Internal resistance to apartheid

2381:'s views of civil resistance into their rebellions. The strike drew a lot attention and encouraged other workers to strike. Strikes for higher wages, improved working conditions and the end of exploitation occurred throughout this period. Other industrial and municipal workers were inspired by the brick and tile workers and also walked off their jobs. A month later, 30,000 black labour workers were on strike in Durban. The entire apartheid system, relied on black labour workers to keep its economy growing, thus the strikes strategically disrupted the system of power. Not only did these strikes distort the nation's economy, they also inspired students to strike on their own. The Durban labour strikes were a foundation for rebellions such as the Soweto Uprising. 1631:. The size of the crowd was estimated to be 20,000 people. The crowd converged on the Sharpeville police station, singing and offering themselves up for arrest for not carrying their pass books. A group of police officers panicked and opened fire on the demonstrators shortly after the crowd approached the police station, killing 69 people and injuring 186. All the victims were black, and most of them had been shot in the back. Many witnesses stated that the crowd was not violent, but Colonel J. Pienaar, the senior police officer in charge on the day, said: "Hordes of natives surrounded the police station. My car was struck with a stone. If they do these things they must learn their lesson the hard way." The event became known as the 2404:'s accession to power, black trade unions were legalised and their role in the resistance struggle grew to all-new proportions. Before 1979, black trade unions had had no legal clout in dealings with employers. All strikes that took place were illegal, but they did help to establish the trade unions and their collective cause. Although the legalisation of black trade unions gave workers the legal right to strike, it also gave the government a degree of control over them, as they had to be registered and hand in their membership records to the government. They were not allowed to support political parties either, though some trade unions did not comply. 1806:(LLA) and the Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA) in Libya. American pressures split the PAC into a "reformist-diplomatic" group under Sibeko, Make, and Pokela, and a Ghanaian Maoist group led by Leballo. APLA was destroyed by the Tanzanian military at Chunya on 11 March 1980 for refusing to accept the reformist-diplomatic leadership by Make. Leballo was influential in the South African 1985 student risings and pivotal in removing Leabua Jonathan's regime in Lesotho, the stress of which caused his death. The PAC never recovered from the 1980 massacre of Leballo's troops and his death and only won 1.2% of the vote in the 1994 South African election. 1875:

people and injuring more than 200. The attack was one of the deadliest in the ANC's armed struggle against Apartheid. On 30 January 1981, ANC guerrillas launched a surprise attack on the SADF base in Matola, Mozambique, killing 16 SADF soldiers and wounding more than 40. On 8 December 1982, ANC guerrillas attacked the South African embassy in Maseru, Lesotho, killing three people and injuring several others and on 14 November 1987, the ANC targeted the Vlakplaas police station in Pretoria with a car bomb, killing three police officers and injuring 18 others. Vlakplaas was notorious for its role in the repression of anti-apartheid activists.

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zenith in September 1952, more than 2,500 people from 24 different towns were arrested for defying various laws. After five months, the African and Indian Congresses decided to call off the campaign because of the increasing number of riots, strikes and heavier sentences on participants. During the campaign, almost 8,000 black and Indian people had been detained; at the same time, ANC membership grew from 7,000 to 100,000, and the number of subdivisions went from 14 at the campaign's beginning to 87 at its end. There was also a change in leadership: shortly before the campaign ended, Albert Luthuli was elected as the new ANC president.

2514: 404: 392: 175: 234: 429: 202: 1798:, and became the PAC's acting president. Soon after he was elected as acting president, he made a public statement that he would launch an attack on South African Police with an army of 150.000 cadres. A few days after that statement, he send two women PAC couriers, Cynthia Lichaba and Thabisa Lethala, to post letters in Ladybrand, a South African town near Lesotho. The letters contained instructions and details of Poqo cadres. The two women were arrested by Basutoland police and correspondence addressed to poqo cells was confiscated. 3,246 PAC and Poqo members were arrested. 380: 368: 356: 344: 326: 314: 551: 540: 529: 518: 507: 496: 485: 474: 463: 452: 441: 285: 214: 161: 1598: 1509:(SACOD) and the South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU) met and founded the National Action Council for the Congress of the People. Delegates were drawn from each of these establishments and a nationwide organiser was assigned. A campaign was publicised for the drafting of a freedom charter, and asked for 10,000 volunteers to help with the conscription of views across the country and the Congress of the People. Demands were documented and sent to the local board of the National Action Council in preparation for drafting the Charter. 2027:(NUSAS) was the first organisation to represent students in South Africa, but it had a principally white membership, and black students saw this as an impediment. White students' concerns were more scholastic than political, and although the administration was multiracial, it was not addressing many of the issues of the mounting number of black students since 1960. This resulted in the 1967 creation of the University Christian Movement (UCM), an organisation rooted in African-American philosophy. 418: 191: 2940:. These anti-apartheid organisations led protests that were both active (e.g. marching through the streets with torches) and passive (e.g. standing silently in black). Two Jewish organisations were formed in 1985: Jews for Justice (in Cape Town) and Jews for Social Justice (in Johannesburg). They tried to reform South African society and build bridges between the white and black communities. The South African Jewish Board also passed a resolution rejecting apartheid in 1985. 3098: 1482:, the Public Safety Act and the Criminal Procedures Act. Criminal Law Amendment Act No 8 stated that " person who in any way whatsoever advises, encourages, incites, commands, aids or procures any other person ... or uses language calculated to cause any other person to commit an offence by way of protest against the law... shall be guilty of an offence." In December 1952, Mandela, Sisulu and 18 others were tried under the Suppression of Communism Act for leading the 50: 7622: 1180: 2929:

English-speaking white South Africans, Jews supported either the Progressive Party or the United Party. One organisation, the Union of Jewish Women, sought to alleviate the suffering of blacks through charitable projects and self-help schemes. Fourteen of the 23 whites involved in the 1956 Treason Trial were Jewish and all five whites of the 17 members of the African National Congress who were arrested for anti-apartheid activities in 1963 were Jewish.

274: 263: 247: 2631: 2461: 2317: 2155: 1895: 1695:. Slovo and the SACP were instrumental in bolstering MK and developing its tactics for guerrilla warfare, inciting insurrection and urban sabotage. White SACP members such as Jack Hodgson, who had served in the South African Army during World War II, were instrumental in training MK recruits. The SACP was also able to secure promises of military aid from the Soviet Union for the fledgling guerrilla army, and purchased 598: 2588:

Anglicans had generally followed a conciliatory approach to attempt to gain prior government approval. The Catholics also announced they were laying the groundwork to extend their approach to hospitals, homes and orphanages. In contrast, the Dutch Reformed Church continued to offer biblical justifications for segregation in 1977, although some reformers within the denomination challenged those rationales.

3034:(FSAW or FedSAW) was founded with the objectives to fight against racism and oppression of women and to make African women understand that they had rights both as human beings and as women. While female activists fought along men and participated to demonstrations and guerrilla movements, FSAW and ANCWL also acted independently and organised bus boycotts and campaigns against restrictive passes in 2069:

gave attention to the more global issues of black communities. School learners began to confront the Bantu education policy, which was designed to prepare them to be second-class citizens. They created the South African Student's Movement (SASM). It was particularly popular in Soweto, where the 1976 insurrection against Bantu Education would prove to be a crossroads in the fight against apartheid.

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recruited from the marginalised white intellectual scene. Many of ARM's members had been part of the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Unlike pro-peace opposition NUSAS, ARM was a radical organisation. Its backing came mostly from Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. By 1964, ARM ceased to exist, as most of its members having been arrested or fled the country.

2860:. Only white males were conscripted, but volunteers from other races were also drawn in. The army was used to fight battles on South African borders and in neighbouring states, against the liberation movements and the countries that supported them. During the 1980s, the military was also used to suppress township uprisings, which saw support for the ECC increase markedly. 1733: 1569:

communist government. The charge was based on statements and speeches made during the Defiance Campaign and the Congress of the People. The Freedom Charter was used as proof of the Alliance's communist intent and their conspiracy to oust the government. The State greatly relied on the evidence of Professor Arthur Murray, an ostensible authority on

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changes to its apartheid policies. Trade unions filled the gap left by banned political parties; they assumed tremendous importance because they could act on a wide variety of issues and problems for their people beyond those that were work-related, as links between work issues and broader community grievances became more palpable.

2049:(BPC) and the South African Students Movement (SASM), which represented high-school learners. The BPC originally attempted to unite charitable associations like the Education and Cultural Advancement of African People of South Africa before expanding into a political administration with Biko as its honorary president. 2020:

and merchandise that were meant to make black people "whiter", such as hair straighteners and skin lighteners. Western culture was criticised to be destructive and alien to Africa. Black people became conscious of their own distinctive identity and self-worth and grew more outspoken about their right to freedom.

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Johannesburg's Oxford Synagogue and Cape Town's Temple Israel established nurseries, medical clinics and adult education programs in the townships and provided legal aid for victims of apartheid laws. Many Jewish lawyers acted as nominees for non-whites who were not allowed to buy properties in white areas.

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1953, at the Cape ANC conference in Cradock, Professor Z. K. Matthews proposed a national convention of the people to study the national problems on an all-inclusive basis and outline a manifesto of amity. In March 1954, the ANC, the South African Indian Congress (SAIC), the Coloured People's Congress, the

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opinionated elements were prohibited during the 1970s because the government saw them as dangerous. Black Consciousness in South Africa adopted a drastic theory, much like socialism, as the liberation movement progressed to challenging class divisions and shifting from an ethnic stress to focusing more on

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was the only MP consistently voting against apartheid legislation for many years. Suzman's critics argue that she did not achieve any notable political successes, but helped to shore up claims by the Nationalists that internal, public criticism of apartheid was permitted. Suzman's supporters point to

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was another general secretary of the SACC. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in 1984 and used his position and popularity to denounce the government and its policies. On 29 February 1988 Tutu and some other church leaders were arrested during a protest in front of the parliamentary

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Growing displeasure among black students and the expansion of Black Consciousness led to the incarnation of the South African Students Organisation (SASO) at Turfloop. In July 1969, Steve Biko became the organisation's inaugural head, which boosted the mood of the students and the Black Consciousness

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The BCM drew most of its backing from high schools and tertiary institutions. Black Consciousness ethics were crucial in lifting consciousness amongst black people of their value and right to a better existence, along with the need to insist on these. The BCM's non-violent approach subsided in favour

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Mandela began planning for MK members to be given military training outside South Africa and slipped past authorities as he himself moved in and out of the country, earning him the moniker "The Black Pimpernel". Mandela initially avoided arrest within South Africa, but in August 1962, after receiving

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in Pretoria and protested against the pass laws. On the morning of 5 December 1956, the police detained 156 Congress Alliance leaders: 104 African, 23 white, 21 Indian and eight Coloured people. They were charged with high treason and plotting a violent overthrow of the state, and replacing it with a

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Although the movement was subjected to increasing restrictions, it was still able to struggle against the oppressive instruments of the state. Collaboration between the ANC and NIC increased and strengthened through the Defiance Campaign. Support for the ANC and its endeavours increased. On 15 August

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Some of the first violent incidents of resistance to the system was organised by the African Resistance Movement (ARM), which was founded in the 1960s and were responsible for setting off bombs at power stations (for example, the Park Station bomb). The membership of this group was almost completely

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The establishment of the trade union federations led to greater unity amongst the workers. The tremendous size of the federations gave them increased voice and power. In 1980 many black high-school and university students boycotted their schools and there was a country-wide protest over wages, rents

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The PAC's secretive martial arm was called Poqo, meaning "go it alone". It was prepared to take lives in the quest for liberation: it murdered whites, police informants and black people who supported the government. It sought to arrange a national revolution to conquer the white government, but poor

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The government also tightened the regulation of separate amenities. Protesters had argued to the courts that different amenities for different races ought to be of an equal standard. The Separate Amenities Act removed the façade of mere separation; it gave the owners of public amenities the right to

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When the ANCYL took control of the ANC, the organisation advocated a policy of open defiance and resistance for the first time, which unleashed the 1950s Programme of Action, instituted in 1949, that emphasised the right of the African people to freedom under the flag of African Nationalism. It laid

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in 1954, the Federation of South African Women adopted the "Women's Charter", which focused on rights specific to women both as women and mothers. The Charter referred both to human rights and women's rights and asked for universal equality and national liberation. In 1955, in a document drafted in

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The MDM emerged very late into the resistance, but it added to the effective resistance that the government faced. It organised a series of protests and further united the opposition movement. It was characteristic of the "mass resistance" that characterised the 1980s: many organisations united and

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There were still divides amongst the trade-union faction, which had the membership of only ten per cent of the country's workforce. Not all trade unions joined the federations, while agricultural and domestic workers did not have a trade union to join and were thus more liable. Nevertheless, by the

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Fewer trade-union officials (harassed less by the police and army) were jailed than political leaders in the townships. Union members could meet and make plans within the factory. In this way, trade unions played a pivotal role in the struggle against apartheid, and their efforts generally had wide

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After 1976, trade unions and their workers began to play a massive role in the fight against apartheid. With their thousands of members, the trade unions had great strength in numbers, which they used to their advantage to campaign for the rights of black workers and to force the government to make

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Police employed tear gas and violence against the strikers, but could not apprehend the masses of people involved. The strikers never chose individuals to stand for them because they would be the first to be detained. Blacks were not permitted trade unions, which meant that the government could not

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On 13 June 1976, nearly 400 SASM associates gathered to start a movement for mass action. An Action Committee was created with two agents from each school in Soweto. The committee became known as the Soweto Students' Representatives Council (SSRC). The protest was scheduled for 16 June 1976 and the

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and Orlando West Secondary Schools vented their grievances on school books and refused to attend their schools. This form of protest spread quickly to other schools in Soweto and peaked around 8 June 1976. When law enforcement officers attempted to arrest a regional SASM secretary, they were stoned

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The Azanian People's Organisation was the leading Black Consciousness group of the 1980s. Most of its support came from young black men and women—many of whom were educated at colleges and universities. The organisation received a lot of support in Soweto and also amongst journalists, who helped to

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With Black Consciousness increasing throughout black communities, a number of other organisations were formed to combat apartheid. In 1972, the Black People's Convention was founded, and the black Allied Worker's Union, formed in 1973, focused on black labour matters. The black community programmes

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which heavily influenced SACP and ANC political theory to a lesser extent. MK commanders hoped that through their actions, they could appeal to the masses and inspire a popular uprising against the South African regime. A popular uprising would compensate for the MK's weaknesses as it offered a way

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SASM supported its members with school work, exams and progress from lower school levels to university. Security forces continuously harassed its members until some of its leaders fled the country in 1973. In 1974 and 1975, some affiliates were captured and tried under the Suppression of Communism

