346:
1326:
1073:asked that the case be taken over by the
818:
689:
536:
287:False confessions are distinguished from
3025:
3023:
2324:
1099:
760:
610:
606:Police and Criminal Evidence Act of 1984
599:
3810:Capital punishment in the United States
3366:The Register: What is a Confessing Sam?
3069:
2977:"Burden of Innocence: Richard Danziger"
2893:
2198:
1724:
1552:
1036:
833:
803:
780:
672:
467:
3851:
2963:"Innocence Project: Christopher Ochoa"
2745:
2377:
2366:
2303:
1965:Laughland, Oliver (17 February 2016).
1916:
1907:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1692:Gudjonsson, G. H.; Pearse, J. (2011).
1513:
1389:
1343:
1308:
1001:
858:
531:
3412:
3203:
3177:
3133:from the original on 12 November 2013
3029:
3020:
2865:Juan, Dr Stephen (1 September 2006).
2773:
2041:
1487:"The Psychology of False Confessions"
1383:
1352:
954:
935:
554:Taping interrogations and confessions
3671:List of miscarriage of justice cases
3666:List of exonerated death row inmates
3278:Schmadeke, Steve (3 February 2012).
3228:"The Interrogation of Michael Crowe"
2864:
2520:Journal of Applied Social Psychology
1804:
1484:
3351:Innocence Project: False Confession
3341:Slate: Why make a false confession?
2826:Stridbeck, Ulf (28 February 2020).
2554:Legal and Criminological Psychology
2340:The Journal of Psychiatry & Law
2264:The Journal of Psychiatry & Law
1882:
1863:
1780:"Reid Technique for Interrogations"
1127:
728:
576:The Journal of Psychiatry & Law
387:
13:
3346:Psychology Today: False Confession
2924:"Second victim of Molseed inquiry"
2640:Psychology, Public Policy, and Law
2532:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1992.tb00980.x
1917:Séguin, Rhéal (21 December 2006).
1094:The Interrogation of Michael Crowe
1067:San Diego County District Attorney
299:is used to induce the confession.
14:
3915:
3748:Ineffective assistance of counsel
3702:National Registry of Exonerations
3371:The Truth About False Confessions
3319:
3072:"Clemency Campaign Renews Misery"
3070:Jackman, Tom (15 December 2008).
2746:Onishi, Norimitsu (11 May 2007).
2713:Behavioral Sciences & the Law
1759:
1071:San Diego County Sheriff's Office
775:
587:Until the 1980s, most confession
496:National Registry of Exonerations
455:
409:
396:
3833:
3120:
2480:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01879.x
2016:Blakemore, Erin (23 June 2019).
1411:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00584.x
1122:University of Chicago Law School
1075:California Department of Justice
853:
379:Coerced internalized confessions
220:
3297:
3271:
3245:
3220:
3178:Sauer, Mark (6 December 2013).
3171:
3145:
3114:
3089:
3042:
3009:
2995:
2969:
2955:
2916:
2887:
2858:
2819:
2793:
2767:
2739:
2386:
2215:
2192:
2171:
2126:
2101:
2054:
2042:Selby, Daniele (1 March 2022).
2035:
2009:
1984:
1958:
1950:. 29 April 2008. Archived from
1936:
1837:
1798:
1772:
1753:
1685:
1642:
1587:
1485:Cale, Stephen (18 April 2018).
1353:Starr, Douglas (13 June 2019).
1211:Gudjonsson suggestibility scale
1092:was made about the case called
1041:Michael Crowe confessed to the
920:Richard Danziger died in 2021.
899:evidence had been collected, a
845:exonerated in 1992. When asked
704:Behavioral Sciences and the Law
373:Gudjonsson suggestibility scale
3157:Office of the Attorney General
3030:Starr, Douglas (22 May 2015).
2205:Office of Legislative Research
2067:Journal of Attention Disorders
1546:
1478:
1460:
1432:Douglas Starr (13 June 2019).
1302:
1269:
869:Litchfield County, Connecticut
742:
1:
2841:10.1080/24732850.2020.1732758
2774:White, Miike (11 June 2022).
2428:Journal of Applied Psychology
2141:. Wiley & Sons: 121â149.
1262:
544:PEACE method of interrogation
355:Coerced compliant confessions
2926:. BBC News. 12 November 2007
2209:Connecticut General Assembly
2186:Forensic Interview Solutions
1811:Applied Cognitive Psychology
1762:"Investigative Interviewing"
1553:Chapman, Frances E. (2014).
924:Jeffrey Mark Deskovic (1990)
582:
479:
7:
3728:Innocent prisoner's dilemma
3204:Sauer, Mark (22 May 2012).
2952:, "Forever Hold Your Peace"
2867:"What is a Confessing Sam?"