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The Black Consciousness Movement began to change its focus during the 1980s from issues of nation and community to issues of class; as a result, they may have made of an impact than in the mid-1970s, though there is some evidence to suggest that it retained at least some influence, particularly in

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movement in the USA. The motto of the movement was "Black is Beautiful", first made popular by boxer Mohammed Ali. BCM endorsed black pride and African customs, and did much to alter feelings of inadequacy while raising awareness of the fallacy of blacks being seen as inferior. It defied practices

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Throughout the 1960s, MK was still a relatively small unit of poorly equipped guerrilla fighters incapable of taking significant action against the South African security forces. Success of the MK's strategy depended on its ability to stoke the anger of a politically conscious black underclass and

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In 1980, South Africa's National Congress of the Jewish Board of Deputies passed a resolution urging "all concerned and, in particular, members of our community to cooperate in securing the immediate amelioration and ultimate removal of all unjust discriminatory laws and practices based on race,

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The influence of the Durban strikes extended to other parts of the country. In 1973 and 1974 opposition to labour expanded to the entire country. There was also a growing resilience among black workers as they found that the state did not retort as harshly as they had expected. They began to form

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The Congress of South African Students (COSAS) was aimed at co-ordinating the education struggle and organised strikes, boycotts and mass protests around community issues. After 1976 it made a number of demands from the Department of Education and Training (DET), including the scrapping of matric

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The government was able to dismantle the ANC's power within South Africa's borders by incarcerating leaders of MK and the ANC, and greatly affect its efficiency outside of them. The ANC faced many problems in the aftermath of the Rivonia Trial, as its inner administration was severely damaged. By

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From 1961 to 1963, the ground in South Africa was slowly being readied for armed revolution. A hierarchical network of covert ANC cells was created for underground operations, military aid solicited from sympathetic African states and the Soviet Union, and a guerrilla training camp established in

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The Sharpeville Massacre persuaded several anti-apartheid movements that nonviolent civil disobedience alone was ineffective at encouraging the National Party government to seek reform. The resurgent tide of armed revolutions in many developing nations and European colonial territories during the

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after the 11 pm curfew that forbade black people's presence. The group was apprehended, but the rest of the country followed its example. Defiance spread throughout the country and black people disregarded racial laws; for example, they walked through "whites only" entries. At the campaign's

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On 24 July 1964, Frederick John Harris, an associate of ARM, planted a time bomb in the Johannesburg station. One person was killed and 22 were injured. Harris explained that he had wanted to show that ARM still existed, but both ARM and the ANC slammed his actions. He was sentenced to death and

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The government's suppression of anti-apartheid political parties limited their influence but not church activism. The government was far less likely to attack or arrest religious leaders, allowing them to potentially be more politically active in the resistance, though the government took action

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In 1986, the National Education Crisis Committee (NECC) was created from parents, teachers and students after the school boycotts. It encouraged students to return to their studies and protest in less disruptive ways to their education. Consumer boycotts were recommended instead and teachers and

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against the South African government. After Sharpeville the ANC and PAC were banned. The SACP denied it existed, having dissolved in 1950 to escape banning as the CPSA. Leaders like Mandela and Sobukwe were either in jail or in exile. Consequently, there were serious mutinies in Angolan camps by

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By 1963, one of the few envoys for tertiary students was the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Although the organisation was meant to be non-racial and anti-government, it was primarily made up of white English students from customarily broad-minded universities such as those in

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Student organisations played a significant role in the Soweto uprisings, and after 1976 protests by school children became frequent. There were two major urban school boycotts in 1980 and 1983 that continued for months. Both involved black, Indian and coloured children. There were also extended

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The resentment grew until 30 April 1976, when children at Orlando West Junior School in Soweto went on strike and refused to go to school. Their rebellion spread to many other schools in Soweto. Students formed an Action Committee (later known as the Soweto Students' Representative Council) and

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In 1974 the Afrikaans Medium Decree forced all black schools to use Afrikaans and English in a 50–50 mix as languages of instruction. The intention was to forcibly promote the use of Afrikaans among black Africans. The Afrikaner-dominated government used the clause of the 1909 Constitution that

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The role of Black Consciousness could be clearly seen in the approach of the National Forum, which believed that the struggle should hold little or no place for whites. The ideal of blacks leading the resistance campaign was an important aim of the traditional Black Consciousness groups, and it

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Despite these developments, the ANC was able to launch several successful guerrilla attacks against the South African Defense Force from their locations in-hiding. For example, On 20 May 1983, the ANC detonated a car bomb outside the South African Air Force headquarters in Pretoria, killing 19

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After apartheid began, South Africa economically flourished due to its newly found trade relations. Products such as gold and coal were being traded along the nation's coastal lines to western countries. The products were mined by black labour workers, who were split up by Bantustan law, which

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were instrumental in persuading the ANC's executive to adopt armed struggle. Mandela first advocated this option during the Defiance Campaign of 1952, but his proposal was rejected by his fellow activists for being too radical. However, with the subsequent success of revolutionary struggles in

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Many Jewish South Africans, both individuals and organisations, helped support the anti-apartheid movement. It was estimated that Jews were disproportionately represented (some sources maintain by as much as 2,500%) among whites involved in anti-apartheid political activities. Much like other

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Later in 1989, the MDM organised a number of peaceful marches against the State of Emergency (extended to four years now) in the major cities. Even though these marches were illegal, no-one was arrested—evidence that apartheid was coming to an end and that the government's hold was weakening.

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article reported that the Catholic Church in South Africa had caught up and surpassed Protestant Churches by authorizing the admission of black students to previously all-white schools. This was done in disregard of South African law which required segregation. Protestant churches such as the

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that took hold of South Africa. Although these female activists were rarely at the head of the main organisations, at least at the beginning of the movement, they were prime actors. One of the earliest organisations was The Bantu Women's League founded in 1913. In the 1930s and 1940s, female

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in 1974, which enshrined the principles of peaceful negotiated transition of power and equality for all. It was the first of such agreements by black and white political leaders in South Africa. In 1975 he led a breakaway from the United Party due to its ineffective approach to criticism of

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After the carnage in Soweto the ANC's Nelson Mandela grudgingly concurred that bloodshed was the only means left to convince the NP to accede to commands for an end to its apartheid policy. A subversive plan of terror was mapped out, with Biko and the BCM at the forefront. The BCM and other

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In addition to the well-known high profile Jewish anti-apartheid personalities, there were very many ordinary Jews who expressed their revulsion of apartheid in diverse ways and contributed to its eventual downfall. Many Jews actively provided humanitarian assistance for black communities.

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The Mass Democratic Movement played a brief but very important role in the resistance. It was formed in 1989 as an alliance between the UDF and COSATU, and organised a campaign that aimed to end segregation in hospitals, schools and beaches. The campaign was successful and managed to bring

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When the BCM's principles were revealed, a number of fresh organisations staunch in their endorsement of black liberation were founded. The Azanian People's Organisation was only launched in 1978, a long time after the birth of the Black Consciousness Movement, as a medium for its message.

1494:, other famous ANC members, Indian Congress, and trade union chiefs' activities were all proscribed under the Suppression of Communism Act. The proscription meant that the headship was restricted to their homes and adjacent areas and they were banned from attending public gatherings. 2140:

23 people were killed on the first day of rioting. The following day 1,500 heavily armed police officers were deployed to Soweto. Crowd control methods used by South African police were primarily dispersal techniques. Many of the officers shot indiscriminately and killed 176 people.

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Natal, Cape Town, the Witwatersrand and Grahamstown. These students sympathised the effort against the state. By 1967, however, NUSAS was prohibited from functioning on black universities, which made it almost impossible for black Student Representative Councils to join the union.

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that had been endorsed by the ANC's National Executive on the eve of the Congress. Among the organisations present were the Indian Congress and the ANC. The Freedom Charter articulated a vision for South Africa that radically differed from the partition policy of apartheid. It:

1426:. They proposed that white authority could only be overthrown through mass campaigns. The ideals of the ANC and ANCYL are stated in the ANC official web site and state, concerning the Tripartite Alliance: "The Alliance is founded on a common commitment to the objectives of the 2136:

Stones were thrown in a confrontation with police, who had barricaded the road along the intended route. Attempts to disperse the crowd with dogs and tear gas failed; pandemonium broke out when the police fired shots into the crowd after they were surrounded by the students.

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in 1985. The newly formed trade-union governing body, committed to improved working conditions and the fight against apartheid, organised a nationwide strike the following year, and a new State of Emergency was declared. COSATU's membership quickly grew to 500,000.

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in 1838. Over the next eighteen months, MK carried out 200 acts of sabotage, mostly targeting pass offices, power pylons, and police stations. In October 1962 the ANC publicly declared responsibility for the sabotage campaign and acknowledged the existence of MK.

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By the end of the campaign, the government was forced to temporarily relax its apartheid legislation. Once things had calmed down, however, the government responded harshly and took several extreme measures, among which were the Unlawful Organisations Act, the

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charge was dropped and all eight were sentenced to life imprisonment. They did not get the death penalty, as it received too much international criticism. Goldberg was sent to the Pretoria Central Prison, and the other seven were imprisoned on Robben Island.

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became apathetic. A revival in anti-apartheid sentiment came in the late 1960s and mid-1970s from a more radical generation. During this epoch, new anti-apartheid ideas and establishments were created, and they gathered support from across South Africa.

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Prior to the 1960s, the NP government managed to quell much of the anti-apartheid opposition within South Africa by outlawing movements like the ANC and PAC, and driving their leaders into exile or captivity. Tertiary-education organisations such as the

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The army played a major role in the government's maintenance of its apartheid policies. It expanded considerably to fight the resistance, and more money was spent on increasing its effectiveness. It is estimated that between 4 billion and 5 billion

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in Copenhagen and in 1980 an essay on the role of women in the liberation movement was prepared for the United Nations World Conference, which was crucial for the recognition of Southern African women and their role in the anti-apartheid movement.

2038:. White students were permitted to live on university grounds, but black students were relegated to accommodation further away in a church vestibule, which led to the creation of the South African Students Organisation (SASO), under Biko, in 1969. 1468:

The Programme of Action was launched with the Defiance Campaign in June 1952. By defying the laws, the organisation hoped to incite mass arrests that would overwhelm the government. Mandela led a crowd of 50 men down the streets of a white area in

1345:, but continued to deny political rights to black South Africans. The resulting controversy triggered a new wave of anti-apartheid social movements and community groups which articulated their interests through a national front in politics, the 1715:

On 16 December 1961, MK operatives bombed a number of public facilities in several major South African cities, namely Johannesburg, Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and Durban. This programme of controlled sabotage was timed to coincide with the

1834:, the defence trial attorney, was also arrested and tried shortly thereafter. The instructions that Mandela gave to make MK an African force were ignored: it continued to be organised and led by the SACP. The trial was condemned by the 2579:

Although church leaders were not completely immune to prosecution, they were able to criticise the government more freely than the leaders of militant groups. They were pivotal in altering public opinion regarding apartheid policies.

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With South Africa facing an unprecedented shortage of skilled white labour, the government was forced to allow black people to fill the vacancies. This, in turn, led to an increase in spending on black, Coloured and Indian education.

1322:(MK). From 1976 to 1987 MK carried out a series of successful bomb attacks targeting government facilities, transportation lines, power stations, and other civil infrastructure. South Africa's military often retaliated by raiding ANC 1854:

The government's effort at defeating all opposition had been effective. The State of Emergency was de-proclaimed, the economy boomed and the government began implementing apartheid by building the infrastructures of the ten separate

1465:, the Bantu Administration Act and other legislation, warning that refusal to do so would be met with a campaign of defiance. Malan referred the Council to the Native Affairs Department and threatened to treat insolence callously. 2265:

After the Sharpeville Massacre, some black student organisations were founded but short-lived under state proscription and antagonism from university staff. They were also unsuccessful in cooperating effectively with one another.

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Biko was taken into custody on 18 August 1977 and brutally tortured by unidentified security personnel until he lapsed into a coma. He was not medically treated for three days and died in Pretoria. At the subsequent inquest, the

2789:'s lawyer until he was also arrested and charged. Through the 1970s and 1980s Schwarz was amongst the most forthright and effective campaigners against apartheid in Parliament who was feared by many National Party ministers. 2691:

While the majority of white South African voters supported the apartheid system for the first few decades, a minority fervently opposed it. Although assassination attempts against government members were rare, Prime Minister

1589:. Halfway through the drawn-out trial, charges against 61 of the accused were withdrawn, and, five years after their arrest, the remaining 30 were acquitted after the court held that the state had failed to prove its case. 3059:

preparation for the Congress of People, the FSAW made more demands, including free education for children, proper housing facilities and good working conditions, such as the abolition of child labour and a minimum wage.

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and bus fares. In 1982, there were 394 strikes involving 141,571 workers. FOSATU and CUSA grew from 70,000 members in 1979 to 320,000 by 1983, which is also the year that the National Forum and the UDF were established.

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and Zululand University began to resist apartheid; they were fashioned by the Extension of University Education Act of 1959, which guaranteed that black and white students would be taught individually and inequitably.

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1964, the ANC went into hiding and planned guerilla activities from overseas. At the end of the 1960s, new organisations and ideas would form to confront apartheid. The next key act of opposition came in 1976 with the

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suggested ideas of autonomy and Black Pride by means of their anti-colonialist writings. Scholars grew in assurance and became far more candid about the NP's bigoted policies and the repression of the black people.

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in 1984 when the new constitution was established. COSAS and FOSATU organised the longest stay-away in South African history, and there were 469 strikes that year, amounting to 378,000 hours in lost business time.

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Students from Soweto high schools Orlando West and Diepkloof created the African Students Movement in 1970, which spread to the Eastern Cape and Transvaal, encouraging other high schools. In March 1972, the

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In 1968, PAC was expelled from Maseru (where it was allied with the opposition Basutoland Congress Party) and Zambia (which was friendlier to the ANC). Between 1974 and 1976 Leballo and Ntantala trained the

1817:

for trying to depose the government and sabotage. Mandela, along with those arrested at Lilliesleaf and another 24 co-conspirators, were tried. Many of them, including Tambo, had already fled the country.

1679:(abbreviated as MK) had been set up by the ANC to coordinate underground militant activity throughout South Africa. By the end of 1962 the ANC established an MK high command consisting of Mandela, Sisulu, 2739:

was in minority opposition politics for over 40 years and was one of the most prominent opponents of the National Party and its policy of apartheid. After assisting in the 1948 general election, Schwarz,

2597:

segregation to an end. Some historians, however, argue that this occurred because the government had planned to end segregation anyway and did not, therefore, feel at all threatened by the MDM's actions.

3053:

At the same time, South African women fought against gender discrimination and called for rights specific to women, such as family, children, gender equality and access to education. At a conference in

2844:. The latter was formed in 1983 to oppose the conscription of white males into the South African military. The ECC's support base was not particularly large, but the government still banned it in 1988. 1752:. They were detained and indicted with sabotage and attempting to bring down the government. At the same time, police collected evidence to be used in the trial that allowed them to arrest others like 2434:

In accordance with the State of Emergency in 1985, COSAS was banned and many UDF leaders were arrested. A meeting in Zambia between leaders of white businesses and the ANC influenced the formation of

2973:

Congress considers that in South Africa the first objective is the removal of discrimination based on race, and is prepared to co-operate with people of all groups who share this ideological outlook.

2125:

The decree was resented deeply by blacks as Afrikaans was widely viewed, in the words of Desmond Tutu and Dean of Johannesburg, as "the language of the oppressor". Teacher organisations such as the

2948:

creed, or colour". This inspired some Jews to intensify their anti-apartheid activism, but the bulk of the community either emigrated or avoided public conflict with the National Party government.

1360:

Secret bilateral negotiations to end apartheid commenced in 1987 as the National Party reacted to increased external pressure and the atmosphere of political unrest. Leading ANC officials such as

1545:

The congress delegates had consented to almost all the sections of the charter when the police announced that they suspected treason and recorded the names and addresses of all those present.

2373:

In 1973, labour action in South Africa was renewed as a result of the numerous strikes in Durban. Abuse of black workers was common, and many black people were consequently paid less than a

4566: 3145:

The ANC made its decision to begin passive resistance against the apartheid system on 17 December 1950. The first significant organised protests against apartheid did not occur until the

1783:

until he died in 1978. Police repeatedly lengthened his incarceration through the "Sobukwe clause", which permitted the state to detain people even after they had served their sentences.

3062:

Their actions and demands gradually attracted the attention of the United Nations and put pressure on the international community. In 1954, Ngoyi attended the World Congress of Women in

4202: 2100:

shaped the thinking of many 1980s activists, especially those in the workforce. Furthermore, the NF focused on workers' issues, which became more and more important to BC supporters.

1748:

In July 1963, the police found the location of the MK headquarters at Lilliesleaf. They raided the farm and arrested many major leaders of the ANC and MK, including Sisulu, Mbeki and

2065:. The BCM became more worried about the destiny of the black people as workers and believed that "economic and political exploitation has reduced the black people into a class". 2724:

for "handing out" too much South African land to the Bantustans. In parliamentary elections during the 1970s and 1980s between 15% and 20% of white voters voted for the liberal

3022:

activists were prevalent in trade union movements, which also served as a vehicle for future organisation. In the 1950s, women-exclusive organisations were created such as the

7431: 2614: 3616:"Historical Overview of Black Resistance, 1932–1952 –The Congress of the People and Freedom Charter Campaign by Ismail Vadi, New Delhi, 1995 | South African History Online" 2554:

was another general secretary of the SACC. He was detained four times because of his criticism of the government and once allegedly had an attempt on his life initiated by

1825:" speech. In June 1964, eight were found guilty of terrorism, sabotage, planning and executing guerrilla warfare and working towards an armed invasion of the country. The 5579: 2107:

Although it did not achieve quite the same level of support that it had in the late 1970s, Black Consciousness still influenced the thinking of a few resistance groups.

3086:. Ngoyi joined the ANC National Executive and was elected first vice-president and later president of FSAW in 1959. Many of these leaders served long prison sentences. 2932:

Some Jewish university students vehemently opposed the apartheid movement. A large number of Jews were also involved in organisations such as the Springbok Legion, the

2242:

When the Southern Transvaal local Bantu Education Department concluded that all junior secondary black students had to be taught in Afrikaans in 1974, SASM groups at

1430:, and the need to unite the largest possible cross-section of South Africans behind these objectives," citing the actionable intent and their goal to end oppression. 1291:

and environmental regulations perceived as unjust by black farmers resulted in a series of arsons targeting sugarcane plantations. Organisations such as the ANC, the

6209: 2385:

act against any particular individuals. Strikes usually concluded when income boosts were tendered, but these were generally lower than what had been insisted upon.

3615: 3667: 1380:. Further apartheid laws were abolished on 17 June 1991, and multiparty negotiations proceeded until the first multi-racial general election held in April 1994. 2294:

examination fees. COSAS barred many DET officials from entering schools, demanded that all students pass their exams—"pass one, pass all"—and disrupted exams.

1303:, some anti-apartheid movements, including the ANC and PAC, began a shift in tactics from peaceful non-cooperation to the formation of armed resistance wings. 2239:

and Terrorism Acts, which hindered the SASM's progress. Many headmasters and headmistresses forbade the organisation from becoming involved in their schools.

1353:(AZAPO), a third militant force, escalated into sectarian violence as the three groups fought for influence. The government took the opportunity to declare a 6998: 2836:

was also Chief of Staff of the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe. Whites also played a significant role in opposing apartheid during the 1980s through the

2084:

There was a strong reaction both within and outside South Africa. Foreign countries imposed even more stringent sanctions, and the United Nations imposed an

1745:

some inside information, the police put up a roadblock and captured him. MK's success declined with his arrest and the police infiltrated the organisation.

1712:

to defeat the National Party politically without having to engage in a direct military confrontation which the guerrillas would have no hope of winning.

1330: 17: 3984: 2285:

Movement. Under the unified configuration of SASO, the principles of Black Consciousness came to the forefront as a fresh incentive for the strugglers.

6456: 6160: 2752:, an ex-soldiers' movement to protest against the disenfranchisement of the coloured people in South Africa. From the 1960s, when he was Leader of the 2716:(the official opposition in 1948–1977) initially opposed the Nationalists' apartheid program and favoured the dismantling of racial segregation by the 2548:(SACC), a religious association that supported anti-apartheid activities. It also notably refused to condemn violence as a means of ending apartheid. 2370:

designated different black South African tribes to work in give areas. It was a strategic move that allowed the white people to easily direct labour.

1771:

The PAC did not have adequate direction. Many PAC principals were taken into custody on 21 March 1960, and those released were hampered by bans. When

7601: 7535: 2652: 2478: 2334: 2176: 1916: 1418:, elected to the ANC's National Executive that year, the ANCYL advocated a radical black nationalist programme that combined the Africanist ideas of 5071: 4591: 4039:. Jansen, Martin,, Thompson, Lynn., Ward, Donovan., Shapiro Jonathan., Mayibuye centre. Cape Town: Workers’ World Media Productions. pp. II-4. 2216:

protests in rural areas in 1985 and 1986. In all of these areas, schools were closed and thousands of students, teachers and parents were arrested.

7656: 7608: 2126: 708: 2377:. In January, 2,000 workers of the Coronation Brick and Tile Company went on strike for a pay raise (from under R10 to R20 a week), incorporating 1623:. The PAC called for blacks to demonstrate against pass books on 21 March 1960. One of the mass demonstrations organised by the PAC took place at 665: 7103: 6376: 6167: 5572: 5140: 3569: 2983: 5874: 5355: 7417: 7396: 7257: 6174: 2085: 1402:(ANC) became the primary force in opposition to the government after its moderate leadership was superseded by the organisation's more radical 1644:

early 1960s gave ANC and PAC leaders the idea that nonviolent civil disobedience should be complemented by acts of insurrection and sabotage.

7019: 6369: 2576:(WARC). He influenced the founding the UDF and was once jailed for a month after organising a march demanding the release of Nelson Mandela. 1246: 675: 98: 6935: 6851: 6306: 6285: 5201: 3172: 660: 7389: 6255: 6216: 3771: 1368:

were released from prison between 1987 and 1989, and in 1990 the ANC and PAC were formally delisted as banned organisations by President

1450:, boycotts, strikes and occasional violent clashes. The 1950 May Day stay-away was a strong, successful expression of black grievances. 7661: 7626: 7068: 6424: 6045: 5565: 5430: 3027: 5471: 4175: 2088:. Young blacks inside South Africa committed themselves even more fervently to the struggle against apartheid, under the catchphrase " 7452: 7313: 7236: 6526: 5451: 1968:

and the banning of the ANC and PAC, the struggle within South Africa was significantly suppressed. The age bracket that had seen the

1245:(NP) government, coupled with South Africa's growing international isolation and economic sanctions, were instrumental in leading to 610: 278: 4409: 1541:

that the people should "share in the country's wealth" – a statement often been interpreted as a call for socialist nationalisation.

7594: 7382: 7117: 6449: 2415:(CUSA), which was influenced strongly by the ideas of Black Consciousness and wanted to work to ensure black leadership of unions. 2408: 2260: 2024: 765: 2411:(FOSATU) was formed as the first genuinely national and non-racial trade union federation in South Africa. It was followed by the 7676: 7375: 7222: 7180: 6928: 6809: 6392: 5927: 5865: 4539: 1993: 1786:

The PAC's management difficulties also existed in exile. When they were outlawed, PAC leaders set up headquarters in places like

1306:

Mass strikes and student demonstrations continued into the 1970s, powered by growing black unemployment, the unpopularity of the

1150: 360: 5325: 7473: 7438: 6956: 6153: 2837: 2544:, Ben Marais and John de Gruchy. Naudé and the Institute were banned in 1977, but he later became the general secretary of the 2537: 1403: 1346: 1279:, and "petty apartheid" segregation in public facilities. Some anti-apartheid demonstrations resulted in widespread rioting in 1066: 815: 800: 289: 4146: 3921:. Saunders, Christopher C.,, Palgrave Connect (Online service) (5th ed.). Hampshire : Macmillan Press. pp. 403–405. 7347: 6914: 6008: 4626: 4424: 4044: 3959: 3926: 3680: 3443: 3327: 1501:

demanded that apartheid be challenged by the United Nations, which led to the establishment of a UN commission on apartheid.

1490:

bar people on the basis of colour or race and made it lawful for different races to be treated inequitably. Sisulu, Mandela,

1665:, the ANC executive became increasingly more open to suggestions by Mandela and Sisulu that it was time for armed struggle. 7646: 7563: 7354: 7264: 6886: 3121: 840: 620: 7500: 7445: 7361: 7208: 6872: 6435: 6102: 6072: 5297: 2573: 2279: 2232: 2225: 1506: 1264: 1250: 1209: 720: 625: 251: 118: 5034:

Slightly more contentious was the movement's decision to stop working with white liberals in multi-racial organisations.

4408:

Magubane, Bernard; Bonner, Philip; Sithole, Jabulane; Delius, Peter; Cherry, Janet; Gibbs, Patt; April, Thozama (2010).

1976:

The surfacing of the South African Black Consciousness Movement was influenced by its American equivalent, the American

7651: 7459: 7424: 7368: 6893: 6858: 6547: 5996: 5985: 5548: 5529: 5004: 4523: 4330: 3552: 3527: 3499: 3474: 3416: 3391: 3355: 3295: 3288:

From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa

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her use of her parliamentary privileges to help the poorest and most disempowered South Africans in any way she could.

2696:, called the "architect of grand apartheid", had two attempts made on his life (the second of which was successful) by 1183: 750: 5157: 3042:. 20,000 women attended the demonstrations. Many participants were arrested, forced into exile or imprisoned, such as 7243: 7110: 7089: 7047: 6589: 6262: 5492: 5235: 5215: 5116: 4787: 4366: 3111: 3031: 2923: 2678: 2545: 2500: 2412: 2356: 2202: 2078: 2041:

The BCM was an umbrella organisation for groups such as SASO. It was created in 1967, and among its members were the

1942: 1760:(Operation Comeback), a plan for bringing exiles back into the country. It also revealed that MK was planning to use 1616: 1606: 1549: 1296: 825: 795: 255: 4899:

Callinicos, Luli (1 September 2012). "Oliver Tambo and the Dilemma of the Camp Mutinies in Angola in the Eighties".

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that led to the realignment of opposition politics in South Africa. Schwarz was one of the defence attorneys in the

2660: 2184: 1924: 7173: 7012: 6181: 6038: 5271: 4676:

Lissoni, Arianna (1 June 2009). "Transformations in the ANC External Mission and Umkhonto we Sizwe, c. 1960–1969".

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and the Coloured People's Congress, agreed on a plan for the defiance of unfair laws. They wrote to Prime Minister

1350: 770: 239: 5384:(International Defense and Aid Fund for Southern Africa. Revised and enlarged edition, London, March 1985), p. 86. 4968: 4722: 3433: 1299:(PAC) remained preoccupied with organising student strikes and work boycotts between 1959 and 1960. Following the 7403: 7166: 7082: 6963: 6949: 6921: 6188: 6132: 4592:"Police arrest members of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) High Command at Lilliesleaf Farm | South African History Online" 3067: 1835: 1130: 755: 650: 6341: 5253: 7152: 7061: 6816: 6575: 2817:, an organisation of white women formed in 1955 to oppose the removal of Coloured (mixed-race) voters from the 2656: 2482: 2338: 2180: 1920: 1427: 1287:

in 1952, but organised destruction of property was not deliberately employed until 1959. That year, anger over

820: 3874:

Vahed, Goolam (2013). ""f***ed and trussed rather securely by the law": The 1952 Defiance Campaign in Natal".

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its armed struggle was essentially a strategic attempt at mass socialisation.This reflected the principles of

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During the 1970s, resistance grew stronger through trade unions and strikes, and was then spearheaded by the

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radicalised a generation of black activists and greatly bolstered the strength of the ANC's guerrilla force,

1292: 1242: 973: 850: 835: 810: 226: 6348: 5236:"Legendary Heroes of Africa - Stamps to Commemorate Jewish anti Apartheid South African Liberation struggle" 7570: 7514: 7340: 7229: 7201: 7138: 6830: 6688: 4279: 4009: 2046: 2001: 1884: 1479: 1311: 1115: 730: 206: 6355: 4227: 1821:

The ANC used the lawsuit to draw international interest to its cause. During the trial, Mandela gave his "

7666: 7507: 7410: 7285: 7194: 7040: 6399: 5068: 3822: 3745: 2774: 2761: 2709: 2089: 1377: 988: 830: 775: 685: 680: 267: 5021: 6977: 6498: 6406: 6362: 6139: 6017: 5916: 2753: 1670: 690: 4873:

Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs (7 January 2008).

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Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present.

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was used to increase the size of the army, with stiff prison sentences imposed for draft evasion or

2821:

voters' roll. Although they failed, the organisation continued to assist blacks with issues such as

2104:

popularise its views. It also focused on workers' issues, but refused to form any ties with whites.