2228:Campbell Systematic Reviews
1784:psychology.iresearchnet.com
1186:British Post Office scandal
1178:
615:A police interrogation room
319:Voluntary false confessions
10:
3920:
3404:, depicts an American case
2894:Kennedy, Ludovich (1961).
2680:10.1037/1076-898X.12.4.197
2600:10.1037/1076-898X.14.2.192
2440:10.1037/0021-9010.87.5.867
2352:10.1177/009318531003800108
2318:10.1037/0003-066X.52.3.221
2276:10.1177/009318531003800108
2201:"Interrogation techniques"
1628:10.1016/j.ijlp.2010.09.004
1594:Gudjonsson, G. H. (2003).
1150:
1005:
837:
822:
807:
784:
764:
661:, which are assumed to be
620:Concerns about videotaping
604:In England and Wales, the
506:Impact on judicial process
264:
54:Mental disorder (Insanity)
3874:Abuse of the legal system
3830:
3802:
3761:
3715:
3689:
3651:
3621:Eyewitness identification
3567:
3446:
2834:. 20, 2020 (4): 305â322.
2147:10.1002/9780470713389.ch7
1663:10.1007/s10979-010-9217-5
1562:Law and Psychology Review
975:West Memphis Three (1993)
755:
59:Diminished responsibility
3794:Innocence Protection Act
3454:Prosecutorial misconduct
3257:MacArthur Justice Center
2567:10.1348/135532508X284293
2079:10.1177/1087054719833169
1883:Leo, Richard A. (2009).
1710:10.1177/0963721410396824
1514:Kassin, Saul M. (2017).
1390:Kassin, Saul M. (2008).
1328:10.1177/2372732214548678
1309:Kassin, Saul M. (2014).
1050:interrogators using the
964:McHenry County, Illinois
840:Murder of Lesley Molseed
733:
518:noted in his dissent in
474:Central Park Jogger case
431:Individual vulnerability
302:
3789:Equal Protection Clause
3707:Investigating Innocence
3638:Tampering with evidence
2199:Orlando, James (2014).
1446:10.1126/science.aay3537
1369:10.1126/science.aay3537
1286:10.1016/C2012-0-06863-9
1170:Thomas Perez Jr. (2018)
1147:Laverne Pavlinac (1990)
879:Pizza Hut murder (1988)
625:Camera perspective bias
443:Intellectual impairment
3864:Criminal investigation
3554:Spoliation of evidence
3440:Miscarriage of justice
3361:Time: Telling Untruths
2875:. Situation Publishing
1651:Law and Human Behavior
1216:Miscarriage of justice
1163:Keith Hunter Jesperson
819:Stephen Downing (1974)
690:Policy recommendations
616:
537:Better police training
3779:Right to a fair trial
3633:Misinformation effect
3479:Selective enforcement
3474:Malicious prosecution
3469:Selective prosecution
3336:NPR: False Confession
2468:Psychological Science
2306:American Psychologist
1954:on 23 September 2015.
1805:Vrij, Aldert (2019).
1520:American Psychologist
1196:False memory syndrome
1134:Will County, Illinois
1106:Cook County, Illinois
1100:Corethian Bell (2000)
929:Jeffrey Mark Deskovic
863:In 1973, 18-year-old
761:Sture Bergwall (1990)
614:
600:In the United Kingdom
3774:Exculpatory evidence
3753:Prosecutor's fallacy
3733:Blue wall of silence
3716:Contributing factors
3653:Wrongful convictions
2896:Ten Rillingtom Place
2109:Colorado v. Connelly
1574:10.2139/ssrn.2467049
1037:Michael Crowe (1998)
887:where she worked in
834:Stefan Kiszko (1976)
825:Stephen Downing case
804:Timothy Evans (1947)
793:Great Fire of London
781:Robert Hubert (1666)
673:Racial salience bias
574:However, a study in
521:Colorado v. Connelly
468:Youth and immaturity
3499:Abuse of discretion
3489:Attorney misconduct
3447:Types of misconduct
3401:Destination Freedom
3076:The Washington Post
2402:. 25 February 2019.
2240:10.4073/csr.2012.13
1311:"False Confessions"
1085:case against them.
1002:Norfolk Four (1997)
859:Peter Reilly (1973)
571:of any confession.
532:Remedial strategies
275:is an admission of
3816:Batson v. Kentucky
3762:Norms and remedies
3681:Wrongful execution
3599:Child sexual abuse
3309:San Bernardino Sun
3005:. 11 October 2002.