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end of this period, the unions emerged as one of the most effective vehicles for black opposition.

2165: 1905: 1860: 1843:

Soweto and Cape student recruits angry at the corrupt and brutal consequences of minority control.

1780: 1307: 1125: 745: 41: 4120: 2513: 948: 6970: 6865: 6732: 6582: 6463: 6195: 5978: 5888: 2765: 2760:, he became well-known and achieved prominence as a race relations and economic reformist in the 2645: 2471: 2327: 2169: 1957: 1909: 1839: 1803: 1263:

was adopted as a formal South African government policy by the NP following their victory in the

1229:

originated from several independent sectors of South African society and took forms ranging from

1202: 1155: 923: 3180: 6540: 6505: 5707: 4814: 3383: 3377: 3311: 2705: 2697: 1619:(PAC) in 1959. First on the PAC's agenda was a series of nationwide demonstrations against the 855: 4942: 4382: 3796: 2000:'s leadership. A medical student, Biko was the main force behind the growth of South Africa's 7075: 7005: 6900: 6795: 6649: 6299: 6079: 5992: 5787: 5607: 5404:

The Struggle For South Africa: A Reference Guide to Movements, Organizations and Institutions

4567:"Nelson Mandela conquered apartheid, united his country and inspired the world - Macleans.ca" 3466: 3460: 3347: 3341: 3023: 2966: 2533: 2012: 1342: 1334: 1234: 1120: 1110: 805: 725: 670: 166: 5425: 6823: 6709: 6477: 6413: 6146: 5909: 5902: 5854: 5637: 5468: 4749: 4179: 3047: 3018: 2876: 2769: 1969: 1822: 1632: 1610: 1300: 1087: 888: 845: 695: 635: 195: 5446: 4464: 1635:. In the aftermath the government banned the African National Congress (ANC) and the PAC. 8: 7278: 7250: 7124: 6642: 6635: 6568: 6533: 6484: 5964: 5771: 4874: 4872: 4438: 3520:

Native vs Settler: Ethnic Conflict in Israel/Palestine, Northern Ireland and South Africa

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of a more radical element as its resolve to attain liberty was met with state hostility.

1868: 1165: 5005:"1960 - 1994: Armed Struggle and Popular Resistance | South African History Online" 2251:

organisers were determined to only use aggression if they were assaulted by the police.

5971: 5134: 4924: 4701: 4176:"The Sharpeville Massacre: Its historic significance in the struggle against apartheid" 3899: 3315: 2849: 2757: 2243: 1573:

and Communism. His evidence was that the ANC papers were full of communist terms like "

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students were encouraged to work together to develop an alternative education system.

1597: 873: 7556: 7542: 6879: 6695: 6519: 6109: 5699: 5629: 5544: 5525: 5333: 5122: 5112: 5105: 4928: 4916: 4848: 4793: 4783: 4705: 4693: 4650: 4632: 4622: 4519: 4496: 4430: 4420: 4362: 4326: 4287: 4050: 4040: 3965: 3955: 3932: 3922: 3903: 3891: 3727: 3686: 3676: 3548: 3523: 3495: 3470: 3439: 3412: 3387: 3351: 3323: 3291: 3266: 3232: 3207: 3146: 2701: 2031: 1761: 1674: 1483: 1393: 1319: 1272: 1238: 1076: 790: 218: 5557: 5181: 4323:

A Military History of South Africa: From the Dutch-Khoi Wars to the End of Apartheid

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was notable among South African anti-apartheid activists from the Indian diaspora.

2717: 2693: 1700: 1658: 1615:

In 1958 a group of disenchanted ANC members broke away from the ANC and formed the

1028: 978: 908: 422: 5486:

ANC, Secretariat for the World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women.

4037:

60 Years of the freedom charter : no cause to celebrate for the working class

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dealt with different aspects of the fight against apartheid and its implications.

2133:

organised a mass rally for 16 June 1976. The protest was intended to be peaceful.

6802: 6716: 6610: 6278: 6202: 6123: 5847: 5731: 5723: 5715: 5691: 5496: 5475: 5455: 5434: 5075: 4912: 3675:. Worger, William H. (2nd ed.). Harlow, England: Longman. pp. 141–143. 3601: 2809: 2116: 2045:, the black Community Programme (which directed welfare schemes for blacks), the 1848: 1696: 1565: 1521: 1462: 1315: 1230: 1145: 1135: 645: 5356:"60 Iconic Women — The people behind the 1956 Women's March to Pretoria (11-20)" 5045:"Apartheid | South Africa, Definition, Facts, Beginning, & End | Britannica" 3849:"United Nations and Apartheid Timeline 1946-1994 | South African History Online" 2903: 2529: 1376:

was released from prison. The same year, MK reached a formal ceasefire with the

1349:(UDF). Simultaneously, inter-factional rivalry between the ANC, the PAC and the 1329:

The NP made several attempts to reform the apartheid system, beginning with the

1275:

of passive resistance. Subsequent civil disobedience protests targeted curfews,

7549: 7271: 7145: 6788: 6702: 6385: 6327: 6320: 6313: 6031: 5957: 5803: 5763: 5220: 4010:"Congress of the People and the Freedom Charter | South African History Online" 3083: 2989: 2933: 2828:

Covert resistance was expressed by banned organisations like the largely white

2786: 2749: 2378: 1985: 1772: 1753: 1749: 1717: 1684: 1662: 1645: 1582: 1561: 1491: 1411: 1373: 1369: 1280: 1008: 998: 968: 953: 933: 928: 918: 893: 544: 456: 408: 384: 330: 296: 54: 5301: 4689: 3492:

Apartheid's Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and Mozambique

2892: 1790:, London and the United States. In 1962, Potlako Leballo left the country for 1486:. They received nine months' imprisonment, which was suspended for two years. 7640: 7466: 7187: 6292: 6271: 6241: 6234: 5943: 5126: 5044: 4920: 4852: 4697: 4500: 4291: 4054: 3969: 3936: 3895: 3731: 3690: 2884: 2818: 2778: 2764:. As an early and powerful advocate of non-violent resistance, he signed the 2736: 2551: 2541: 2427: 2423: 2062: 2011:

The BCM faction was founded by Biko and materialised out of the ideas of the

1965: 1810: 1787: 1776: 1649: 1586: 1435: 1419: 1407: 1365: 1160: 1033: 983: 655: 640: 522: 500: 348: 4797: 4636: 4434: 3985:"South Africa's Freedom Charter campaign holds lessons for a fairer society" 3705: 3046:. In 1958, 2000 women were arrested during an anti-pass campaign. After the 2863:

Literary opposition to apartheid came from internationally known figures in

7131: 6740: 6561: 6512: 5675: 5589: 4723:"Pan Africanist Congress timeline 1959-2011 | South African History Online" 4481: 4171: 4095:"Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) | South African History Online" 3079: 3055: 3043: 2853: 2782: 2745: 2729: 2562: 2555: 1864: 1831: 1737: 1725: 1721: 1557: 1553: 1517: 1470: 1415: 1226: 1061: 1023: 1013: 1003: 903: 559: 511: 445: 403: 391: 379: 372: 367: 355: 343: 334: 325: 318: 313: 180: 84: 5487: 4780:

Africa today : a multi-disciplinary snapshot of the continent in 1995

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South Africa's 'Border War': Contested Narratives and Conflicting Memories

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recognised only English and Afrikaans as official languages as a pretext.

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In 1952, the Joint Planning Council, made up of members from the ANC, the

6724: 5667: 5239: 5022:"List of uMkhonto weSizwe Operations | South African History Online" 3706:"Mandela, Luthuli, and Nonviolence in the South African Freedom Struggle" 3075: 3039: 3002: 2978: 2962: 2792: 2569: 2518: 2401: 2374: 2081:

eventually took action against the doctors who had failed to treat Biko.

2035: 2016: 2005: 1977: 1708: 1680: 1628: 1624: 1578: 1532:

called for a one-person-one-vote democracy within a single unified state,

1458: 1361: 963: 958: 943: 878: 555: 533: 396: 49: 5275: 3722: 3594: 3263:

The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC Since 1960

1775:(who was jailed following the Sharpeville massacre) was discharged from 7299: 6837: 5950: 5895: 5755: 5739: 5382:

For their Triumphs and for their Tears: Women in Apartheid South Africa

3642:"The defiance campaign by M. P. Naicker | South African History Online" 2937: 2872: 2814: 2804: 2618: 2485: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2341: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2074: 1997: 1795: 1520:. 3,000 delegates gathered under police watch to revise and accept the 1357:

in 1986 and detain thousands of its political opponents without trial.

1323: 1071: 1038: 913: 898: 883: 740: 489: 4491: 2704:, both legally considered white (although Tsafendas had a mother from 6758: 6749: 6680: 6086: 6063: 6052: 3204:

South Africa's Brittle Peace: The Problem of Post-Settlement Violence

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was stabbed to death in parliament, but his policies continued under

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emphasised that South Africa should be a just and non-racial society,

1447: 1338: 1288: 1276: 1260: 1092: 1056: 993: 589: 478: 113: 106: 4778:. In Alexander, Peter F; Hutchison, Ruth; Schreuder, Deryck (eds.). 4775: 4228:"Sharpeville Massacre, 21 March 1960 | South African History Online" 3050:, many organisations such as FSAW were banned and went into hiding. 2630: 2460: 2316: 2154: 1894: 7528: 7026: 6671: 5795: 5652: 4325:. Santa Barbara: Praeger Security International. pp. 159–169. 4121:"The 1956 Women's March in Pretoria | South African History Online" 4070:"The Freedom Charter by Norman Levy | South African History Online" 3310:

Tom Lodge, "Action against Apartheid in South Africa, 1983–94", in

3063: 3035: 2796: 1856: 1513: 58: 4253: 3823:"Nelson Mandela Timeline 1950–1959 | South African History Online" 3746:"Apartheid Legislation 1850s–1970s | South African History Online" 3494:. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. pp. 114–117. 3322:

Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 213–30.

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Among important activists during the anti-apartheid movement were

5936: 4203:"How the Sharpeville massacre changed the course of human rights" 3229:

Terrorists at the Table: Why Negotiating is the Only Way to Peace

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stated that all people should be treated equally before the law,

96:

Military stalemate between MK and South African security forces

6663: 5819: 5598: 5458:, Compiled in Preparation for the Congress of the People, 1955. 4465:"The Turn to Sabotage by The Congress Movement in South Africa" 2435: 1791: 1768:

organisation and in-house nuisances crippled the PAC and Poqo.

1082: 5811: 4621:. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. p. 181. 3547:. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, Publishers. pp. 197–199. 2720:, but eventually reverted its policy and even criticised the 2004:(BCM), which stressed the need for psychological liberation, 1732: 1498: 1249:, which began formally in 1990 and ended with South Africa's 4982: 2613: 1703:, just outside Johannesburg, to serve as MK's headquarters. 5102: 4943:"ANC Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission" 4407: 4147:"What Happened at the Treason Trial? - Africa Media Online" 3954:(1st ed.). New York: PublicAffairs. pp. 129–130. 3431: 2254: 5489:

The Role of Women in the Struggle Against Apartheid, 1980.

5202:"Catholic Defiance of Apartheid Is Stirring South Africa," 4815:"Rivonia Trial 1963 - 1964 | South African History Online" 4540:"uMkhoto weSizwe (MK) launches its first acts of sabotage" 4419:(1st ed.). Cape Town: Zebra Press. pp. 136–142. 4383:"Percy John "Jack" Hodgson | South African History Online" 3522:. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 194–196. 5158:"The Anti-Apartheid Struggle in South Africa (1912-1992)" 4565:

Macdonald, Nancy; Findlay, Stephanie (12 December 2013).

4178:. United Nations Centre against Apartheid. Archived from 3411:. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. pp. 94–96. 1756:. Particularly damaging was the information on Operation 1337:, which allowed for some parliamentary representation of 2389:

trade unions despite being illegitimate and unofficial.

1538:

that land should be "shared among those who work it" and

3797:"Defiance Campaign 1952 | South African History Online" 3379:

Sharpeville: An Apartheid Massacre and Its Consequences

2030:

In July 1967, the annual NUSAS symposium took place at

1512:

The Congress of the People was held 25–26 June 1955 in

571:

21,000 dead as a result of political violence (1948–94)

2297: 2273: 5587: 4415:. In South African Democracy Education Trust. (ed.). 3265:. London: Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 202–210. 3177:

South Africa: Overcoming Apartheid Building Democracy

2288: 1859:

and relocating blacks into these homelands. In 1966,

1720:, the anniversary of an important battle between the 4361:. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. pp. 121–124. 3465:. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. pp. 3409:

States of Emergency: Colonialism, Literature and Law

3346:. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. pp. 3093: 2992:: University Press. 1960. p. 53. Archived from 2795:, a white anti-apartheid activist, exposed a police 3916: 3435:

War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa

3206:. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 90–94. 5104: 3669:South Africa : the rise and fall of apartheid 3595:"A brief history of the African National Congress" 3545:International Terrorism and the Contemporary World 3231:. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 146–147. 2219: 1564:. On 9 August that year, the women marched to the 5216:"More Whites in South Africa Resisting the Draft" 5213: 4518:. London: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 142–146. 3949: 61:in 1960 as part of a civil disobedience campaign. 7638: 5522:Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in South Africa 5298:"The Jews of Africa -- the Jews of South Africa" 4564: 2092:". Black communities became highly politicised. 1638: 6377:Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre 5406:. Volume Two (London: Zed Books, 1984), p. 366. 5028: 4651:"Robert Sobukwe | South African History Online" 4170: 4034: 3066:, Switzerland. The ANC was present at the 1975 1878: 1813:began in October 1963. Ten men were accused of 1461:and demanded that he repeal the Pass Laws, the 75:(45 years, 11 months and 6 days) 4277: 1398:Although its creation predated apartheid, the 5573: 5081: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4310: 4308: 2127:African Teachers' Association of South Africa 1838:and was a major force in the introduction of 1779:in 1969, he was placed under house arrest in 1203: 5238:. Legendary Heroes of Africa. Archived from 4782:. Canberra: Goanna Press. pp. 172–192. 4616: 3382:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 2591: 1581:", which are often found in the writings of 5402:Rob Davies, Dan O'Meara and Sipho Dlamini, 5139:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 4988: 3666:Clark, Nancy L; Worger, William H. (2011). 3665: 3513: 3511: 3290:. Denver: Outskirts Press. pp. 65–66. 3256: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3026:(ANCWL) and the Women's Council within the 2659:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2183:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2008:, and non-violent opposition to apartheid. 1923:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1601:Painting depicting the Sharpeville Massacre 1592: 5580: 5566: 5541:Apartheid Guns and Money. A Tale of Profit 5538: 5254:"South Africa Virtual Jewish History Tour" 4898: 4305: 3570:"South Africa ends racial classifications" 3567: 3462:South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order 3343:South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order 1550:Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) 1210: 1196: 4841:"Anti-apartheid icon reconciled a nation" 4507: 4490: 4480: 4320: 3721: 3452: 2679:Learn how and when to remove this message 2501:Learn how and when to remove this message 2357:Learn how and when to remove this message 2203:Learn how and when to remove this message 1943:Learn how and when to remove this message 137:Integration of the bantustans, change of 27:1950–1994 social movement in South Africa 6450:Reconstruction and Development Programme 5182:"Tutu, Other Clergy Arrested in Protest" 5152: 5150: 5087: 5016: 5014: 4999: 4997: 4747: 4200: 3517: 3508: 3245: 3030:(SWAPO). In April 1954, the more global 3013:South African women participated in the 2773:apartheid, and became leader of the new 2612: 2512: 2409:Federation of South African Trade Unions 2261:National Union of South African Students 2255:National Union of South African Students 2144: 2077:ruled that no-one was culpable, but the 2025:National Union of South African Students 1731: 1596: 7657:Opposition to apartheid in South Africa 6046:1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike 5069:16 June 1976 Student Uprising in Soweto 4966: 4776:"THE PAN AFRICANIST CONGRESS OF AZANIA" 4717: 4715: 4675: 4462: 4359:The Rise, Fall, and Legacy of Apartheid 4352: 4350: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4342: 3982: 3772:"1953. Criminal Law Amendment Act No 8" 3639: 3458: 3371: 3369: 3367: 3339: 3201: 3127: 3028:South West Africa People's Organization 2852:was spent on defence in the mid-1980s. 2306: 1151:Music in the movement against apartheid 14: 7639: 6527:2012 Western Cape farm workers' strike 5323: 5317: 5272:"South African Jews Against Apartheid" 4773: 4513: 3542: 3536: 3489: 3483: 3438:. New Africa Books. pp. 135–136. 3406: 3400: 3333: 3285: 3279: 3260: 3226: 3195: 2538:Christian Institute of Southern Africa 5561: 5519: 5147: 5011: 4994: 4809: 4807: 4748:Mataboge, Mmanaledi (19 March 2010). 4532: 4417:The road to democracy in South Africa 3873: 3710:Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies 3613: 3375: 3220: 2982: 1314:. The brutal suppression of the 1976 5348: 5107:The end of apartheid in South Africa 5103:Eades, Lindsay Michie 1962- (1999). 4712: 4356: 4339: 4067: 3919:South Africa : a modern history 3432:Jacklyn Cock, Laurie Nathan (1989). 3364: 3167: 3165: 2951: 2917: 2657:adding citations to reliable sources 2624: 2558:, former Minister of Law and Order. 2483:adding citations to reliable sources 2454: 2339:adding citations to reliable sources 2310: 2181:adding citations to reliable sources 2148: 1994:South African Students' Organisation 1921:adding citations to reliable sources 1888: 1736:List of attacks attributed to MK in 6457:Truth and Reconciliation Commission 6103:Coloured-vote constitutional crisis 5214:John D. Battersby (28 March 1988). 4969:"African National Congress (ANC) •" 4678:Journal of Southern African Studies 3703: 3425: 2965:, writing in 1960, observed of the 2608: 2574:World Alliance of Reformed Churches 2298:National Education Crisis Committee 2280:South African Students Organisation 2274:South African Students Organisation 1507:South African Congress of Democrats 626:Coloured vote constitutional crisis 24: 18:National Education Crisis Committee 5513: 5324:Pillay, Taschica (12 March 2010). 4804: 4463:Stevens, Simon (1 November 2019). 4201:Wheatley, Stephen (4 April 2020). 3983:Roberts, Benjamin (26 June 2020). 3139: 2540:with other theologians, including 2289:Congress of South African Students 2110: 139:provincial borders in South Africa 25: 7688: 7662:Political history of South Africa 7609:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania 7244:South African Party (Cape Colony) 3876:Journal of Natal and Zulu History 3614:Valdi, Ismail (16 January 2012). 3162: 3122:South African Musicians' Alliance 3112:List of massacres in South Africa 3032:Federation of South African Women 2546:South African Council of Churches 2413:Council of Unions of South Africa 2079:South African Medical Association 1617:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania 1607:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania 1331:Constitutional Referendum of 1983 1241:. Mass action against the ruling 7621: 7620: 4967:Adeleke, Tunde (16 April 2008). 4901:South African Historical Journal 4278:Guardian Staff (22 March 1960). 3096: 3008: 2766:Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith 2629: 2621:, assassinated by police in 1982 2459: 2315: 2226:South African Students' Movement 2153: 1893: 1223:Internal resistance to apartheid 1179: 1178: 1141:Internal resistance to apartheid 596: 549: 538: 527: 516: 505: 494: 483: 472: 461: 450: 439: 427: 416: 402: 390: 378: 366: 354: 342: 324: 312: 283: 272: 261: 245: 232: 212: 200: 189: 173: 159: 48: 35:Internal resistance to apartheid 7258:South African Party (1977–1980) 7251:South African Party (1911–1934) 7167:Progressive Party (Cape Colony) 6964:Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners 5501: 5480: 5461: 5439: 5418: 5409: 5396: 5387: 5374: 5290: 5264: 5246: 5228: 5207: 5191: 5175: 5096: 5062: 5037: 4960: 4935: 4892: 4866: 4833: 4767: 4741: 4669: 4643: 4610: 4584: 4558: 4456: 4401: 4375: 4280:"Police Fire Kills 63 Africans" 4271: 4246: 4220: 4194: 4164: 4139: 4113: 4087: 4061: 4028: 4002: 3976: 3943: 3910: 3867: 3841: 3815: 3789: 3764: 3738: 3697: 3659: 3633: 3607: 3588: 3561: 3543:Pandey, Satish Chandra (2006). 3068:United Nations Decade for Women 2517:Desmond Tutu makes a speech in 2470:needs additional citations for 2326:needs additional citations for 2233:South African Students Movement 2220:South African Students Movement 1836:United Nations Security Council 651:Church Street, Pretoria bombing 7677:Social history of South Africa 6576:2019 service delivery protests 6562:#FeesMustFall student protests 6307:1983 constitutional referendum 3888:10.1080/02590123.2013.11964196 3304: 3132: 1446:, resulting in mass protests, 1428:National Democratic Revolution 13: 1: 7034:Johannesburg Reform Committee 6263:Israel–South Africa Agreement 5656: 5641: 5618: 5611: 5543:. London: C. Hurst & Co. 5524:. London: C. Hurst & Co. 4068:Levy, Norman (18 June 2015). 3640:Naicker, M.P (21 June 2019). 3156: 2924:Israel–South Africa relations 2830:South African Communist Party 2043:Azanian People's Organisation 1980:movement, and directors like 1689:South African Communist Party 1639:Armed resistance and sabotage 1455:South African Indian Congress 1383: 1351:Azanian People's Organisation 1293:South African Communist Party 1247:negotiations to end apartheid 293:(non-violent resistance only) 6689:Black Consciousness Movement 6443:Government of National Unity 5258:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 4913:10.1080/02582473.2012.675813 4544:South African History Online 4410:"The turn to armed struggle" 3917:Davenport, T. R. H. (2000). 2958:India–South Africa relations 2825:, housing and unemployment. 2247:and had their cars torched. 2002:Black Consciousness Movement 1885:Black Consciousness Movement 1879:Black Consciousness Movement 1480:Suppression of Communism Act 1312:Black Consciousness Movement 1267:. From the early 1950s, the 1116:Apartheid in popular culture 7: 7647:Anti-racism in South Africa 6400:Saint James Church massacre 6286:Weapons of mass destruction 5539:van Vuuren, Hennie (2018). 5393:Lachick and Urdang, p. 110. 4321:Stapleton, Timothy (2010). 3568:Myre, Greg (18 June 1991). 3089: 2450: 2090:Liberation before education 1378:South African Defence Force 1251:first multiracial elections 686:Saint James Church massacre 681:Assassination of Chris Hani 10: 7693: 6140:1957 Alexandra bus boycott 6018:South West Africa campaign 5917:Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 5882:French Huguenot settlement 5078:. africanhistory.about.com 4254:"The Sharpeville Massacre" 3952:Mandela : a Biography 3950:Meredith, Martin. (2010). 2955: 2921: 2813:. Zille was active in the 2277: 2258: 2223: 2114: 1882: 1604: 1387: 691:1994 Bophuthatswana crisis 7652:Apartheid in South Africa 7618: 7595:African National Congress 7584: 7490: 7323: 7055:Liberal Party (1953–1968) 6778: 6769: 6627: 6423: 6393:1992 apartheid referendum 6062: 6007: 5926: 5864: 5837: 5830: 5596: 5520:Douek, Daniel L. (2020). 5090:The White Tribe of Africa 4690:10.1080/03057070902919850 4151:Google Arts & Culture 3776:omalley.nelsonmandela.org 3734:– via escholarship. 3518:Mitchell, Thomas (2008). 3227:Powell, Jonathan (2015). 2842:End Conscription Campaign 2592:Mass Democratic Movements 2047:Black People's Convention 1400:African National Congress 1390:African National Congress 1269:African National Congress 939:Winnie Madikizela-Mandela 570: 565: 302: 149: 73:4 June 1948 – 10 May 1994 65: 47: 39: 34: 7048:Labour Party (1969–1994) 7041:Labour Party (1910–1958) 6597:2020 Phala Phala Robbery 6555:#RhodesMustFall protests 6154:1960 republic referendum 5433:28 February 2008 at the 5204:John Burns, 6 Feb. 1977. 5088:Harrison, David (1987). 4774:Leeman, Bernard (1996). 4035:McKinley, Dale. (2015). 3490:Minter, William (1994). 3459:Ottoway, Marina (1993). 3407:Morton, Stephen (2013). 3340:Ottoway, Marina (1993). 3202:du Toit, Pierre (2001). 3117:Protests in South Africa 2865:South African literature 2748:, and others formed the 2617:Anti-apartheid activist 2566:buildings in Cape Town. 2422:The largest and longest 2400:In 1979, one year after 2129:objected to the decree. 2096:workers' organisations. 1861:Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd 1593:The Sharpeville Massacre 1406:(ANCYL) in 1949. Led by 1326:in neighbouring states. 1310:, and a newly assertive 1308:South African Border War 1126:Cape Qualified Franchise 181:Republic of South Africa 42:decolonisation of Africa 7493:terrorist organisations 6583:2019 Johannesburg riots 6196:Constructive engagement 6161:International isolation 5979:Witwatersrand Gold Rush 5507:Bernstein, pp. 100–101. 