2807:. 5 September 2022
2753:The New York Times
1923:The Globe and Mail
1532:10.1037/amp0000195
1118:Herschella Conyers
981:West Memphis Three
955:Gary Gauger (1993)
945:Waukegan, Illinois
936:Juan Rivera (1992)
617:
311:in an article for
295:or other forms of
289:forced confessions
3889:Criminal defenses
3879:False confessions
3869:Police misconduct
3846:
3845:
3697:Innocence Project
3626:Cross-race effect
3616:Eyewitness memory
3611:Mistaken identity
3582:Forced confession
3544:Witness tampering
3519:Legal malpractice
3514:Gaming the system
3464:Police corruption
3459:Police misconduct
3396:Forced Confession
3101:justicedenied.org
2526:(23): 1838â1851.
2048:Innocence Project
1996:Innocence Project
1849:Innocence Project
1786:. 23 January 2016
1472:Los Angeles Times
1231:Police misconduct
1206:Forced confession
1083:City of Escondido
1018:Innocence Project
1014:Norfolk, Virginia
667:trial proceedings
487:Innocence Project
291:where the use of
267:Forced confession
263:
262:
25:Criminal defenses
3911:
3894:Confession (law)
3838:
3837:
3803:Related concepts
3784:Actual innocence
3738:Racial profiling
3589:False accusation
3577:False confession
3549:Brady disclosure
3484:Abuse of process
3433:
3426:
3419:
3410:
3409:
3313:
3312:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3238:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3175:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3164:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3118:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3082:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3058:
3056:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3027:
3018:
3013:
3007:
3006:
2999:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2973:
2967:
2966:
2959:
2953:
2945:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2931:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2891:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2880:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2843:
2823:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2812:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2786:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2762:
2760:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2707:
2692:
2691:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2652:10.1037/a0018482
2631:
2612:
2611:
2583:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2545:
2536:
2535:
2515:
2500:
2499:
2463:
2452:
2451:
2419:
2404:
2403:
2390:
2384:
2383:
2375:
2364:
2363:
2346:(1â2): 177â192.
2331:
2322:
2321:
2301:
2288:
2287:
2270:(1â2): 177â192.
2259:
2244:
2243:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2196:
2190:
2189:
2183:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2130:
2124:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2013:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2002:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1940:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1914:
1905:
1904:
1880:
1861:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1823:10.1002/acp.3457
1802:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1739:Marshall Project
1731:
1722:
1721:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1602:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1559:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1511:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1482:
1476:
1475:
1474:. 25 March 1996.
1464:
1458:
1457:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1396:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1350:
1341:
1340:
1330:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1273:
1153:Laverne Pavlinac
1128:Kevin Fox (2004)
729:Cases by country
594:Stephan v. State
561:coercive methods
388:Factors involved
273:false confession
255:
248:
241:
225:
224:
139:
119:False confession
44:Actual innocence
21:
20:
3919:
3918:
3914:
3913:
3912:
3910:
3909:
3908:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3842:
3832:
3826:
3798:
3757:
3711:
3685:
3647:
3563:
3442:
3437:
3407:
3327:The Confessions
3322:
3317:
3316:
3303:
3302:
3298:
3288:
3286:
3284:Chicago Tribune
3276:
3272:
3262:
3260:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3236:
3234:
3226:
3225:
3221:
3211:
3209:
3202:
3198:
3188:
3186:
3176:
3172:
3162:
3160:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3136:
3134:
3121:Bell, Rachael.
3119:
3115:
3105:
3103:
3095:
3094:
3090:
3080:
3078:
3068:
3064:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3028:
3021:
3014:
3010:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2986:
2984:
2975:
2974:
2970:
2961:
2960:
2956:
2946:
2939:
2929:
2927:
2922:
2921:
2917:
2910:
2902:. p. 103.
2892:
2888:
2878:
2876:
2863:
2859:
2824:
2820:
2810:
2808:
2799:
2798:
2794:
2784:
2782:
2772:
2768:
2758:
2756:
2744:
2740:
2725:10.1002/bsl.875
2708:
2695:
2663:
2659:
2632:
2615:
2584:
2575:
2546:
2539:
2516:
2503:
2464:
2455:
2420:
2407:
2392:
2391:
2387:
2376:
2367:
2332:
2325:
2302:
2291:
2260:
2247:
2220:
2216:
2197:
2193:
2181:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2157:
2131:
2127:
2106:
2102:
2059:
2055:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2024:
2022:Washington Post
2014:
2010:
2000:
1998:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1975:
1973:
1963:
1959:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1927:
1925:
1915:
1908:
1881:
1864:
1854:
1852:
1851:. 3 August 2017
1843:
1842:
1838:
1803:
1799:
1789:
1787:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1760:Adams, Jackie.