4989:Clark & Worger 2011 4754:The Mail & Guardian 3600:5 December 2013 at the 3173:"The Defiance Campaign" 2838:United Democratic Front 2799:regarding the death of 2532:left the pro-apartheid 2526:against some churches. 2235:(SASM) was instituted. 1958:University of the North 1840:international sanctions 1804:Lesotho Liberation Army 1552:was founded and led by 1347:United Democratic Front 1297:Pan Africanist Congress 1156:Nostalgia for apartheid 6506:Attack on Kennedy Road 6117:Congress of the People 5708:South African Republic 5467:ANC official website, 4875:"The End of Apartheid" 4357:Louw, P. Eric (1997). 3286:Ugorji, Basil (2012). 3261:Thomas, Scott (1995). 3000: 2985:Indian People in Natal 2807:as a reporter for the 2728:, whose main champion 2706:Portuguese East Africa 2622: 2522: 1809:The widely publicised 1741: 1740:between 1980 and 1983. 1602: 1333:. This introduced the 1131:Disinvestment campaign 856:State Security Council 303:Commanders and leaders 99:Bilateral negotiations 7076:Natal Indian Congress 6796:Afrikaner Broederbond 6650:Afrikaner nationalism 6436:1994 general election 6407:Bophuthatswana crisis 6300:Church Street bombing 6080:Apartheid legislation 6073:1948 general election 5993:South Africa Act 1909 5788:Union of South Africa 5608:Kingdom of Mapungubwe 5588:Political history of 5474:16 March 2008 at the 4750:"Almost a revolution" 4617:Okoth, Assa. (2006). 4514:Baines, Gary (2014). 2971: 2967:Natal Indian Congress 2616: 2534:Dutch Reformed Church 2516: 2145:Student organisations 2013:civil rights movement 1984:. African heads like 1735: 1600: 1497:On the global stage, 1335:Tricameral Parliament 1265:1948 general election 1121:Apartheid legislation 1111:Afrikaner nationalism 671:Cape Town peace march 661:Trojan Horse Incident 621:1948 general election 566:Casualties and losses 167:Union of South Africa 119:Multiracial elections 7672:Resistance movements 6710:Greater South Africa 6548:2014 platinum strike 6414:Shell House massacre 6342:Transkei coup d'état 6147:Sharpeville massacre 5910:Battle of Blaauwberg 5903:Battle of Muizenberg 5855:Battle of Salt River 5638:Mthethwa Paramountcy 5495:22 June 2008 at the 5454:2 March 2008 at the 5074:1 March 2017 at the 4819:www.sahistory.org.za 4727:www.sahistory.org.za 4655:www.sahistory.org.za 4596:www.sahistory.org.za 4482:10.1093/pastj/gtz030 4444:on 12 September 2013 4387:www.sahistory.org.za 4232:www.sahistory.org.za 4125:www.sahistory.org.za 4099:www.sahistory.org.za 4074:www.sahistory.org.za 4014:www.sahistory.org.za 3827:www.sahistory.org.za 3801:www.sahistory.org.za 3750:www.sahistory.org.za 3646:www.sahistory.org.za 3620:www.sahistory.org.za 3574:Southeast Missourian 3128:Notes and references 3048:Sharpeville massacre 3019:liberation movements 2877:Afrikaans literature 2770:Mangosuthu Buthelezi 2653:improve this section 2479:improve this article 2335:improve this article 2307:Trade union movement 2177:improve this section 1970:Sharpeville massacre 1917:improve this section 1823:I am prepared to die 1709:Leninist vanguardism 1673:. In June 1961, the 1633:Sharpeville massacre 1611:Sharpeville massacre 1301:Sharpeville massacre 1271:(ANC) initiated its 1019:Eugène Terre'Blanche 889:Mangosuthu Buthelezi 696:Shell House massacre 666:Khotso House bombing 636:Sharpeville massacre 434:Eugène Terre'Blanche 7602:Democratic Alliance 6779:Civic and political 6643:Afrikaner Calvinism 6636:African nationalism 6485:African Renaissance 6175:UNSC Resolution 591 6096:Internal resistance 5997:National Convention 5965:Transvaal Civil War 5889:Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars 5772:Orange River Colony 5360:Mail & Guardian 5186:The Harvard Crimson 5111:. Greenwood Press. 4879:2001-2009.state.gov 4847:. 5 December 2013. 4619:A history of Africa 3723:10.5070/F7381025021 3704:Lal, Vinay (2014). 3376:Lodge, Tim (2011). 3104:South Africa portal 2996:on 22 October 2016. 2897:Afrikaner Calvinist 2889:Breyten Breytenbach 2801:Black Consciousness 2407:Later in 1979, the 2397:community support. 1255:universal franchise 1166:Sullivan Principles 123:universal franchise 112:Dissolution of the 7667:Racial segregation 6349:Ciskei coup d'état 6168:UN Resolution 1761 6133:Women's March 1956 5986:South African Wars 5972:Mineral Revolution 5380:Bernstein, Hilda. 5326:"Fatima Meer dies" 5314:The Jews of Africa 5049:www.britannica.com 4947:www.justice.gov.za 4729:. 7 September 2011 4657:. 17 February 2011 4546:. 15 December 2014 4469:Past & Present 4389:. 17 February 2011 3316:Timothy Garton Ash 3183:on 1 December 2016 3024:ANC Women's League 2914:executed in 1965. 2623: 2523: 2244:Naledi High School 1742: 1627:, a township near 1603: 1444:civil disobedience 1355:state of emergency 1235:passive resistance 751:Conservative Party 631:1956 Treason Trial 7634: 7633: 7587:political parties 7580: 7579: 7557:Orde van die Dood 7174:Progressive Party 6880:Congress Alliance 6696:Cape Independence 6628:Political culture 6623: 6622: 6590:COVID-19 pandemic 6520:Marikana massacre 6356:Venda coup d'état 6110:Defiance Campaign 5700:Orange Free State 5630:Dutch Cape Colony 5415:Bernstein, p. 96. 4845:Los Angeles Times 4628:978-9966-25-357-6 4426:978-1-86888-501-5 4046:978-0-620-65513-2 3961:978-1-282-56267-7 3928:978-0-230-28754-9 3682:978-1-4082-4564-4 3445:978-0-86486-115-3 3328:978-0-19-955201-6 3147:Defiance Campaign 2952:Indian resistance 2918:Jewish resistance 2726:Progressive Party 2702:Dimitri Tsafendas 2689: 2688: 2681: 2511: 2510: 2503: 2367: 2366: 2359: 2213: 2212: 2205: 2032:Rhodes University 1953: 1952: 1945: 1762:guerrilla warfare 1676:uMkhonto we Sizwe 1484:Defiance Campaign 1394:Umkhonto we Sizwe 1320:uMkhonto we Sizwe 1273:Defiance Campaign 1239:guerrilla warfare 1220: 1219: 1077:South-West Africa 575: 574: 294: 145: 144: 101:to end apartheid 16:(Redirected from 7684: 7624: 7623: 7611: 7604: 7597: 7573: 7566: 7559: 7552: 7545: 7538: 7531: 7524: 7517: 7510: 7503: 7491:Paramilitary and 7483: 7481:Umkosi Wezintaba 7476: 7469: 7462: 7455: 7448: 7441: 7434: 7427: 7420: 7413: 7406: 7399: 7392: 7385: 7378: 7371: 7364: 7357: 7350: 7343: 7336: 7326:social movements 7324:Trade unions and 7316: 7309: 7302: 7295: 7288: 7281: 7274: 7267: 7260: 7253: 7246: 7239: 7232: 7225: 7218: 7211: 7204: 7197: 7190: 7183: 7176: 7169: 7162: 7155: 7148: 7141: 7134: 7127: 7120: 7113: 7106: 7099: 7092: 7085: 7078: 7071: 7064: 7057: 7050: 7043: 7036: 7029: 7022: 7015: 7008: 7001: 6994: 6987: 6980: 6973: 6966: 6959: 6952: 6945: 6938: 6931: 6924: 6917: 6910: 6903: 6896: 6889: 6882: 6875: 6868: 6861: 6854: 6847: 6845:Boerestaat Party 6840: 6833: 6826: 6819: 6812: 6805: 6798: 6791: 6776: 6775: 6762: 6753: 6744: 6735: 6728: 6719: 6712: 6705: 6698: 6691: 6684: 6675: 6666: 6659: 6652: 6645: 6638: 6616: 6606: 6599: 6592: 6585: 6578: 6571: 6564: 6557: 6550: 6543: 6536: 6529: 6522: 6515: 6508: 6501: 6494: 6487: 6480: 6473: 6466: 6459: 6452: 6445: 6438: 6416: 6409: 6402: 6395: 6388: 6379: 6372: 6365: 6358: 6351: 6344: 6337: 6335:Dakar Conference 6330: 6323: 6316: 6309: 6302: 6295: 6288: 6281: 6274: 6265: 6258: 6256:Israeli alliance 6251: 6244: 6237: 6226: 6219: 6212: 6210:Sporting boycott 6205: 6198: 6191: 6184: 6182:Academic boycott 6177: 6170: 6163: 6156: 6149: 6142: 6135: 6126: 6119: 6112: 6105: 6098: 6089: 6082: 6075: 6055: 6048: 6041: 6039:Great Depression 6034: 6027: 6025:Maritz rebellion 6020: 6000: 5988: 5981: 5974: 5967: 5960: 5953: 5946: 5939: 5919: 5912: 5905: 5898: 5891: 5884: 5877: 5875:Dutch settlement 5857: 5850: 5848:Bantu migrations 5835: 5834: 5823: 5815: 5807: 5799: 5791: 5783: 5780:Transvaal Colony 5775: 5767: 5759: 5751: 5748:Nieuwe Republiek 5743: 5735: 5727: 5719: 5711: 5703: 5695: 5687: 5684:Natalia Republic 5679: 5671: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5653:Ndwandwe Kingdom 5648: 5646: 5643: 5633: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5616: 5613: 5582: 5575: 5568: 5559: 5558: 5554: 5535: 5508: 5505: 5499: 5484: 5478: 5465: 5459: 5443: 5437: 5427:Women's Charter. 5422: 5416: 5413: 5407: 5400: 5394: 5391: 5385: 5378: 5372: 5371: 5369: 5367: 5362:. 25 August 2016 5352: 5346: 5345: 5343: 5341: 5336:on 15 March 2010 5332:. Archived from 5321: 5315: 5313: 5311: 5309: 5304:on 25 April 2005 5300:. Archived from 5294: 5288: 5287: 5285: 5283: 5278:on 28 March 2013 5274:. Archived from 5268: 5262: 5261: 5250: 5244: 5243: 5242:on 5 March 2011. 5232: 5226: 5225: 5211: 5205: 5195: 5189: 5179: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5168: 5154: 5145: 5144: 5138: 5130: 5110: 5100: 5094: 5093: 5085: 5079: 5066: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5055: 5041: 5035: 5032: 5026: 5025: 5018: 5009: 5008: 5001: 4992: 4991:, p. 63-72. 4986: 4980: 4979: 4977: 4975: 4964: 4958: 4957: 4955: 4953: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4896: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4870: 4864: 4863: 4861: 4859: 4837: 4831: 4830: 4828: 4826: 4811: 4802: 4801: 4771: 4765: 4764: 4762: 4760: 4745: 4739: 4738: 4736: 4734: 4719: 4710: 4709: 4673: 4667: 4666: 4664: 4662: 4647: 4641: 4640: 4614: 4608: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4588: 4582: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4562: 4556: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4536: 4530: 4529: 4511: 4505: 4504: 4494: 4484: 4460: 4454: 4453: 4451: 4449: 4443: 4437:. 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Cape Girardeau 3565: 3559: 3558: 3540: 3534: 3533: 3515: 3506: 3505: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3456: 3450: 3449: 3429: 3423: 3422: 3404: 3398: 3397: 3373: 3362: 3361: 3337: 3331: 3308: 3302: 3301: 3283: 3277: 3276: 3258: 3243: 3242: 3224: 3218: 3217: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3179:. Archived from 3169: 3150: 3143: 3106: 3101: 3100: 3099: 2998: 2997: 2718:Fagan Commission 2708:). The moderate 2694:Hendrik Verwoerd 2684: 2677: 2673: 2670: 2664: 2633: 2625: 2609:White resistance 2536:and founded the 2506: 2499: 2495: 2492: 2486: 2463: 2455: 2426:exploded in the 2362: 2355: 2351: 2348: 2342: 2319: 2311: 2208: 2201: 2197: 2194: 2188: 2157: 2149: 1948: 1941: 1937: 1934: 1928: 1897: 1889: 1691:(SACP) activist 1687:, and prominent 1659:French Indochina 1231:social movements 1212: 1205: 1198: 1182: 1181: 979:Albertina Sisulu 974:Benjamin Moloise 909:Arthur Goldreich 600: 577: 576: 554: 553: 552: 543: 542: 541: 532: 531: 530: 521: 520: 519: 510: 509: 508: 499: 498: 497: 488: 487: 486: 477: 476: 475: 466: 465: 464: 455: 454: 453: 444: 443: 442: 432: 431: 430: 423:Constand Viljoen 421: 420: 419: 407: 406: 395: 394: 383: 382: 371: 370: 361:H. van den Bergh 359: 358: 347: 346: 329: 328: 317: 316: 292: 288: 287: 286: 277: 276: 275: 266: 265: 264: 250: 249: 248: 237: 236: 235: 217: 216: 215: 205: 204: 203: 194: 193: 192: 179: 177: 176: 165: 163: 162: 67: 66: 52: 32: 31: 21: 7692: 7691: 7687: 7686: 7685: 7683: 7682: 7681: 7637: 7636: 7635: 7630: 7614: 7607: 7600: 7593: 7586: 7576: 7569: 7562: 7555: 7548: 7541: 7534: 7527: 7520: 7513: 7506: 7499: 7492: 7486: 7479: 7472: 7465: 7458: 7451: 7444: 7437: 7430: 7423: 7416: 7409: 7402: 7395: 7388: 7381: 7374: 7367: 7360: 7353: 7346: 7339: 7332: 7325: 7319: 7312: 7305: 7298: 7291: 7284: 7277: 7270: 7263: 7256: 7249: 7242: 7235: 7228: 7221: 7214: 7207: 7200: 7193: 7186: 7179: 7172: 7165: 7158: 7151: 7144: 7137: 7130: 7123: 7116: 7109: 7102: 7095: 7088: 7081: 7074: 7067: 7060: 7053: 7046: 7039: 7032: 7025: 7018: 7011: 7004: 6997: 6992:HNP (Herstigte) 6990: 6985:HNP (Herenigde) 6983: 6976: 6969: 6962: 6955: 6948: 6941: 6934: 6927: 6920: 6913: 6906: 6899: 6892: 6885: 6878: 6871: 6864: 6857: 6850: 6843: 6836: 6829: 6822: 6815: 6808: 6803:Afrikaner Party 6801: 6794: 6787: 6780: 6771: 6765: 6756: 6747: 6738: 6731: 6722: 6717:Honorary whites 6715: 6708: 6701: 6694: 6687: 6678: 6669: 6662: 6655: 6648: 6641: 6634: 6619: 6609: 6602: 6595: 6588: 6581: 6574: 6567: 6560: 6553: 6546: 6539: 6532: 6525: 6518: 6511: 6504: 6497: 6490: 6483: 6478:Soweto bombings 6476: 6469: 6462: 6455: 6448: 6441: 6434: 6426: 6419: 6412: 6405: 6398: 6391: 6384: 6375: 6368: 6361: 6354: 6347: 6340: 6333: 6326: 6319: 6312: 6305: 6298: 6291: 6284: 6279:Soweto Uprising 6277: 6270: 6261: 6254: 6247: 6240: 6233: 6222: 6215: 6208: 6203:Tar Baby Option 6201: 6194: 6187: 6180: 6173: 6166: 6159: 6152: 6145: 6138: 6131: 6124:Freedom Charter 6122: 6115: 6108: 6101: 6094: 6085: 6078: 6071: 6058: 6051: 6044: 6037: 6030: 6023: 6016: 6003: 5991: 5984: 5977: 5970: 5963: 5956: 5949: 5942: 5935: 5922: 5915: 5908: 5901: 5894: 5887: 5880: 5873: 5860: 5853: 5846: 5826: 5818: 5810: 5802: 5794: 5786: 5778: 5770: 5762: 5754: 5746: 5738: 5730: 5724:Griqualand West 5722: 5716:Griqualand East 5714: 5706: 5698: 5690: 5682: 5674: 5666: 5659: 5651: 5644: 5636: 5628: 5621: 5614: 5606: 5592: 5586: 5551: 5532: 5516: 5514:Further reading 5511: 5506: 5502: 5497:Wayback Machine 5485: 5481: 5476:Wayback Machine 5466: 5462: 5456:Wayback Machine 5448:What Women Want 5444: 5440: 5435:Wayback Machine 5423: 5419: 5414: 5410: 5401: 5397: 5392: 5388: 5379: 5375: 5365: 5363: 5354: 5353: 5349: 5339: 5337: 5322: 5318: 5307: 5305: 5296: 5295: 5291: 5281: 5279: 5270: 5269: 5265: 5252: 5251: 5247: 5234: 5233: 5229: 5212: 5208: 5196: 5192: 5188:, 1 March 1988. 5180: 5176: 5166: 5164: 5156: 5155: 5148: 5132: 5131: 5119: 5101: 5097: 5086: 5082: 5076:Wayback Machine 5067: 5063: 5053: 5051: 5043: 5042: 5038: 5033: 5029: 5020: 5019: 5012: 5003: 5002: 4995: 4987: 4983: 4973: 4971: 4965: 4961: 4951: 4949: 4941: 4940: 4936: 4897: 4893: 4883: 4881: 4871: 4867: 4857: 4855: 4839: 4838: 4834: 4824: 4822: 4821:. 13 March 2011 4813: 4812: 4805: 4790: 4772: 4768: 4758: 4756: 4746: 4742: 4732: 4730: 4721: 4720: 4713: 4674: 4670: 4660: 4658: 4649: 4648: 4644: 4629: 4615: 4611: 4601: 4599: 4598:. 16 March 2011 4590: 4589: 4585: 4575: 4573: 4571:www.macleans.ca 4563: 4559: 4549: 4547: 4538: 4537: 4533: 4526: 4512: 4508: 4461: 4457: 4447: 4445: 4441: 4427: 4412: 4406: 4402: 4392: 4390: 4381: 4380: 4376: 4369: 4355: 4340: 4333: 4319: 4306: 4296: 4294: 4276: 4272: 4262: 4260: 4252: 4251: 4247: 4237: 4235: 4234:. 31 March 2011 4226: 4225: 4221: 4211: 4209: 4207:The Independent 4199: 4195: 4185: 4183: 4182:on 8 April 2005 4172:David M. Sibeko 4169: 4165: 4155: 4153: 4145: 4144: 4140: 4130: 4128: 4119: 4118: 4114: 4104: 4102: 4101:. 31 March 2011 4093: 4092: 4088: 4078: 4076: 4066: 4062: 4047: 4033: 4029: 4019: 4017: 4016:. 21 March 2011 4008: 4007: 4003: 3993: 3991: 3981: 3977: 3962: 3948: 3944: 3929: 3915: 3911: 3872: 3868: 3858: 3856: 3855:. 21 March 2011 3847: 3846: 3842: 3832: 3830: 3821: 3820: 3816: 3806: 3804: 3803:. 21 March 2011 3795: 3794: 3790: 3780: 3778: 3770: 3769: 3765: 3755: 3753: 3752:. 21 March 2011 3744: 3743: 3739: 3702: 3698: 3683: 3672: 3664: 3660: 3650: 3648: 3638: 3634: 3624: 3622: 3612: 3608: 3602:Wayback Machine 3593: 3589: 3579: 3577: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3541: 3537: 3530: 3516: 3509: 3502: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3457: 3453: 3446: 3430: 3426: 3419: 3405: 3401: 3394: 3374: 3365: 3358: 3338: 3334: 3309: 3305: 3298: 3284: 3280: 3273: 3259: 3246: 3239: 3225: 3221: 3214: 3200: 3196: 3186: 3184: 3171: 3170: 3163: 3159: 3154: 3153: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3130: 3102: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3011: 2999: 2977: 2960: 2954: 2926: 2920: 2832:, whose leader 2810:Rand Daily Mail 2685: 2674: 2668: 2665: 2650: 2634: 2611: 2594: 2507: 2496: 2490: 2487: 2476: 2464: 2453: 2363: 2352: 2346: 2343: 2332: 2320: 2309: 2300: 2291: 2282: 2276: 2263: 2257: 2228: 2222: 2209: 2198: 2192: 2189: 2174: 2158: 2147: 2119: 2117:Soweto uprising 2113: 2111:Soweto uprising 1949: 1938: 1932: 1929: 1914: 1898: 1887: 1881: 1849:Soweto uprising 1697:Liliesleaf Farm 1641: 1613: 1605:Main articles: 1595: 1566:Union Buildings 1522:Freedom Charter 1463:Group Areas Act 1396: 1388:Main articles: 1386: 1316:Soweto uprising 1216: 1171: 1170: 1146:Kairos Document 1136:Freedom Charter 1106: 1098: 1097: 1081: 1052: 1044: 1043: 874:Vernon Berrangé 869: 861: 860: 821:Security Branch 711: 701: 700: 646:Soweto uprising 616: 615: 558: 550: 548: 547: 539: 537: 536: 528: 526: 525: 517: 515: 514: 506: 504: 503: 495: 493: 492: 484: 482: 481: 473: 471: 470: 462: 460: 459: 451: 449: 448: 440: 438: 428: 426: 425: 417: 415: 414: 413: 401: 389: 377: 365: 353: 341: 323: 311: 295: 284: 282: 281: 273: 271: 270: 262: 260: 259: 246: 244: 243: 233: 231: 230: 213: 211: 201: 199: 198: 190: 188: 187: 186: 174: 172: 160: 158: 133: 97: 87: 74: 53: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7690: 7680: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7632: 7631: 7619: 7616: 7615: 7613: 7612: 7605: 7598: 7590: 7588: 7582: 7581: 7578: 7577: 7575: 7574: 7567: 7560: 7553: 7550:Ossewabrandwag 7546: 7539: 7532: 7525: 7518: 7511: 7504: 7496: 7494: 7488: 7487: 7485: 7484: 7477: 7470: 7463: 7456: 7449: 7442: 7435: 7428: 7421: 7414: 7407: 7400: 7393: 7386: 7379: 7372: 7365: 7358: 7351: 7344: 7337: 7329: 7327: 7321: 7320: 7318: 7317: 7310: 7303: 7296: 7293:Unionist Party 7289: 7282: 7275: 7272:Torch Commando 7268: 7261: 7254: 7247: 7240: 7233: 7226: 7219: 7212: 7205: 7198: 7191: 7184: 7177: 7170: 7163: 7156: 7149: 7146:Orde Boerevolk 7142: 7135: 7128: 7121: 7114: 7107: 7100: 7093: 7086: 7079: 7072: 7065: 7058: 7051: 7044: 7037: 7030: 7023: 7016: 7009: 7002: 6995: 6988: 6981: 6974: 6967: 6960: 6953: 6946: 6939: 6932: 6925: 6922:DP (1989–2000) 6918: 6915:DP (1973–1977) 6911: 6908:Dominion Party 6904: 6897: 6890: 6883: 6876: 6869: 6862: 6855: 6848: 6841: 6834: 6827: 6820: 6813: 6806: 6799: 6792: 6789:Afrikaner Bond 6784: 6782: 6773: 6767: 6766: 6764: 6763: 6754: 6745: 6736: 6729: 6720: 6713: 6706: 6703:Day of the Vow 6699: 6692: 6685: 6676: 6667: 6660: 6653: 6646: 6639: 6631: 6629: 6625: 6624: 6621: 6620: 6618: 6617: 6607: 6600: 6593: 6586: 6579: 6572: 6565: 6558: 6551: 6544: 6537: 6530: 6523: 6516: 6509: 6502: 6495: 6488: 6481: 6474: 6471:Floor crossing 6467: 6460: 6453: 6446: 6439: 6431: 6429: 6421: 6420: 6418: 6417: 6410: 6403: 6396: 6389: 6386:Bisho massacre 6382: 6381: 6380: 6366: 6359: 6352: 6345: 6338: 6331: 6328:Operation Vula 6324: 6321:Rubicon speech 6317: 6314:Langa massacre 6310: 6303: 6296: 6289: 6282: 6275: 6268: 6267: 6266: 6252: 6245: 6238: 6231: 6230: 6229: 6228: 6227: 6220: 6206: 6199: 6192: 6185: 6178: 6171: 6157: 6150: 6143: 6136: 6129: 6128: 6127: 6113: 6106: 6099: 6092: 6091: 6090: 6076: 6068: 6066: 6060: 6059: 6057: 6056: 6049: 6042: 6035: 6032:Rand Rebellion 6028: 6021: 6013: 6011: 6005: 6004: 6002: 6001: 5989: 5982: 5975: 5968: 5961: 5958:Boer Republics 5954: 5947: 5940: 5932: 5930: 5924: 5923: 5921: 5920: 5913: 5906: 5899: 5892: 5885: 5878: 5870: 5868: 5862: 5861: 5859: 5858: 5851: 5843: 5841: 5832: 5828: 5827: 5825: 5824: 5816: 5808: 5804:Bophuthatswana 5800: 5792: 5784: 5776: 5768: 5764:Klein Vrystaat 5760: 5752: 5744: 5736: 5728: 5720: 5712: 5704: 5696: 5688: 5680: 5672: 5664: 5649: 5634: 5626: 5603: 5601: 5594: 5593: 5585: 5584: 5577: 5570: 5562: 5556: 5555: 5550:978-1787380974 5549: 5536: 5531:978-1849048804 5530: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5509: 5500: 5479: 5460: 5438: 5417: 5408: 5395: 5386: 5373: 5347: 5316: 5289: 5263: 5245: 5227: 5221:New York Times 5206: 5198:New York Times 5190: 5174: 5146: 5117: 5095: 5080: 5061: 5036: 5027: 5010: 4993: 4981: 4959: 4934: 4907:(3): 587–621. 4891: 4865: 4832: 4803: 4788: 4766: 4740: 4711: 4684:(2): 287–301. 4668: 4642: 4627: 4609: 4583: 4557: 4531: 4525:978-1472509710 4524: 4506: 4475:(1): 221–255. 4455: 4425: 4400: 4374: 4367: 4338: 4332:978-0313365898 4331: 4304: 4270: 4245: 4219: 4193: 4174:(March 1976). 4163: 4138: 4112: 4086: 4060: 4045: 4027: 4001: 3975: 3960: 3942: 3927: 3909: 3866: 3840: 3829:. 4 April 2011 3814: 3788: 3763: 3737: 3696: 3681: 3658: 3632: 3606: 3587: 3560: 3554:978-8176256384 3553: 3535: 3529:978-0313313578 3528: 3507: 3501:978-1439216187 3500: 3482: 3476:978-0815767152 3475: 3451: 3444: 3424: 3418:978-1846318498 3417: 3399: 3393:978-0192801852 3392: 3363: 3357:978-0815767152 3356: 3332: 3303: 3297:978-1432788353 3296: 3278: 3272:978-1850439936 3271: 3244: 3238:978-1250069887 3237: 3219: 3213:978-0333779187 3212: 3194: 3160: 3158: 3155: 3152: 3151: 3137: 3136: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3126: 3125: 3124: 3119: 3114: 3108: 3107: 3091: 3088: 3084:Dorothy Nyembe 3015:anti-apartheid 3010: 3007: 2975: 2953: 2950: 2934:Torch Commando 2919: 2916: 2787:Nelson Mandela 2750:Torch Commando 2722:National Party 2687: 2686: 2669:September 2020 2637: 2635: 2628: 2610: 2607: 2593: 2590: 2585:New York Times 2509: 2508: 2491:September 2020 2467: 2465: 2458: 2452: 2449: 2424:black uprising 2379:Mahatma Gandhi 2365: 2364: 2347:September 2020 2323: 2321: 2314: 2308: 2305: 2299: 2296: 2290: 2287: 2278:Main article: 2275: 2272: 2259:Main article: 2256: 2253: 2224:Main article: 2221: 2218: 2211: 2210: 2193:September 2020 2161: 2159: 2152: 2146: 2143: 2115:Main article: 2112: 2109: 1986:Kenneth Kaunda 1951: 1950: 1901: 1899: 1892: 1883:Main article: 1880: 1877: 1773:Robert Sobukwe 1754:Denis Goldberg 1750:Ahmed Kathrada 1718:Day of the Vow 1685:Raymond Mhlaba 1663:French Algeria 1646:Nelson Mandela 1640: 1637: 1594: 1591: 1583:Vladimir Lenin 1562:Amina Cachalia 1543: 1542: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1530: 1492:Albert Luthuli 1434:out plans for 1412:Nelson Mandela 1385: 1382: 1374:Nelson Mandela 1370:F. W. de Klerk 1281:Port Elizabeth 1243:National Party 1218: 1217: 1215: 1214: 1207: 1200: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1173: 1172: 1169: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1133: 1128: 1123: 1118: 1113: 1107: 1105:Related topics 1104: 1103: 1100: 1099: 1096: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1079: 1074: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1053: 1050: 1049: 1046: 1045: 1042: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1029:H. F. Verwoerd 1026: 1021: 1016: 1011: 1009:Adelaide Tambo 1006: 1001: 999:Robert Sobukwe 996: 991: 989:J. G. Strijdom 986: 981: 976: 971: 969:Raymond Mhlaba 966: 961: 956: 954:Nelson Mandela 951: 946: 941: 936: 934:Albert Luthuli 931: 929:Ahmed Kathrada 926: 921: 919:Bantu Holomisa 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 894:F. W. de Klerk 891: 886: 881: 876: 870: 867: 866: 863: 862: 859: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 828: 823: 818: 813: 811:National Party 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 733: 728: 723: 718: 712: 707: 706: 703: 702: 699: 698: 693: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 638: 633: 628: 623: 617: 614: 613: 607: 606: 605: 602: 601: 593: 592: 586: 585: 573: 572: 568: 567: 563: 562: 545:Raymond Mhlaba 468:Winnie Mandela 457:Nelson Mandela 436: 412: 411: 409:F. W. de Klerk 399: 387: 385:Eugene de Kock 375: 363: 351: 339: 331:H. F. Verwoerd 321: 308: 305: 304: 300: 299: 297:Torch Commando 209: 185: 184: 170: 155: 152: 151: 147: 146: 143: 142: 135: 129: 128: 127: 126: 116: 110: 93: 89: 88: 83: 81: 77: 76: 71: 63: 62: 55:Nelson Mandela 45: 44: 37: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7689: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7644: 7642: 7629: 7628: 7617: 7610: 7606: 7603: 7599: 7596: 7592: 7591: 7589: 7583: 7572: 7568: 7565: 7561: 7558: 7554: 7551: 7547: 7544: 7540: 7537: 7533: 7530: 7526: 7523: 7519: 7516: 7512: 7509: 7505: 7502: 7498: 7497: 7495: 7489: 7482: 7478: 7475: 7471: 7468: 7467:Die Spoorbund 7464: 7461: 7457: 7454: 7450: 7447: 7443: 7440: 7436: 7433: 7429: 7426: 7422: 7419: 7415: 7412: 7408: 7405: 7401: 7398: 7394: 7391: 7387: 7384: 7380: 7377: 7373: 7370: 7366: 7363: 7359: 7356: 7352: 7349: 7345: 7342: 7338: 7335: 7331: 7330: 7328: 7322: 7315: 7311: 7308: 7307:Workers Party 7304: 7301: 7297: 7294: 7290: 7287: 7283: 7280: 7276: 7273: 7269: 7266: 7262: 7259: 7255: 7252: 7248: 7245: 7241: 7238: 7234: 7231: 7227: 7224: 7220: 7217: 7213: 7210: 7206: 7203: 7199: 7196: 7192: 7189: 7188:Radio Freedom 7185: 7182: 7178: 7175: 7171: 7168: 7164: 7161: 7157: 7154: 7150: 7147: 7143: 7140: 7139:Oranjewerkers 7136: 7133: 7129: 7126: 7122: 7119: 7115: 7112: 7108: 7105: 7101: 7098: 7094: 7091: 7087: 7084: 7080: 7077: 7073: 7070: 7066: 7063: 7059: 7056: 7052: 7049: 7045: 7042: 7038: 7035: 7031: 7028: 7024: 7021: 7017: 7014: 7010: 7007: 7003: 7000: 6996: 6993: 6989: 6986: 6982: 6979: 6975: 6972: 6968: 6965: 6961: 6958: 6954: 6951: 6947: 6944: 6940: 6937: 6933: 6930: 6926: 6923: 6919: 6916: 6912: 6909: 6905: 6902: 6898: 6895: 6891: 6888: 6884: 6881: 6877: 6874: 6870: 6867: 6863: 6860: 6856: 6853: 6849: 6846: 6842: 6839: 6835: 6832: 6828: 6825: 6821: 6818: 6814: 6811: 6807: 6804: 6800: 6797: 6793: 6790: 6786: 6785: 6783: 6781:organisations 6777: 6774: 6772:organisations 6768: 6761: 6760: 6755: 6752: 6751: 6746: 6743: 6742: 6737: 6734: 6730: 6727: 6726: 6721: 6718: 6714: 6711: 6707: 6704: 6700: 6697: 6693: 6690: 6686: 6683: 6682: 6677: 6674: 6673: 6668: 6665: 6661: 6658: 6654: 6651: 6647: 6644: 6640: 6637: 6633: 6632: 6630: 6626: 6615: 6613: 6608: 6605: 6601: 6598: 6594: 6591: 6587: 6584: 6580: 6577: 6573: 6570: 6569:Tshwane riots 6566: 6563: 6559: 6556: 6552: 6549: 6545: 6542: 6538: 6535: 6531: 6528: 6524: 6521: 6517: 6514: 6510: 6507: 6503: 6500: 6496: 6493: 6489: 6486: 6482: 6479: 6475: 6472: 6468: 6465: 6461: 6458: 6454: 6451: 6447: 6444: 6440: 6437: 6433: 6432: 6430: 6428: 6422: 6415: 6411: 6408: 6404: 6401: 6397: 6394: 6390: 6387: 6383: 6378: 6374: 6373: 6371: 6367: 6364: 6360: 6357: 6353: 6350: 6346: 6343: 6339: 6336: 6332: 6329: 