1758:
1754:
1744:
1742:
1733:
1732:
1725:
1690:
1686:
1647:
1643:
1612:
1608:
1600:
1592:
1588:
1578:
1576:
1557:
1551:
1547:
1512:
1505:
1495:
1493:
1491:Cale Law Office
1483:
1479:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1430:
1426:
1394:
1388:
1384:
1351:
1344:
1307:
1303:
1296:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1256:Martin Tankleff
1181:
1172:
1155:
1149:
1130:
1102:
1039:
1010:
1004:
977:
957:
938:
926:
881:
861:
856:
842:
836:
827:
821:
812:
806:
789:
783:
778:
769:
763:
758:
745:
736:
731:
692:
675:
638:, the level of
627:
622:
602:
585:
556:
539:
534:
508:
482:
470:
458:
445:
433:
412:
399:
390:
381:
369:plea bargaining
357:
337:JonBenét Ramsey
321:
305:
269:
259:
219:
207:
135:
128:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3917:
3907:
3906:
3904:False evidence
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3844:
3843:
3840:Law portal
3831:
3828:
3827:
3825:
3824:
3819:
3812:
3806:
3804:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3765:
3763:
3759:
3758:
3756:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3719:
3717:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3693:
3691:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3657:
3655:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3606:Police perjury
3603:
3602:
3601:
3596:
3586:
3585:
3584:
3573:
3571:
3569:False evidence
3565:
3564:
3562:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3539:Jury tampering
3536:
3534:Sharp practice
3531:
3526:
3524:Kangaroo court
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3450:
3448:
3444:
3443:
3436:
3435:
3428:
3421:
3413:
3406:
3405:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3323:
3321:
3320:External links
3318:
3315:
3314:
3311:. 23 May 2024.
3296:
3270:
3244:
3219:
3196:
3170:
3144:
3113:
3088:
3062:
3041:
3036:The New Yorker
3019:
3008:
2994:
2968:
2954:
2949:Forensic Files
2937:
2915:
2909:978-0586034286
2908:
2886:
2857:
2818:
2792:
2766:
2738:
2719:(3): 451â466.
2693:
2674:(4): 197â206.
2657:
2646:(2): 200â218.
2613:
2594:(2): 192â200.
2573:
2560:(1): 157â170.
2537:
2501:
2474:(3): 224â226.
2453:
2434:(5): 867â874.
2405:
2385:
2365:
2323:
2312:(3): 221â233.
2289:
2245:
2214:
2191:
2170:
2155:
2125:
2100:
2073:(5): 715â723.
2053:
2034:
2008:
1983:
1957:
1935:
1906:
1895:(3): 332â343.
1862:
1836:
1817:(2): 160â167.
1797:
1771:
1752:
1723:
1684:
1641:
1606:
1586:
1545:
1526:(9): 951â964.
1503:
1477:
1459:
1424:
1405:(4): 249â253.
1382:
1342:
1301:
1294:
1267:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1236:Reid technique
1233:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1191:False evidence
1188:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1171:
1168:
1151:Main article:
1148:
1145:
1129:
1126:
1101:
1098:
1052:Reid Technique
1038:
1035:
1006:Main article:
1003:
1000:
976:
973:
956:
953:
937:
934:
925:
922:
880:
877:
860:
857:
855:
852:
838:Main article:
835:
832:
823:Main article:
820:
817:
808:Main article:
805:
802:
795:by throwing a
785:Main article:
782:
779:
777:
776:United Kingdom
774:
767:Sture Bergwall
765:Main article:
762:
759:
757:
754:
747:Mauha Fawcett
744:
741:
735:
732:
730:
727:
726:
725:
722:
711:
691:
688:
684:empirical data
674:
671:
626:
623:
621:
618:
601:
598:
584:
581:
567:and potential
555:
552:
538:
535:
533:
530:
507:
504:
481:
478:
469:
466:
457:
456:Mental illness
454:
444:
441:
432:
429:
416:Reid Technique
411:
410:Reid Technique
408:
398:
397:Police mindset
395:
389:
386:
380:
377:
365:Reid technique
356:
353:
320:
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301:
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227:Law portal
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3:
2:
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3223:
3207:
3200:
3185:
3181:
3174:
3158:
3154:
3148:
3132:
3128:
3127:Crime Library
3124:
3117:
3102:
3098:
3097:"Dereck Tice"
3092:
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3017:
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2900:Berkley Books
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2202:
2195:
2187:
2180:
2174:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2156:9780470713389
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2129:
2122:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2110:
2104:
2096:
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2084:
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2076:
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2068:
2064:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2038:
2023:
2019:
2012:
1997:
1993:
1987:
1972:
1968:
1961:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1939:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1911:
1902:
1898:
1894:
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1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1801:
1785:
1781:
1775:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1741:. 3 July 2017
1740:
1736:
1730:
1728:
1719:
1715:
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