6325: 6322: 6318: 6315: 6311: 6308: 6304: 6301: 6297: 6294: 6293:Project Coast 6290: 6287: 6283: 6280: 6276: 6273: 6272:Mafeje affair 6269: 6264: 6260: 6259: 6257: 6253: 6250: 6246: 6243: 6242:Durban Moment 6239: 6236: 6235:Rivonia Trial 6232: 6225: 6221: 6218: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6207: 6204: 6200: 6197: 6193: 6190: 6189:Disinvestment 6186: 6183: 6179: 6176: 6172: 6169: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6158: 6155: 6151: 6148: 6144: 6141: 6137: 6134: 6130: 6125: 6121: 6120: 6118: 6114: 6111: 6107: 6104: 6100: 6097: 6093: 6088: 6084: 6083: 6081: 6077: 6074: 6070: 6069: 6067: 6065: 6061: 6054: 6050: 6047: 6043: 6040: 6036: 6033: 6029: 6026: 6022: 6019: 6015: 6014: 6012: 6010: 6006: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5987: 5983: 5980: 5976: 5973: 5969: 5966: 5962: 5959: 5955: 5952: 5948: 5945: 5944:1820 Settlers 5941: 5938: 5934: 5933: 5931: 5929: 5925: 5918: 5914: 5911: 5907: 5904: 5900: 5897: 5893: 5890: 5886: 5883: 5879: 5876: 5872: 5871: 5869: 5867: 5863: 5856: 5852: 5849: 5845: 5844: 5842: 5840: 5836: 5833: 5829: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5654: 5650: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5609: 5605: 5604: 5602: 5600: 5595: 5591: 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3564: 3556: 3550: 3546: 3539: 3531: 3525: 3521: 3514: 3512: 3503: 3497: 3493: 3486: 3478: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3463: 3455: 3447: 3441: 3437: 3436: 3428: 3420: 3414: 3410: 3403: 3395: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3380: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3359: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3344: 3336: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3307: 3299: 3293: 3289: 3282: 3274: 3268: 3264: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3240: 3234: 3230: 3223: 3215: 3209: 3205: 3198: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3168: 3166: 3161: 3148: 3142: 3138: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3115: 3113: 3110: 3109: 3105: 3094: 3087: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3072: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3057: 3051: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3020: 3016: 3009:Role of women 3006: 3004: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2986: 2980: 2974: 2970: 2968: 2964: 2959: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2939: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2905: 2901: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2885:Ingrid Jonker 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2824: 2820: 2819:Cape Province 2816: 2812: 2811: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2788: 2784: 2781:who defended 2780: 2779:Rivonia Trial 2776: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2738: 2737:Harry Schwarz 2734: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2683: 2680: 2672: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2643: 2638:This section 2636: 2632: 2627: 2626: 2620: 2615: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2589: 2586: 2581: 2577: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2564: 2559: 2557: 2553: 2552:Frank Chikane 2549: 2547: 2543: 2542:Albert Geyser 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2520: 2515: 2505: 2502: 2494: 2484: 2480: 2474: 2473: 2468:This section 2466: 2462: 2457: 2456: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2437: 2432: 2429: 2428:Vaal Triangle 2425: 2420: 2416: 2414: 2410: 2405: 2403: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2371: 2361: 2358: 2350: 2340: 2336: 2330: 2329: 2324:This section 2322: 2318: 2313: 2312: 2304: 2295: 2286: 2281: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2252: 2248: 2245: 2240: 2236: 2234: 2227: 2217: 2207: 2204: 2196: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2172: 2171: 2167: 2162:This section 2160: 2156: 2151: 2150: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2128: 2123: 2118: 2108: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2091: 2087: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2070: 2066: 2064: 2063:non-racialism 2058: 2054: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2028: 2026: 2021: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1990: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1971: 1967: 1966:Rivonia Trial 1962: 1959: 1947: 1944: 1936: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1912: 1911: 1907: 1902:This section 1900: 1896: 1891: 1890: 1886: 1876: 1872: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1852: 1850: 1844: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1828: 1824: 1819: 1816: 1812: 1811:Rivonia Trial 1807: 1805: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1788:Dar es Salaam 1784: 1782: 1778: 1777:Robben Island 1774: 1769: 1765: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1746: 1739: 1734: 1730: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1713: 1710: 1704: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1677: 1672: 1666: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1650:Walter Sisulu 1647: 1636: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1612: 1608: 1599: 1590: 1588: 1587:Joseph Stalin 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1548:In 1956, the 1546: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1528: 1527: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1510: 1508: 1502: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1487: 1485: 1481: 1475: 1472: 1466: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1451: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1431: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1420:Anton Lembede 1417: 1413: 1409: 1408:Walter Sisulu 1405: 1401: 1395: 1391: 1381: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1366:Walter Sisulu 1363: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1327: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1213: 1208: 1206: 1201: 1199: 1194: 1193: 1191: 1190: 1185: 1177: 1176: 1175: 1174: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1161:Project Coast 1159: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1108: 1102: 1101: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1084: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1067:Robben Island 1065: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1054: 1048: 1047: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1034:B. J. Vorster 1032: 1030: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 984:Walter Sisulu 982: 980: 977: 975: 972: 970: 967: 965: 962: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 875: 872: 871: 865: 864: 857: 854: 852: 849: 847: 844: 842: 839: 837: 834: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 802: 799: 797: 794: 792: 789: 787: 784: 782: 779: 777: 774: 772: 769: 767: 764: 762: 759: 757: 754: 752: 749: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 713: 710: 709:Organisations 705: 704: 697: 694: 692: 689: 687: 684: 682: 679: 677: 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 656:Vaal uprising 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 641:Rivonia Trial 639: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 619: 618: 612: 609: 608: 604: 603: 599: 595: 594: 591: 588: 587: 583: 579: 578: 569: 564: 561: 557: 546: 535: 524: 523:Walter Sisulu 513: 502: 501:Moses Mabhida 491: 480: 469: 458: 447: 437: 435: 424: 410: 405: 400: 398: 393: 388: 386: 381: 376: 374: 369: 364: 362: 357: 352: 350: 349:B. J. Vorster 345: 340: 338: 337: 332: 327: 322: 320: 315: 310: 309: 307: 306: 301: 298: 291: 280: 269: 257: 253: 241: 228: 224: 220: 210: 208: 197: 182: 171: 168: 157: 156: 154: 153: 148: 140: 136: 131: 130: 124: 120: 117: 115: 111: 108: 105:Abolition of 104: 103: 102: 100: 94: 91: 90: 86: 82: 79: 78: 72: 69: 68: 64: 60: 56: 51: 46: 43: 38: 33: 30: 19: 7625: 7585:Histories of 7286:United Party 7195:Reform Party 7132:Orangia Unie 6757: 6748: 6741:Swart gevaar 6739: 6723: 6679: 6670: 6611: 6513:Blikkiesdorp 6095: 5839:Pre-colonial 5692:Natal Colony 5676:Zulu Kingdom 5590:South Africa 5540: 5521: 5503: 5488: 5482: 5469:Lilian Nogyi 5463: 5447: 5441: 5426: 5420: 5411: 5403: 5398: 5389: 5381: 5376: 5364:. Retrieved 5359: 5350: 5338:. Retrieved 5334:the original 5329: 5319: 5306:. Retrieved 5302:the original 5292: 5280:. Retrieved 5276:the original 5266: 5257: 5248: 5240:the original 5230: 5219: 5209: 5200:(archives), 5197: 5193: 5185: 5177: 5165:. 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Retrieved 3852: 3843: 3831:. Retrieved 3826: 3817: 3805:. Retrieved 3800: 3791: 3779:. Retrieved 3775: 3766: 3754:. Retrieved 3749: 3740: 3716:(1): 36–54. 3713: 3709: 3699: 3668: 3661: 3649:. Retrieved 3645: 3635: 3623:. Retrieved 3619: 3609: 3590: 3578:. Retrieved 3573: 3563: 3544: 3538: 3519: 3491: 3485: 3461: 3454: 3434: 3427: 3408: 3402: 3378: 3342: 3335: 3319: 3312:Adam Roberts 3306: 3287: 3281: 3262: 3228: 3222: 3203: 3197: 3185:. Retrieved 3181:the original 3176: 3141: 3080:Helen Joseph 3073: 3061: 3056:Johannesburg 3052: 3044:Lilian Ngoyi 3012: 3001: 2994:the original 2984: 2972: 2961: 2946: 2942: 2931: 2927: 2912: 2908: 2904:Beyers Naudé 2869:Roy Campbell 2862: 2854:Conscription 2846: 2827: 2808: 2791: 2783:Jimmy Kantor 2775:Reform Party 2762:United Party 2746:Sailor Malan 2735: 2730:Helen Suzman 2710:United Party 2690: 2675: 2666: 2651:Please help 2639: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2584: 2582: 2578: 2568: 2563:Desmond Tutu 2560: 2556:Adriaan Vlok 2550: 2530:Beyers Naudé 2528: 2524: 2497: 2488: 2477:Please help 2472:verification 2469: 2445: 2441: 2433: 2421: 2417: 2406: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2372: 2368: 2353: 2344: 2333:Please help 2328:verification 2325: 2301: 2292: 2283: 2268: 2264: 2249: 2241: 2237: 2229: 2214: 2199: 2190: 2175:Please help 2163: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2124: 2120: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2086:arms embargo 2083: 2071: 2067: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2040: 2029: 2022: 2010: 1991: 1975: 1963: 1954: 1939: 1933:January 2008 1930: 1915:Please help 1903: 1873: 1865:B.J. Vorster 1853: 1845: 1832:Bram Fischer 1820: 1808: 1800: 1785: 1770: 1766: 1757: 1747: 1743: 1738:South Africa 1726:Zulu Kingdom 1722:voortrekkers 1714: 1705: 1675: 1667: 1642: 1614: 1558:Helen Joseph 1554:Lilian Ngoyi 1547: 1544: 1518:Johannesburg 1511: 1503: 1496: 1488: 1476: 1471:Johannesburg 1467: 1452: 1432: 1416:Oliver Tambo 1404:Youth League 1397: 1359: 1328: 1305: 1259: 1227:South Africa 1222: 1221: 1140: 1062:District Six 1024:Desmond Tutu 1014:Oliver Tambo 1004:Helen Suzman 904:Bram Fischer 560:Sailor Malan 512:Moses Kotane 446:Oliver Tambo 373:Dirk Coetzee 335: 150:Belligerents 125:held in 1994 95: 85:South Africa 40:Part of the 29: 6725:Rooi gevaar 6604:2021 unrest 6534:Nkandlagate 6363:Third Force 6224:Rugby union 5822:(1981–1994) 5814:(1979–1994) 5806:(1977–1994) 5798:(1976–1994) 5790:(1910–1961) 5782:(1902–1910) 5774:(1902–1910) 5766:(1886–1891) 5758:(1885–1887) 5750:(1884–1888) 5742:(1882–1885) 5734:(1882–1883) 5726:(1870–1873) 5718:(1861–1879) 5710:(1856–1902) 5702:(1854–1902) 5694:(1843–1910) 5686:(1839–1843) 5678:(1816–1897) 5670:(1795–1910) 5668:Cape Colony 5660: 1780 5645: 1780 5632:(1652–1806) 5622: 1220 5615: 1075 5366:8 September 5167:26 November 4550:23 February 3187:3 September 3133:Annotations 3076:Ida Mntwana 3040:Sharpeville 3003:Fatima Meer 2979:Hilda Kuper 2963:Hilda Kuper 2893:André Brink 2793:Helen Zille 2698:David Pratt 2570:Alan Boesak 2561:Archbishop 2519:Los Angeles 2402:P. W. Botha 2375:living wage 2036:Grahamstown 2017:Black Power 2006:black pride 1978:Black Power 1681:Govan Mbeki 1629:Vereeniging 1625:Sharpeville 1579:proletariat 1516:, south of 1459:D. F. Malan 1362:Govan Mbeki 1324:safe houses 1285:East London 964:Thabo Mbeki 959:Govan Mbeki 949:D. F. Malan 944:Mac Maharaj 879:P. W. Botha 806:Broederbond 556:Lennox Lagu 534:Govan Mbeki 397:P. W. Botha 319:D. F. Malan 183:(from 1961) 132:Territorial 7641:Categories 7536:Greyshirts 7300:Volksparty 6838:Black Sash 6499:Xenophobia 6492:Travelgate 6249:Border War 6053:Bantustans 5951:Great Trek 5896:Xhosa Wars 5756:Upingtonia 5740:Stellaland 5445:ANC/FSAW, 5424:ANC/FSAW, 5330:TIMES Live 4492:1814/75043 3157:References 2956:See also: 2938:Black Sash 2922:See also: 2873:Alan Paton 2815:Black Sash 2805:Steve Biko 2754:Opposition 2619:Ruth First 2075:magistrate 1998:Steve Biko 1964:After the 1869:P.W. 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Internal resistance to apartheid

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